Community-Based Wildlife Management in Africa: A critical assessment of the literature

Natural Resources Journal

Volumn 40, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 601-642

  Songorwa, Alexander N ^a,b   Bührs, Ton ^b   Hughey, Ken F D ^b  

^a Tanzanian Wildlife Division   (Tanzania)

^b LINCOLN UNIVERSITY   (New Zealand)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 23044521302     PISSN: 00280739     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (296)

1. See Robert K. Hitchcock, Centralization, Resource Depletion, and Coercive Conservation Among the Tyua of the Northeastern Kalahari, 23 HUM. ECOLOGY 169, 169-72 (1995);
2. MICHAEL WELLS ET AL., PEOPLE AND PARKS: LINKING PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT WITH LOCAL COMMUNITIES 8 (1992).
3. See INT'L INST. FOR ENV'T & DEV., WHOSE EDEN? AN OVERVIEW OF COMMUNITY APPROACHES TO WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT 55-56 (1994) [hereinafter IIED].
4. See Nontokozo Nabane & Gordon Matzke, A Gender-Sensitive Analysis of a Community-Based Wildlife Utilization Initiative in Zimbabwe's Zambezi Valley, 10 SOC'Y & NAT. RESOURCES 519, 519 (1997);
5. Owen J. Lynch & Janis B. Alcorn, Tenurial Rights and Community-Based Conservation, in NATURAL CONNECTIONS: PERSPECTIVES IN COMMUNITY-BASED CONSERVATION 373, 378-80 (David Western & R. Michael Wright eds., 1994).
6. See Nabane & Matzke, supra note 3, at 519-20; Hitchcock, supra note 1, at 169-70.
7. See LOUIS LIEBENBERG & DAVID GROSSMAN, TOWARDS A NEW NATURE CONSERVATION POLICY: DISCUSSION DOCUMENT PREPARED FOR THE LAPC 8 (Land and Agriculture Policy Centre, South Africa, 1994).
8. See Hitchcock, supra note 1, at 170.
9. See Robert M. Muth & John F. Bowe Jr., Illegal Harvest of Renewable Natural Resources in North America: Toward a Typology of the Motivations for Poaching, 11 SOC'Y & NAT. RESOURCES 9, 10, 18-20 (1998).
10. See Christopher B. Barrett & Ray Grizzle, A Holistic Approach to Sustainability Based on Pluralism Stewardship, 21 ENVTL. ETHICS 23, 27 (1999);
11. Christopher B. Barrett & Peter Arcese, Are Integrated Conservation-Development Projects (ICDPs) Sustainable? On the Conservation of Large Mammals in Sub-Saharan Africa, 23 WORLD DEV. 1073, 1073 (1995);
12. Gordon Edwin Matzke & Nontokozo Nabane, Outcomes of a Community Controlled Wildlife Utilization Program in a Zambezi Valley Community, 24 HUM. ECOLOGY 65, 83 (1996); Nabane & Matzke, supra note 3, at 519; Hitchcock, supra note 1, at 194-95.
13. See e.g., Shishir R. Raval, Wheel of Life: Perceptions and Concerns of the Resident Peoples for Gir National Park in India, 7 SOC'Y & NAT. RESOURCES 305, 305-06 (1994);
14. David Western, Ecosystem Conservation and Rural Development: The Case of Amboseli, in NATURAL CONNECTIONS: PERSPECTIVES IN COMMUNITY-BASED CONSERVATION, supra note 3, at 15, 15.
15. See generally Milton M.R. Freeman, Graphs and Gaffs: A Cautionary Tale in the Common-Property Resources Debate, in COMMON PROPERTY RESOURCES: ECOLOGY AND COMMUNITY-BASED SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 92 (Fikret Berkes ed., 1989);
16. Henry A. Regier et al., Reforming the Use of Natural Resources, in COMMON PROPERTY RESOURCES: ECOLOGY AND COMMUNITY-BASED SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 110 (Fikret Berkes ed., 1989).
17. Stanford M. Siachoono, Contingent Valuation as an Additional Tool for Evaluating Wildlife Utilization Management in Zambia: Mumbwa Game Management Area, 24 AMBIO 246, 246 (1995).
18. See IIED, supra note 2, at 19-20, 56-57.
19. See Patrick Joseph Bergin, Conservation and Development: The Institutionalisation of Community Conservation in Tanzania National Parks ii, 23 (1995) (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of East Anglia) (on file with the University of East Anglia).
20. See id. at 23.
21. See Edmund Barrow, et al., The Peoples' Voice: Partnership and Community Conservation, in INTEGRATING PEOPLE AND WILDLIFE FOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE 255, 255-57 (Joan A. Bissonette & Paul R. Krausman eds., 1995).
22. See IIED, supra note 2, at 57.
23. See Alexander Nyangero Songorwa, Community-Based Wildlife Management: The Case Study of Selous Conservation Program in Tanzania 3 (1999) (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Lincoln University, New Zealand) (on file with Lincoln University, New Zealand).
24. See Edward B. Barbier, Community-Based Development in Africa, in ECONOMICS FOR THE WILDS: WILDLIFE, DIVERSITY, AND DEVELOPMENT 103, 105 (Timothy M. Swanson & Edward B. Barbier eds., 1992);
25. THE WORLD BANK, TECHNICAL REPORT NO. 130, LIVING WITH WILDLIFE: WILDLIFE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT WITH LOCAL PARTICIPATION IN AFRICA iv-v (Agnes Kiss ed., 1990)
26. [hereinafter LIVING WITH WILDLIFE].
27. See David Western & R. Michael Wright, The Background to Community-Based Conservation, in NATURAL CONNECTIONS: PERSPECTIVES IN COMMUNITY-BASED CONSERVATION, supra note 3, at 1, 1.
28. IIED, supra note 2, at 57.
29. MARSHALL W. MURPHREE, COMMUNAL LAND WILDLIFE RESOURCES AND RURAL DISTRICT COUNCIL REVENUES 5 (Centre for Applied Social Sciences Occasional Paper No. 51/93, 1993).
30. David Hyndman, Conservation through Self-Determination: Promoting the Interdependence of Cultural and Biological Diversity, 53 HUM. ORG. 296, 300 (1994).
31. See IIED, supra note 2, at 57-58. See generally Arnold Hughes, Alternative Forms and Levels of Popular Participation: A General Survey, in POPULAR PARTICIPATION IN PLANNING FOR BASIC NEEDS: CONCEPTS, METHODS AND PRACTICES 52 (Franklyn Lisk ed., 1985).
32. See JAMES A. BAILEY, PRINCIPLES OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT 9-14, 337, 342-44 (1984);
33. ROBERT H. GILES, JR., WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT 10-28 (1978).
34. See IIED, supra note 2, at 64, 68.
35. Nick Salafsky, Ecological Limits and Opportunities for Community-Based Conservation, in NATURAL CONNECTIONS: PERSPECTIVES IN COMMUNITY-BASED CONSERVATION, supra note 3, at 448, 448.
36. See RICHARD FITTER, WILDLIFE FOR MAN: HOW AND WHY WE SHOULD CONSERVE OUR SPECIES 172 (1986);
37. Golam M. Mathbor, The Importance of Community Participation in Coastal Zone Management: a Bangladesh Perspective, 32 COMMUNITY DEV. J. 124, 124-25 (1997).
38. See JON MORIS, MANAGING INDUCED RURAL DEVELOPMENT 4 (1981).
39. See Backson M.C. Sibanda, Environment, Development, and Local Governance in Africa: A Case Study of CAMPFIRE in Zimbabwe, 17 REGIONAL DEV. DIALOGUE 118, 122, 126 (1996);
40. JOHN FRIEDMANN, EMPOWERMENT: THE POLITICS OF ALTERNATIVE DEVELOPMENT 35 (1992).
41. IIED, supra note 2, at 34.
42. See, e.g., Marshall W. Murphree, The Role of Institutions in Community-Based Conservation, in NATURAL CONNECTIONS: PERSPECTIVES IN COMMUNITY-BASED CONSERVATION, supra note 3, at 403, 404.
43. See IIED, supra note 2, at 13.
44. See Western, supra note 9, at 20-21.
45. See Kevin A. Hill, Zimbabwe's Wildlife Utilization Programs: Grassroots Democracy or an Extension of State Power?, AFR. STUD. REV., Apr. 1996, at 103, 109, 113;
46. B.J. Kelso, Environment: The Ivory Controversy, AFR. REP., Mar.-Apr. 1995, at 50, 52, 54-55; LIEBENBERG & GROSSMAN, supra note 5, at 5-7.
47. 34 See LIVING WITH WILDLIFE, supra note 17, at 2-3, 10, 17.
48. Western, supra note 9, at 28.
49. IIED, supra note 2, at 26.
50. Ron E. Physick, Conservation outside Nature Reserves in Southern Africa with Kwazulu-Natal a Case Study, in CONSERVATION OUTSIDE NATURE RESERVES 84, 84 (Peter Hale & David Lamb eds., 1997).
51. See GARETH PORTER & JANET WELSH BROWN, GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS 27-32 (1991).
52. See Lawrence P. Hildebrand, Introduction to the Special Issue on Community-Based Coastal Management, 36 OCEAN & COASTAL MGMT. 1, 1 (1997). See generally FRIEDMANN, supra note 28.
53. See Barbier, supra note 17, at 103-05.
54. See Western, supra note 9, at 21-22, 35-39. See generally IUCN-THE WORLD CONSERVATION UNION,3 PROTECTED AREAS OF THE WORLD: A REVIEW OF NATIONAL SYSTEMS: AFROTROPICAL (1991).
55. See Bill Derman, Environmental NGOs, Dispossession, and the State: The Ideology and Praxis of African Nature and Development, 23 HUM. ECOLOGY 199, 200-01 (1995).
56. See J. Peter Brosius et al., Representing Communities: Histories and Politics of Community-Based Natural Resource Management, 11 SOC'Y & NAT. RESOURCES 157, 159-60 (1998); IIED, supra note 2, at 8.
57. See Jon E. Raybourn, Communal Wildlife Utilization in Zimbabwe, in INTEGRATING PEOPLE AND WILDLIFE FOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE, supra note 14, at 44, 44-45.
58. See Matzke & Nabane, supra note 8, at 66, 81.
59. See Benjamin L. Crosby, Policy Implementation: The Organizational Challenge, 24 WORLD DEV. 1403, 1403 (1996); Hill, supra note 33, at 108-10;
60. Marshall W. Murphree, Approaches to Community Participation, in AFRICAN WILDLIFE POLICY CONSULTATION: FINAL REPORT OF THE CONSULTATION 155, 157 (Overseas Dev. Admin. ed., 1996); Derman, supra note 42, at 200-01;
61. Clark C. Gibson & Stuart A. Marks, Transforming Rural Hunters into Conservationists: An Assessment of Community-Based Wildlife Management Programs in Africa, 23 WORLD DEV. 941, 941 (1995); Siachoono, supra note 10, at 246-47; IIED, supra note 2, at 17-18, 56-58; Western, supra note 9, at 31; WELLS ET AL., supra note 1, at 1-2.
62. Ramachandra Guha, The Authoritarian Biologist and the Arrogance of Anti-Humanism: Wildlife Conservation in the Third World, 27 ECOLOGIST 14, 16 (1997).
63. See Jonathan Hutton et al., Conservation and Development Compromised by Animal Welfare, in INTEGRATING PEOPLE AND WILDLIFE FOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE, supra note 14, at 271, 271, 274;
64. SHIRLEY L. ZIMMERMAN, UNDERSTANDING FAMILY POLICY: THEORIES AND APPLICATIONS 85-87 (2d ed. 1995);
65. Sheldon Kamieniecki, Emerging Forces in Global Environmental Politics, in ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS IN THE INTERNATIONAL ARENA: MOVEMENTS, PARTIES, ORGANIZATIONS, AND POLICY 1, 1 (Sheldon Kamieniecki ed., 1993).
66. David Western, Linking Conservation and Community Aspirations, in NATURAL CONNECTIONS: PERSPECTIVES IN COMMUNITY-BASED CONSERVATION, supra note 3, at 499, 504.
67. See Shirley C. Strum, Lessons Learned, in NATURAL CONNECTIONS: PERSPECTIVES IN COMMUNITY-BASED CONSERVATION, supra note 3, at 512, 515-16.
68. See Sibanda, supra note 28, at 121-22; J.I. Barnes, Economic Analysis of Community-Based Wildlife Utilisation Initiatives in Botswana, 12 DEV. S. AFR. 783, 786-87 (1995).
69. See Murphree, supra note 46, at 158, 162-64; Strum, supra note 50, at 512-13.
70. Barbier, supra note 17, at 131.
71. See Brosius et al., supra note 43, at 163-64; Joanna C. Durbin & Jonny A. Ralambo, The Role of Local People in the Successful Maintenance of Protected Areas in Madagascar, 21 ENVTL. CONSERVATION 115, 116 (1994);
72. LIVING WITH WILDLIFE, supra note 17, at 20-21.
73. See Ken Worpole, A Green Space beyond Self-Interest: In the Search for Social Forms that Value Conservation and Equitable Sharing of Scarce Resources, the Ancient Commons Hold Intriguing Clues, NEW STATESMAN, May 30, 1997, at 30, 30-31 (1997).
74. See generally Rachel Slocum & Barbara Thomas-Slayter, Participation, Empowerment, and Sustainable Development, in POWER, PROCESS AND PARTICIPATION: TOOLS FOR CHANGE 3 (Rachel Slocum et al. eds., 1995).
75. See Barnes, supra note 51, 786-87.
76. See Espen Sjaastad & Daniel W. Bromley, Indigenous Land Rights in Sub-Saharan Africa: Appropriation, Security and Investment Demand, 25 WORLD DEV. 549, 558 (1997).
77. Brian Child, Conservation beyond Yellowstone: An Economic Framework of Wildlife Conservation, in AFRICAN WILDLIFE POLICY CONSULTATION: FINAL REPORT OF THE CONSULTATION, supra note 46, at 55, 57.
78. Hill, supra note 33, at 112.
79. Western & Wright, supra note 18, at 10.
80. See Songorwa, supra note 16, at 3.
81. There is a variety of ideas and claims regarding CWM. Although all CWM programs strive to reconcile wildlife conservation and rural economic development, they differ from one another depending on their initiator(s), implementers, and the political, social, economic, and geophysical contexts in which they are implemented.
82. See, e.g., Barrett & Arcese, supra note 8, at 1073; Gibson & Marks, supra note 46, at 942; Kelso, supra note 33, at 52; Peter D. Little, The Link Between Local Participation and Improved Conservation: A Review of Issues and Experiences, in NATURAL CONNECTIONS: PERSPECTIVES IN COMMUNITY-BASED CONSERVATION, supra note 3, at 347, 347-49.
83. Letter from Dr. Ludwig Siege, Coordinator, Tanzania Selous Conservation Program, to the Director of Wildlife [Tanzania], the Director Planning and Wildlife Management (PAWM), Mr. Lyamuya, Mr. Ndunguru, the Director of ODA Project, Ruaha, & the Director Serengeti Regional Conservation Strategy 1 (Mar. 6, 1996) (on file with the author).
84. Murphree, supra note 46, at 158.
85. Id.
86. See Little, supra note 64, at 350; Strum, supra note 50, at 513.
87. See Murphree, supra note 46, at 158.
88. See Brosius et al., supra note 43, at 158.
89. See id.; Gibson & Marks, supra note 46, at 944.
90. See Murphree, supra note 46, at 164; LIVING WITH WILDLIFE, supra note 17, at iii.
91. There are two different ways of classifying programs that implement the CWM approach. One is to use location, which gives two forms. In the first form programs are based on, or associated with, established protected areas - buffer zone programs. Examples of buffer zone programs in Africa include the Lupande Development Project (LDP) and Administrative Management Design (ADMADE) in Zambia and many CAMPFIRE projects in Zimbabwe, especially in the Zambezi Valley. See IIED, supra note 2, at 10, 35, 41-42; Hill, supra note 33, at 110-18; Simon Metcalfe, The Zimbabwe Communal Areas Management Program for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE), in NATURAL CONNECTIONS: PERSPECTIVES IN COMMUNITY-BASED CONSERVATION, supra note 3, at 161, 164-65.
92. The second form of CWM is not associated with protected areas; the programs are located on communal lands far from protected areas. Examples from Africa include Community Game Guards in Namibia and some CAMPFIRE projects in Zimbabwe. See IIED, supra note 2, at 43-46; LIEBENBERG & GROSSMAN, supra note 5, at 6-7. CWM programs can also be classified based on the number of parties involved and their levels of involvement. Like the previous method, this classification gives two (main) classes. The first is a class of genuine, truly community-based programs based on the "bottom-up" participatory approach. This is the "ideal" situation whereby communities initiate their own projects by acquiring legal ownership of and gaining control over management responsibilities for wildlife on their lands. See Murphree, supra note 30, at 405-07; Frances J. Seymour, Are Successful Community-Based Conservation Projects Designed or Discovered?, in NATURAL CONNECTIONS: PERSPECTIVES IN COMMUNTTY-BASED CONSERVATION, supra note 3, at 472, 490;
93. LIVING WITH WILDLIFE, supra note 17, at 6, 10-12, 20-24.
94. The second is a class of joint, cooperative management (co-management) or partnership programs between communities and the respective governments. See IIED, supra note 2, at 46-54; LIVING WITH WILDLIFE, supra note 17, at 10, 20-24. This method combines "bottom-up" and "top-down" approaches, but, because of the governments' powerful position (compared to the communities), it has more of the latter than the former. Except for the distance from existing protected areas, the difference between buffer zone programs and non-buffer zone programs is blurred. Both want the communities, at least in theory, to benefit from wildlife. Both want the communities to control access to wildlife on their lands by making/adopting and enforcing inclusion and exclusion rules. Also, both emphasize institutional development and prefer partnership.
95. Sibanda, supra note 28, at 127.
96. See ELINOR OSTROM, GOVERNING THE COMMONS: THE EVOLUTION OF INSTITUTIONS FOR COLLECTIVE ACTION 61-69, 82-88 (1990).
97. See Physick, supra note 37, at 85, 87; Murphree, supra note 46, at 162-64; Murphree, supra note 30, at 406, 419-20; Strum, supra note 50, at 516-18; Barbier, supra note 17, at 109; SHANNA RATNER & PETER IDE, STRATEGIES FOR COMMUNITY ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT THROUGH NATURAL RESOURCE USE IN NORTHERN NEW YORK 1-4 (1985).
98. See Bergin, supra note 12, at 3-5.
99. See Child, supra note 59, at 56-57; FRIEDMANN, supra note 28, at 31-34; Fikret Berkes & M. Taghi Farvar, Introduction and Overview, in COMMON PROPERTY RESOURCES: ECOLOGY AND COMMUNITY-BASED SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, supra note 9, at 1, 9-15.
100. See Western, supra note 9, at 30-40; Strum, supra note 50, at 515.
101. Barbier, supra note 17, at 131-32.
102. MARSHALL W. MURPHREE, COMMUNITIES AS INSTITUTIONS FOR RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 9 (Centre for Applied Social Sciences Occasional Paper, 1991).
103. Hughes, supra note 22, at 53.
104. See Hill, supra note 33, at 106-08; Michael McCall & Margaret Skutsch, Strategies and Contradictions in Tanzania's Rural Development: Which Path for the Peasants?, in RURAL DEVELOPMENT AND THE STATE: CONTRADICTIONS AND DILEMMAS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 241, 247-51, 260-62 (David A.M. Lea & D.P. Chaudhri eds., 1983); MORIS, supra note 27, at 3-4.
105. See Seymour, supra note 73, at 472-73.
106. See Derman, supra note 42, at 204-05.
107. See MURPHREE, supra note 20, at 2-3; Seymour, supra note 73, at 484.
108. See Mary Grisez Kweit & Robert W. Kweit, The Politics of Policy Analysis: The Role of Citizen Participation in Analytic Decision Making, in CITIZEN PARTICIPATION IN PUBLIC DECISION MAKING 19, 22 (Jack DeSario & Stuart Langton eds., 1987).
109. Tanzania Wildlife Dep't, Workshop Minutes from a National Workshop for Wildlife Officers: National Policy for Wildlife Conservation and Utilisation 13 (Oct. 1994) (unpublished manuscript, on file with the author). See also Barbier, supra note 17, at 107.
110. Kamieniecki, supra note 48, at 13.
111. See Songorwa, supra note 16, at 146.
112. See id.
113. See MINISTRY OF NATURAL RESOURCES & TOURISM, THE WILDLIFE POLICY OF TANZANIA 7 § 2.9 (1998).
114. See id. at 14 § 3.3.3(iii).
115. See Simon Coldham, Land Tenure Reform in Tanzania: Legal Problems and Perspectives, 33 J. MOD. AFR. STUD. 227, 233 (1995).
116. Id. at 234.
117. See Songorwa, supra note 16, at 147.
118. See Sibanda, supra note 28, at 128; Siachoono, supra note 10, at 248; Metcalfe, supra note 73, at 187; Western, supra note 9, at 40.
119. See IIED, supra note 2, at 84; Gibson & Marks, supra note 46, at 950-52.
120. See Letter from A. Pilegaard, Head of East and Southern Africa Division, European Commission, Directorate-General for Development, to Ms. Hoffman, BMZ 2-3 (Jan. 27, 1995) (on file with the author) (transmitting comments on questions of the German Delegation regarding financing proposal for the development of sustainable wildlife management towards the diversification of the economy in Zambia).
121. See generally M. Bathgate & A. Memon, Towards Co-Management of Fisheries in New Zealand: Paper presented at Sea Views Conference on Marine Ecosystem Management Obligations and Opportunities (Feb. 11-14, 1998) (unpublished manuscript, on file with author);
122. Steve L. McMullin & Larry A. Nielsen, Resolution of Natural Resource Allocation Conflicts through Effective Public Involvement, 19 POL'Y STUD. J. 553, 553, 557-59 (1991).
123. See Letter from A. Pilegaard to Ms. Hoffman, supra note 99, at 2; Gibson & Marks, supra note 46, at 951-52.
124. Letter from Dr. Ludwig Siege to Director of Wildlife et al., supra note 65, at 1.
125. See IIED, supra note 2, at 36.
126. See id. at 85-86.
127. See Barbier, supra note 17, at 111.
128. See Metcalfe, supra note 73, at 165-66.
129. See id. See also Derman, supra note 42, at 205, 211-12.
130. See Murphree, supra note 30, at 415-16; Seymour, supra note 73, at 484.
131. Matzke & Nabane, supra note 8, at 74.
132. See Physick, supra note 37, at 85; Hill, supra note 33, at 114; Metcalfe, supra note 73, at 174-79.
133. See Matzke & Nabane, supra note 8, at 66-68.
134. Derman, supra note 42, at 212.
135. See MURPHREE, supra note 20, at 2-4.
136. See Hill, supra note 33, at 112.
137. See id. at 108.
138. See IIED, supra note 2, at 15, 32-33, 57-58. See also WELLS ET AL., supra note 1, at 52-53.
139. Barbier, supra note 17, at 107. See also Edmund Barrow et al., Community Conservation Lessons from Benefit Sharing in East Africa, in INTEGRATING PEOPLE AND WILDLIFE FOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE, supra note 14, at 21, 21-22; Western, supra note 9, at 47; and Metcalfe, supra note 73, at 164, 166, 174-79, 183-84.
140. 118 See THE WORLD BANK, POVERTY: WORLD DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS 26 (World Development Report, 1990).
141. See Child, supra note 59, at 58; Metcalfe, supra note 73, at 165; LIVING WITH WILDLIFE, supra note 17, at 1, 6.
142. See LIVING WITH WILDLIFE, supra note 17, at iv, 29.
143. See Murphree, supra note 46, at 158, 162-64, 171, 175; Derman, supra note 42, at 201-02; Metcalfe, supra note 73, at 182-83; LIVING WITH WILDLIFE, supra note 17, at 36-40;
144. Cleophas Lado, Problems of Wildlife Management and Land Use in Kenya, LAND USE POL'Y, July 1992, at 169, 179-80, 183-4 (1992).
145. See, e.g., Songorwa, supra note 16, at 50; M.N. Tchamba, History and Present Status of the Human/Elephant Conflict in the Waza-Logone Region, Cameroon, West Africa, 75 BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION 35, 37-38 (1996);
146. John S. Akama et al., Conflicting Attitudes toward State Wildlife Conservation Programs in Kenya, 8 SOC'Y & NAT. RESOURCES 133, 135, 137-42 (1995);
147. Barrow et al., supra note 14, at 255; Raybourn, supra note 44, at 44; C.R. Thouless & J. Sakwa, Shocking Elephants: Fences and Crop Raiders in Laikipia District, Kenya, 72 BIOLOGICALCONSERVATION 99, 99 (1995);
148. David Parry & Bruce Campbell, Attitudes of Rural Communities to Animal Wildlife and Its Utilization in Chobe Enclave and Mababe Depression, Botswana, 19 ENVTL. CONSERVATION 245, 247 (1992).
149. See Songorwa, supra note 16, at 50.
150. See id. at 282.
151. See id. at 283.
152. See id. at 282.
153. See id. at 345-47, app.1.
154. See id.
155. Parry & Campbell, supra note 122, at 249.
156. See Tchamba, supra note 122, at 39.
157. See Mundanthra Balakrishnan & Dora E. Ndhlovu, Wildlife Utilization and Local People: A Case-Study in Upper Lupande Game Management Area, Zambia, 19 ENVTL. CONSERVATION 135, 138, 141-42 (1992).
158. See Jeffrey D. Hackel, Conservation Attitudes in Southern Africa: A Comparison between KwaZulu and Swaziland, 18 HUM. ECOLOGY 203, 205 (1990).
159. Rural people's negative attitudes toward dangerous and destructive species of wildlife are "a wildlife issue" in other parts of the world as well. See, e.g., Guha, supra note 47, at 16-17 (for reactions from Chenchu hunter-gatherers to the creation of a tiger reserve in the state of Andhra Pradesh, India); MICHAEL P. MOULTON & JAMES SANDERSON, WILDLIFE ISSUES IN A CHANGING WORLD 271-74 (1997) (for opposition to the reintroduction of the secretive panther in northern Florida, United States of America).
160. MOULTON & SANDERSON, supra note 132, at 1.
161. But the communities' suffering does not mean that they are totally opposed to wildlife conservation. Where/if it is contained to a level in which it causes less or no harm, they may be interested in conserving it. See also JAMES M. PEEK, A REVIEW OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT 33-35 (1986).
162. See Tchamba, supra note 122, at 38.
163. LIVING WITH WILDLIFE, supra note 17, at 5.
164. Franklyn Lisk, The Role of Popular Participation in Basic Needs-Oriented Development Planning, in POPULAR PARTICIPATION IN PLANNING FOR BASIC NEEDS: CONCEPTS, METHODS AND PRACTICES 15, 15 (Franklyn Lisk ed., 1985).
165. See Hazel R. Barrett & Angela W. Browne, Women's Time, Labour-Saving Devices and Rural Development in Africa, 29 COMMUNITY DEV. J. 203, 203-05, 212-13 (1994); LIEBENBERG & GROSSMAN, supra note 5, at 8.
166. Douglas D. Heckathorn, The Dynamics and Dilemmas of Collective Action, 61 AM. SOC. REV. 250, 251 (1996); OSTROM, supra note 75, at 6, 32, 241 n.25.
167. See Songorwa, supra note 16, at 181.
168. See Barbier, supra note 17, at 131.
169. See Clifford S. Russell, Applications of Public Choice Theory: An Introduction, in COLLECTIVE DECISIONMAKING: APPLICATIONS FROM PUBLIC CHOICE THEORY 1, 3, 13 (Clifford S. Russell ed., 1979).
170. Camilla Toulmin et al., The Future of Africa's Drylands, in THE EARTHSCAN READER IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 254, 254 (John Kirkby et al. eds., 1995).
171. See id.; Child, supra note 59, at 58; Raybourn, supra note 44, at 44-45; Little, supra note 64, at 360; MURPHREE, supra note 20, at 5-7; LIVING WITH WILDLIFE, supra note 17, at 1, 157-58.
172. See Murphree, supra notes 46, at 175; MURPHREE, supra note 81, at 7-8; Metcalfe, supra note 73, at 163, 169-71.
173. See Songorwa, supra note 16, at 183; Gibson & Marks, supra note 46, at 948.
174. See Barrow et al., supra note 117, at 23.
175. Murphree, supra note 46, at 168.
176. See Hill, supra note 33, at 112-13.
177. See Little, supra note 64, at 357-58; Strum, supra note 50, at 514; Murphree, supra note 30, at 418-20.
178. See Gibson & Marks, supra note 46, at 942.
179. See Songorwa, supra note 16, at 141.
180. See id. at 204.
181. See Derman, supra note 42, at 209-11.
182. See Jules Pretty et al., Regenerating Agriculture: The Agroecology of Low-External Input and Community-Based Development, in THE EARTHSCAN READER IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, supra note 143, at 125, 137;
183. LIVING WITH WILDLIFE, supra note 17, at 32.
184. See FRIEDMANN, supra note 28, at 147-49 n.7; Strum, supra note 50, at 514-15.
185. See Sibanda, supra note 28, at 121-22; Strum, supra note 50, at 514-16.
186. LIEBENBERG & GROSSMAN, supra note 5, at 6.
187. See Jeffrey Alwang et al., Seeking Guidelines for Poverty Reduction in Rural Zambia, 24 WORLD DEV. 1711, 1712-13 (1996);
188. Christopher E. Morrow & Rebecca Watts Hull, Donor-Initiated Common Pool Resource Institutions: The Case of the Yanesha Forestry Cooperative, 24 WORLD DEV. 1641, 1642 (1996); Hutton et al., supra note 48, at 271.
189. See Murphree, supra note 46, at 159-60; FRIEDMANN, supra note 28, at 55-66.
190. Sibanda, supra note 28, at 120.
191. See Gibson & Marks, supra note 46, at 944.
192. See Hyndman, supra note 21, at 297-98; Raval, supra note 9, at 316; LIVING WITH WILDLIFE, supra note 17, at 25-26.
193. See R. Rivera & G.F. Newkirk, Power from the People: A Documentation of Non-Governmental Organizations' Experience in Community-Based Coastal Resource Management in the Philippines, 36 OCEAN & COASTAL MGMT. 73, 89 (1997); MORIS, supra note 27, at 8-12.
194. See LIEBENBERG & GROSSMAN, supra note 5, at 9.
195. See Brosius et al., supra note 43, at 158-59; Durbin & Ralambo, supra note 54, at 116, 118; Raval, supra note 9, at 316.
196. See IIED, supra note 2, at 11-13, 55; Berkes & Farvar, supra note 78, at 3-5.
197. Edella Schlager et al., Mobile Flows, Storage and Self-Organized Institutions for Governing Common-Pool Resources, 70 LAND ECON. 294, 297 (1994).
198. See Siachoono, supra note 10, at 248; IIED, supra note 2, at 29-32.
199. Songorwa, supra note 16, at 301.
200. FITTER, supra note 26, at 173.
201. LIVING WITH WILDLIFE, supra note 17, at 25.
202. See LIEBENBERG & GROSSMAN, supra note 5, at 9-10; Balakrishnan & Ndhlovu, supra note 131, at 135; Berkes & Farvar, supra note 78, at 3.
203. LLOYD TIMBERLAKE, AFRICA IN CRISIS: THE CAUSES, THE CURES OF ENVIRONMENTAL BANKRUPTCY 154 (1985).
204. See Songorwa, supra note 16, at 58-59.
205. See id. at 59.
206. See Zimmerman, supra note 48, at 206-07.
207. See Britta Antonsson-Ogle, Wild Plant Resources: Another Form of Food Security, 17 CERES 38, 40 (1984).
208. See THOMAS S. KUHN, THE STRUCTURE OF SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS 66-76 (3d ed. 1996).
209. See Songorwa, supra note 16, at 226.
210. In Tanzania, the poaching problem became so serious that in June 1989 the government launched a nation-wide special anti-poaching operation and nicknamed it Operation Uhai ("Uhai" is a Kiswahili word for life). See id. a 198.Operation Uhai continued until March 1991 and succeeded in halting the wave of poaching, at least for a while. See id. at 99. Therefore, the increase of wildlife, or its return to settled areas, may not have been a result of the CWM component of SCP. It may have been a result of Operation Uhai, improved anti-poaching operation by Game Scouts in Selous Game Reserve, and/or the ban by CITES on international trade in ivory. See id. at 220.
211. See, e.g., Songorwa, supra note 16, at 99, 120-22 (for SCP); Gibson & Marks, supra note 46, at 945-51 (for ADMADE); Siachoono, supra note 10, at 249 (for ADMADE).
212. See Gibson & Marks, supra note 46, at 951.
213. See Metcalfe, supra note 73, at 186.
214. See Songorwa, supra note 16, at 220.
215. See id. at 218-20; Kelso, supra note 33, at 52-53.
216. See Berkes & Farvar, supra note 78, at 8-9; IIED, supra note 2, at 12, 14-15.
217. See Christopher J.N. Gibbs & Daniel W. Bromley, Institutional Arrangements for Management of Rural Resources: Common-Property Regimes, in COMMON PROPERTY RESOURCES: ECOLOGY AND COMMUNTIY-BASED SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, supra, note 9, at 22, 28-29.
218. See Physick, supra note 37, at 85; Lado, supra note 121, at 173; MORIS, supra note 27, at 4-5.
219. See e.g., Mark Poffenberger, The Resurgence of Community Forest Management in Eastern India, in NATURAL CONNECTIONS: PERSPECTIVES IN COMMUNITY-BASED CONSERVATION,supra note 3, at 53;
220. Charles Zerner, Transforming Customary Law and Coastal Management Practices in the Maluku Islands, Indonesia, 1870-1992, in NATURAL CONNECTIONS: PERSPECTIVES IN COMMUNITY-BASED CONSERVATON, supra note 3, at 80; OSTROM, supra note 75, at 61-69, 82-88; FITTER, supra note 26, at 172.
221. See A.H. Harcourt, Is the Gorilla a Threatened Species? How Should We Judge?, 75 BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION 165, 167-69 (1996); LIEBENBERG & GROSSMAN, supra note 5, at 1-4, 8-9; Schlager et al., supra note 168, at 298.
222. See LIEBENBERG & GROSSMAN, supra note 5, at 8; Morrow & Hull, supra note 159, 1653-55; Barrow et al., supra note 14, at 256; IIED, supra note 2, at 57; Little, supra note 64, at 353, 369; Strum, supra note 50, at 512; WELLS ET AL., supra note 1, at 42-47; EDWARD J. BLAKELY, PLANNING LOCAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: THEORY AND PRACTICE 64-82 (2d ed. 1989); MORIS, supra note 27, at 33-34;
223. ARTURO ISRAEL, INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT: INCENTIVES TO PERFORMANCE 13-14 (1987).
224. See Pretty et al., supra note 155, at 130, 138.
225. See Barnes, supra note 51, at 800-01; IIED, supra note 2, at 58-59.
226. See Songorwa, supra note 16, at 195-96.
227. See Barrow et al., supra note 117, at 21-22; Little, supra note 64, at 357-58; Strum, supra note 50, at 514-15; Murphree, supra note 30, at 414.
228. See Pretty et al., supra note 155, at 135-38; Steven W. Lawry, Structural Adjustment and Natural Resources in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Role of Tenure Reform, 7 SOC'Y & NAT. RESOURCES 383, 385 (1994).
229. Richard Moorehead, Changes Taking Place in Common-Property Resource Management in the Inland Niger Delta of Mali, in COMMON PROPERTY RESOURCES: ECOLOGY AND COMMUNITY-BASED SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, supra note 9, at 256, 259.
230. See Janet N. Abramovitz, Biodiversity and Gender Issues: Recognizing Common Ground, in FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 198, 198, 200-03, 206 (Wendy Harcourt ed., 1994);
231. Sabine Häusler, Women and the Politics of Sustainable Development, in FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 145, 149 (Wendy Harcourt ed., 1994); Little, supra note 64, at 357-58.
232. See LIVING WITH WILDLIFE, supra note 17, at 9.
233. See Dharam Ghai, Environment, Livelihood and Empowerment, in DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENT: SUSTAINING PEOPLE AND NATURE 1, 5 (Dharam Ghai ed., 1994);
234. Kathy M. Higgins & Albert Mazula, Community Development: A National Strategy in Zimbabwe, 28 COMMUNITY DEV. J. 19, 21 (1993);
235. THE EARTH SUMMIT: THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT 407-10 (Stanley P. Johnson ed., 1993)
236. [hereinafter EARTH SUMMIT].
237. See FRIEDMANN, supra note 28, 107-19.
238. See Songorwa, supra note 16, at 233-42.
239. See Nabane & Matzke, supra note 3, at 526.
240. See IIED, supra note 2, at 24-25, 57.
241. See Murphree, supra note 46, at 164; Barbier, supra note 17, at 105; LIVING WITH WILDLIFE, supra note 17, at 13-15.
242. See Barrett & Grizzle, supra note 8, at 27-28, 30, 41; Sibanda, supra note 28, at 118-21; Gibson & Marks, supra note 46, at 944-45, 947; LIEBENBERG & GROSSMAN, supra note 5, at 11; Little, supra note 64, at 350-54; J. Fourie, The Concept of Life: On the Social Role of Conservation Areas, 34 KOEDOE 157, 158-60, 164 (1994);
243. LIVING WITH WILDLIFE, supra note 17, at 5-8, 14-15.
244. MARCIA NOZICK, NO PLACE LIKE HOME: BUILDING SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES 10 (1992).
245. LIVING WITH WILDLIFE, supra note 17, at 170.
246. See RATNER & IDE, supra note 76, at 4-9.
247. See EARTH SUMMIT, supra note 201, at 146-49.
248. See Murphree, supra note 46, at 168-74.
249. See Michael Redclift & Colin Sage, Introduction, in STRATEGIES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: LOCAL AGENDAS FOR THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE 1, 9-10 (Michael Redclift & Colin Sage eds., 1994);
250. Antoon De Vos, Wildlife Utilization on Marginal Lands in Developing Countries, in WILDLIFE PRODUCTION: CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 8, 8-10 (Lyle A. Renecker & Robert J. Hudson eds., 1991).
251. Murphree, supra note 46, at 167.
252. See id. Economic growth is defined as a sustained increase either in the real per capita income or in real total income...." KWANG CHOI, THEORIES OF COMPARATIVE ECONOMIC GROWTH 7 (1983).
253. See Murphree, supra note 46, 167-70; Metcalfe, supra note 73, at 182, 190.
254. See Murphree, supra note 46, at 166-67.
255. Metcalfe, supra note 73, at 179.
256. See Western, supra note 9, at 31-36; WELLS ET AL., supra note 1, at 1-2, 42-47. The interest in making quick profit from wildlife on the part of the communities may emanate from the many uncertainties associated with it.
257. See Songorwa, supra note 16, 198-202.
258. Id. at 201.
259. See Krishna B. Ghimire, Parks and People: Livelihood Issues in National Parks Management in Thailand and Madagascar, in DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENT: SUSTAINING PEOPLE AND NATURE, supra note 201, at 195, 197; IIED, supra note 2, 11-12; Salafsky, supra note 25, at 456.
260. See Barrett & Grizzle, supra note 8, at 27; Western, supra note 9, at 23, 25-26.
261. See Songorwa, supra note 16, at 194-95.
262. See UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA, DEP'T OF WILDLIFE, SELOUS GAME RESERVE GENERAL MANAGEMENT PLAN 134-45 annex O (1995).
263. Siachoono, supra note 10, at 248.
264. See IIED, supra note 2, at 56-57.
265. Seymour, supra note 73, at 472.
266. See Lado, supra note 121, at 182-84.
267. See Western, supra note 49, at 502.
268. See JUDITH REES, NATURAL RESOURCES: ALLOCATION, ECONOMICS AND POLICY 256 (2d ed. 1990);
269. Janice Schnake Greene, The Role of Population Education in Wildlife Management: Activities and Methods, in INTEGRATING PEOPLE AND WILDLIFE FOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE, supra note 14, at 95, 95.
270. See REES, supra note 231, at 256. See also MOULTON & SANDERSON, supra note 132, at 342-44; Muth & Bowe, supra note 7, at 10 (for the recent increase of poaching activities in the United States).
271. The Ecologist, The Commons: Where the Community Has Authority, in THE EARTHSCAN READER IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, supra note 143, at 227, 234.
272. See Kelso, supra note 33, at 52.
273. See LIEBENBERG & GROSSMAN, supra note 5, at 4-5.
274. See Barrett & Arcese, supra note 8, at 1077-80.
275. See Songorwa, supra note 16, at 195.
276. Id. at 284.
277. IIED, supra note 2, at 35-36.
278. See Letter from A. Pilegaard to Ms. Hoffman, supra note 99, at 2.
279. See Gibson & Marks, supra note 46, at 951; IIED, supra note 2, 84.
280. See IIED, supra note 2, at 36, 81-82.
281. See Balakrishnan & Ndhlovu, supra note 131, at 137-38, 140-41.
282. See IIED, supra note 2, at 85.
283. See Derman, supra note 42, at 208.
284. See PETER E. MURPHY, TOURISM: A COMMUNITY APPROACH 31 (1985).
285. See Metcalfe, supra note 73, at 179, 184; Lado, supra note 121, at 174, 180-82.
286. See Murphree, supra note 46, at 172; Metcalfe, supra note 73, at 179.
287. See Guha, supra note 47, at 15-16.
288. LIVING WITH WILDLIFE, supra note 17, at 2.
289. See Morrow & Hull, supra note 159, at 1653-55.
290. Murphree, supra note 46, at 174.
291. LIVING WITH WILDLIFE, supra note 17, at 2.
292. See Western, supra note 9, at 30; Metcalfe, supra note 73, at 166.
293. See CARL V. PATTON & DAVID S. SAWICKI, BASIC METHODS OF POLICY ANALYSIS AND PLANNING 36, 302 (1986); McCall & Skutsch, supra note 83, at 262-67.
294. See PATTON & SAWICKI, supra note 255, at 36, 302.
295. See id. at 302.
296. See id.