Why terra nullius? Anthropology and property law in early Australia

Law and History Review

Volumn 23, Issue 1, 2005, Pages 95-131

  Banner, Stuart ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 22544474754     PISSN: 07382480     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0738248000000067     Document Type: Article

References (224)

1. Mabo v. Queensland, 175 CLR 1 (1992).
2. This account of British land policy in North America is at odds with some recent scholarship, such as Patricia Seed, American Pentimento: The Invention of Indians and the Pursuit of Riches (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2001), 12-14
3. and David Armitage, The Ideological Origins of the British Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 97.
4. I discuss British land policy in North America in Stuart Banner, How the Indians Lost Their Land (Harvard University Press, forthcoming)
5. Claudia Orange, The Treaty of Waitangi (Wellington: Allen & Unwin, 1987)
6. Stuart Banner, "Conquest by Contract: Wealth Transfer and Land Market Structure in Colonial New Zealand," Law and Society Review 34 (2000): 47-96
7. Stuart Banner, "Two Properties, One Land: Law and Space in Nineteenth-Century New Zealand," Law and Social Inquiry 24 (1999): 807-52.
8. Henry Reynolds, This Whispering in Our Hearts (St. Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin, 1998), 1-90.
9. See especially Henry Reynolds, The Law of the Land (Ringwood, Vic. : Penguin Books, 1987), a book to which I owe an enormous debt. The first question has not even been asked because previous authors have not recognized how different land policy in Australia was from land policy in North America and New Zealand. The second is raised implicitly throughout the work of Reynolds and Kercher (especially Reynolds), but because neither writer treats it explicitly, neither has any occasion to attempt an explicit answer.
10. J. C. Beaglehole, ed. , The Journals of Captain Cook on His Voyages of Discovery (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1955-74), 1:514.
11. J. M. Bennett and Alex C. Castles, eds. , A Source Book of Australian Legal History (Sydney: The Law Book Company, 1979), 253-54 (emphasis added).
12. Clarence S. Brigham, ed. , British Royal Proclamations Relating to America 1603-1783 (1911; New York: Burt Franklin, 1964), 212-18
13. CO 5/65, p. 43, Public Record Office, Kew (hereafter PRO); Marete Borch, "Rethinking the Origins of Terra nullius," Australian Historical Studies 117 (2001): 222-39.
14. Alan Frost, Convicts and Empire: A Naval Question 1776-1811 (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1980), 32
15. Jonathan King, ed. , "In the Beginning . . . ": The Story of the Creation of Australia from the Original Writings (South Melbourne: Macmillan, 1985), 76.
16. Beaglehole, ed. , Journals of Captain James Cook, 1:312
17. J. C. Beaglehole, ed. , The Endeavour Journal of Joseph Banks 1768-1771 (Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1962), 2:122-23
18. Beaglehole, ed. , Journals of Captain James Cook, 2:735
19. King, ed. , "In the Beginning . . . ," 115.
20. English cases discussing the proposition include Geary v. Barecroft, 82 Eng. Rep. 1148 (K. B. 1667)
21. and Holden v. Smallbrooke, 124 Eng. Rep. 1030 (C. P. 1668).
22. See also Thomas Wood, An Institute of the Laws of England, 3d ed. (London: Richard Sare, 1724), 216.
23. European theoretical treatments include Hugo Grotius, The Law of War and Peace (1625), trans. Francis W. Kelsey (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1925), 202
24. and Samuel Pufendorf, De Jure Naturae et Gentium (1688), trans. C. H. Oldfather and W. A. Oldfather (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1934), 2:569-73.
25. Walter Raleigh, "A Discourse of the Original and Fundamental Cause of Natural, Arbitrary, Necessary, and Unnatural War," in The Works of Sir Walter Ralegh, Kt. (Oxford: University Press, 1829), 8:255
26. John Donne, "A Sermon Preached to the Honourable Company of the Virginian Plantation" (London: Thomas Jones, 1622), in The Sermons of John Donne, ed. George R. Potter and Evelyn M. Simpson (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1959), 4:274
27. Emerich de Vattel, The Law of Nations (1758), ed. Edward D. Ingraham (Philadelphia: T. & J. W. Johnson, 1853), 36.
28. 2:735.
29. Arthur O. Lovejoy and George Boas, Primitivism and Related Ideas in Antiquity (1935) (New York: Octagon Books, 1965)
30. Thomas Cole, Democritus and the Sources of Greek Anthropology ([Cleveland]: American Philological Association, 1967), 36-38.
31. Cicero, De Officiis, trans. Walter Miller (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1947), 23
32. Seneca, Ad Lucilium Epistulae Morales, trans. Richard M. Gummere (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1920), 2:423.
33. See also Tibullus, Elegies, trans. Theodore C Williams (Boston: Richard G. Badger, 1905), 23-24
34. Ovid, Metamorphoses, trans. A. D. Melville (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), 4-5
35. Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns, eds. , The Collected Dialogues of Plato (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961), 1037
36. Richard McKeon, ed. , The Basic Works of Aristotle (New York: Random House, 1941), 1138.
37. The Geography of Strabo, trans. Horace Leonard Jones (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1917-32), 3:207
38. Horace, The Complete Odes and Epodes with the Centennial Hymn, trans. W. G. Shepherd (Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1983), 155
39. Julius Caesar, The Gallic War, trans. H. J. Edwards (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1917), 347.
40. Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus, trans. J. C. Yardley (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1994), 27
41. Virgil, Georgics, trans. Smith Palmer Bovie (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956), 10
42. Ovid, The Erotic Poems, trans. Peter Green (London: Penguin Books, 1982), 153.
43. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica ([Cambridge, Eng. ]: Blackfriars, 1964-), 37:13
44. John F. Moffitt and Santiago Sebastian, O Brave New People: The European Invention of the American Indian (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1996), 69-75
45. Peter Stein, "The Four Stage Theory of the Development of Societies," in The Character and Influence of the Roman Civil Law: Historical Essays (London: Hambledon Press, 1988), 395-409
46. Adam Smith, Lectures on Jurisprudence (delivered 1760s), ed. R. L. Meek, D. D. Raphael, and P. G. Stein (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), 459
47. Ronald L. Meek, Social Science and the Ignoble Savage (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976)
48. William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England (1765-69), 9th ed. (London: W. Strahan et al. , 1783), 2:7.
49. Vattel, The Law of Nations, 100.
50. Colin G. Calloway, ed. , Revolution and Confederation (1994), vol. 18 of Early American Indian Documents: Treaties and Laws, 1607-1789, ed. Alden T. Vaughan (Washington: University Publications of America, 1979-), 452-53
51. 1:399
52. Paul Carter, The Road to Botany Bay: An Exploration of Landscape and History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987)
53. Historical Records of New South Wales (Sydney: Charles Potter, 1892-1901), 1(2):1
54. A Description of Botany Bay, on the East Side of New Holland (Lancaster: H. Walmsley, [1787]) (Sydney: National Library of Australia, 1983), 8.
55. Alex C. Castles, An Australian Legal History (Sydney: Law Book Co. , 1982), 23
56. Historical Records of New South Wales, 1(2):87
57. Alan Frost, "New South Wales as Terra nullius: The British Denial of Aboriginal Land Rights," Historical Studies 19 (1981): 513-23
58. Robert J. King, "Terra Australis: Terra Nullius aut Terra Aboriginium?" Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society 72 (1986): 75-91 .
59. Karen Ordahl Kupperman, Indians and English: Facing Off in Early America (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2000)
60. William Dampier, A New Voyage Round the World (London, 1697) (London: Argonaut Press, 1927), 312
61. 2:744
62. 2:748
63. Beaglehole, ed. , Journals of Captain Cook, 3:786
64. Historical Records of New South Wales, 2:796
65. 2:818
66. William Walker to Richard Watson, 5 Dec. 1821
67. Bonwick Transcripts, 52:1047, Mitchell Library, Sydney (hereafter ML)
68. George Caley to Joseph Banks, 16 Feb. 1809
69. in George Caley, Reflections on the Colony of New South Wales, ed. J. E. B. Currey (Melbourne: Landsdowne Press, 1966), 177-78.
70. Ann Gore to "My dear Mary Ann," 29 Sept. 1837
71. in Helen Heney, ed. , Dear Fanny: Women's Letters to and from New South Wales, 1788-1857 (Rushcutters Bay, NSW: Australian National University Press, 1985), 130
72. George Worgan to his brother, June 1788, C830, ML
73. [Edward Lucett,] Rovings in the Pacific, from 1837 to 1849 (London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1851), 1:56
74. John Hunter, An Historical Journal of the Transactions at Port Jackson and Norfolk Island (London: John Stockdale, 1793), 58.
75. James Campbell to Dr. Farr, 24 March 1791, Doc. 1174, ML. British men would overcome their squeamishness. By the 1840s the colonial government was concerned that there were too many "half-caste" children being born and that many of them quickly became victims of infanticide in Aboriginal communities. Report from the Committee on Immigration (Sydney: W. J. Row, 1841), 36
76. William Westgarth, A Report on the Condition, Capabilities, and Prospects of the Australian Aborigines (Melbourne: William Clarke, 1846), 15.
77. [Robert Mudie,] The Picture of Australia (London: Whittaker, Treacher, and Co. , 1829), 228
78. William Pascoe Crook to Joseph Hardcastle, 8 Nov. 1803, Bonwick Transcripts, 49:215, ML
79. Nance Irvine, ed. , The Sirius Letters: The Complete Letters of Newton Powell, Midshipman & Lieutenant Aboard the Sirius (Sydney: Fairfax Library, 1988), 90
80. A Voyage to New South Wales: The Journal of Lieutenant William Bradley RN of HMS Sirius 1786-1792 (Sydney: Trustees of the Public Library of New South Wales, 1969), 140
81. Hunter, An Historical Journal, 59-60
82. The Voyage of Governor Phillip to Botany Bay (London: John Stockdale, 1789), 106-7.
83. Josephine Flood, Archaeology of the Dreamtime, rev. ed. (Sydney: Collins, 1989), 229-45
84. Watkin Tench, A Narrative of the Expedition to Botany Bay (London, 1789)
85. reprinted in Watkin Tench, Sydney's First Four Years (Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1961), 48
86. Mrs. Percy Sinnett, Hunters and Fishers: or, Sketches of Primitive Races in the Lands Beyond the Sea (London: Chapman and Hall, 1846), 41
87. J. H. Tuckey, An Account of a Voyage to Establish a Colony at Port Philip in Bass's Strait, on the South Coast of New South Wales (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, and Orme, 1805), 180.
88. D. Blackburn to R. Knight, 19 March 1791, Ab 163, ML
89. R. J. B. Knight and Alan Frost, eds. , The Journal of Daniel Paine, 1794-1797 (Sydney: Library of Australian History, 1983), 39
90. Watkin Tench, A Complete Account of the Settlement at Port Jackson (London, 1793)
91. reprinted in Tench, Sydney's First Four Years, 281
92. Thomas M'Combie, Australian Sketches, 2d ed. (Melbourne: Gazette Office, 1847), 244
93. "Civilization of the Aborigines," Arden's Sydney Magazine, Oct. 1843, 66
94. John Henderson, Observations on the Colonies of New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land (Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 1832), 152.
95. See also Robert Gordon Latham, The Natural History of the Varieties of Man (London: John Van Voorst, 1850), 223.
96. "A Few Words on the Aborigines of Australia," New South Wales Magazine 1 (1843): 58-59
97. Barron Field, "On the Aborigines of New Holland and Van Diemen's Land," in Barron Field, ed. , Geographical Memoirs on New South Wales (London: John Murray, 1825), 202-4
98. Russell to George Gipps, 25 August 1840, British Parliamentary Papers: Colonies: Australia (Shannon: Irish University Press, 1968-), 8:73.
99. James Holman, Travels in China, New Zealand, New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land, Cape Horn, etc. , etc. , 2d ed. (London: George Routledge, 1840), 475
100. Matthew Flinders, Observations on the Coasts of Van Diemen's Land, on Bass's Strait and its Islands, and on Part of the Coasts of New South Wales (London: John Nicholas, 1801), 20
101. T. Dove, "Moral and Social Characteristics of the Aborigines of Tasmania," Tasmanian Journal of Natural Science 1 (1842): 249
102. Joseph Orton, Aborigines of Australia (London: Thoms, 1836), 3.
103. Robert Scott to his mother, 16 August 1801, Doc. 1109, ML
104. P[eter] Cunningham, Two Years in New South Wales (London: Henry Colburn, 1827), 2:46
105. [T. Betts,] An Account of the Colony of Van Diemen's Land (Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 1830), 95
106. Charles James Napier, Colonization; Particularly in Southern Australia (London: T. & W. Boone, 1835), 94
107. James Dredge, Brief Notices of the Aborigines of New South Wales (Geelong: James Harrison, 1845), 9-10.
108. Cunningham, Two Years in New South Wales, 2:46
109. James Grant, The Narrative of a Voyage of Discovery, Performed in His Majesty's Vessel The Lady Nelson (London: T. Egerton, 1803), 167
110. David Collins, An Account of the English Colony in New South Wales (London, 1798-1802) (Christchurch: Whitcombe and Tombs, 1910), 299.
111. Sharon Morgan, Land Settlement in Early Tasmania: Creating an Antipodean England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 143-60
112. John C. Weaver, "Beyond the Fatal Shore: Pastoral Squatting and the Occupation of Australia, 1826 to 1852," American Historical Review 101 (1996): 981-1007
113. Henry Reynolds, Fate of a Free People (Ring wood, Vic. : Penguin Books, 1995)
114. Henry Reynolds, The Other Side of the Frontier: Aboriginal Resistance to the European Invasion of Australia (Ringwood, Vic. : Penguin Books, 1982)
115. British Parliamentary Papers: Colonies: Australia, 3:199
116. Bruce Kercher, Debt, Seduction and Other Disasters: The Birth of Civil Law in Convict New South Wales (Sydney: Federation Press, 1996), 85
117. James Scott, Remarks on a Passage to Botany Bay, 1787-1792 (Sydney: Trustees of the Public Library of New South Wales, 1963), 34
118. H. W. Breton, Excursions in New South Wales, Western Australia, and Van Dieman's Land [sic] (London: Richard Bentley, 1833), 219.
119. Historical Records of Australia (Sydney: Library Committee of the Commonwealth Parliament, 1914-), series IV, 1:330. There may be earlier formal statements of terra nullius lurking in unpublished court records. Continuous law reporting did not begin in New South Wales until the 1860s.
120. Historical Records of Australia, series IV, 1:414
121. Phillip to Nepean, 9 July 1788
122. Phillip had anticipated that such would be the case. Alan Frost, Arthur Phillip 1738-1814: His Voyaging (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1987), 144.
123. William Bradley, manuscript journal, 75 (4 Feb. 1788), A3631, ML
124. N. G. Butlin, Economics and the Dreamtime: A Hypothetical History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 139.
125. Hunter, An Historical Journal, 62. Hunter's book bears a publication date of 1793 but his observations are dated 1788.
126. Phillip to Sydney, 13 Feb. 1790
127. Robert Dawson, The Present State of Australia, 2d ed. (London: Smith, Elder and Co. , 1831), 63.
128. For modern discussions of Aboriginal property systems in the first half of the nineteenth century, see L. R. Hiatt, Arguments about Aborigines: Australia and the Evolution of Social Anthropology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 13-35
129. Jan Critchett, A "Distant Field of Murder": Western District Frontiers 1834-1848 (Carlton, Vic. : Melbourne University Press, 1990), 37-51
130. Sylvia J. Hallam, Fire and Hearth: A Study of Aboriginal Usage and European Usurpation in South-Western Australia (Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, 1979), 41-43.
131. Collins, An Account of the English Colony, 327.
132. The same story, probably copied from Collins, appears in a slightly later account published, probably pseudonymously under the name of the pickpocket George Barrington, The History of New South Wales (London: M. Jones, 1802), 24.
133. George Fletcher Moore, Diary of Ten Years Eventful Life of an Early Settler in Western Australia (London: M. Walbrook, 1884), 259 (diary entry for 26 March 1835)
134. Ian D. Clark, ed. , The Journals of George Augustus Robinson, Chief Protector, Port Phillip Aboriginal Protectorate, 2d ed. (Ballarat, Victoria: Heritage Matters, 2000), 2:311 (journal entry for 17 July 1841).
135. Peter Karsten, Between Law and Custom: "High" and "Low" Legal Cultures in the Lands of the British Diaspora - The United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, 1600-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 256-61
136. King to Hobart, 20 Dec. 1804
137. Historical Records of Australia, series I, 5:166
138. N. J. B. Plomley, ed. , Friendly-Mission: The Tasmania Journals and Papers of George Augustus Robinson, 1829-1834 (Kingsgrove, NSW: Tasmanian Historical Research Association, 1966), 88 (journal entry for 23 Nov. 1829).
139. Portland to Hunter, 26 Feb. 1800
140. Historical Records of New South Wales, 4:58
141. Baudin to King, 23 Dec. 1802
142. Historical Records of New South Wales, 5:830
143. King to Bligh, n. d. 1807, Philip Gidley King Papers, C189, p. 273, ML.
144. John Ritchie, Lachlan Macquarie: A Biography (Carlton, Vic. : Melbourne University Press, 1986), 132; Proclamation, 10 Dec. 1814, Supreme Court: Miscellaneous Correspondence Relating to Aborigines, 5/1161, 1:16-17, State Records New South Wales, Sydney (hereafter SRNSW).
145. Sydney Gazette, 20 April 1827, 2
146. Australia: An Appeal to the World on Behalf of the Younger Branch of the Family of Shem (Sydney: Spilsbury and M'Eachem, 1839), ix
147. "New Holland," South-Asian Register 2 (1828): 115
148. Plomley, ed. , Friendly Mission, 202-3
149. Lancelot E. Threlkeld, Report of the Mission to the Aborigines at Lake Macquarie, New South Wales (Sydney: Herald Office, [1838]), 2
150. Sydney Herald, 16 Feb. 1835, 2
151. Southern Australian, 8 May 1839, 3:4
152. Paul Edmund de Strzelecki, Physical Description of New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land (London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1845), 348 n, 340
153. Dredge, Brief Notices, 14
154. [Thomas M'Combie,] Adventures of a Colonist (London: John & Daniel A. Darling, [1845]), 267.
155. For similar doubts, see Arthur Westmacott, "The 'Australian Aborigines,'" Colonial Magazine and East India Review 21 (1851): 398
156. A Plea on Behalf of the Aboriginal Inhabitants of Victoria (Geelong: Advertiser Office, 1856), 5-6.
157. Bruce Kercher, "Native Title in the Shadows: The Origins of the Myth of Terra nullius in Early New South Wales Courts," in Colonialism and the Modern World: Selected Studies, ed. Gregory Blue et al. (Armonk, N. Y: M. E. Sharpe, 2002), 100-19
158. Bruce Kercher, "The Recognition of Aboriginal Status and Laws in the Supreme Court of New South Wales under Forbes, CJ, 1824-1836," in Land and Freedom: Law, Property Rights and the British Diaspora, ed. A. R. Buck, John McLaren, and Nancy E. Wright (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2001), 83-102.
159. R. v. Lowe (1827), in Decisions of the Superior Courts of New South Wales, 1788-1899, ed. Bruce Kercher, www. law. mq. edu. au/scnsw (visited 10 June 2002).
160. R. v. Jockey (1834)
161. R. v. Lego'me (1835)
162. R. v. Murrell (1836), all in Kercher, ed. , Decisions.
163. For a similar claim, with a more ambivalent judicial response, see R. v. Bonjon (1841), in Kercher, ed. , Decisions.
164. Paul Knaplund, James Stephen and the British Colonial System 1813-1847 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1953), 83-84
165. British Parliamentary Papers: Anthropology: Aborigines (Shannon: Irish University Press, 1968-69), 2:4, 5, 82-83.
166. Grey to Torrens, 15 Dec. 1835, CO 13/3, p. 112, PRO
167. Julie Cassidy, "A Reappraisal of Aboriginal Land Policy in Colonial Australia: Imperial and Colonial Instruments and Legislation Recognising the Special Rights and Status of the Australian Aboriginals," Journal of Legal History 10 (1989): 365-79.
168. Torrens to Grey, Dec. 1835, CO 13/3, p. 161, PRO
169. "First Annual Report of the Colonization Commissioners for South Australia," 14 June 1836
170. British Parliamentary Papers: Colonies: Australia, 4:480
171. "Second Letter of Instructions by the Colonization Commissioners for South Australia to James Hurtle Fisher, Esq. , Resident Commissioner in South Australia," 8 Oct. 1836
172. British Parliamentary Papers: Colonies: Australia, 5:192
173. See also "Letter of Instructions by the Colonization Commissioners of South Australia to his Excellency Lieutenant-Colonel George Gawler, Resident Commissioner in South Australia," 25 May 1838, British Parliamentary Papers: Colonies: Australia, 5:347.
174. Gawler to Russell, 1 August 1840, CO 13/16, p. 56, PRO.
175. C. P. Billot, John Batman: The Story of John Batman and the Founding of Melbourne (Melbourne: Hyland House, 1979), 79-102
176. Alistair H. Campbell, John Batman and the Aborigines (Malmsbury, Vic: Kibble Books, [1987]), 84-98.
177. The treaties by which Batman believed he had purchased the land are published in James Bonwick, John Batman: The Founder of Victoria, 2d ed. (Melbourne, 1868), ed. C. E. Sayers (Melbourne: Wren Publishing, 1973), 84-87.
178. Enclosure in Mercer to Glenelg, 6 April 1836
179. Historical Records of Australia, series I, 18:389
180. This is the opinion of the lawyer and MP William Burge, 16 Jan. 1836, reprinted in William Westgarth, Australia Felix (Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1848), 394-97.
181. Grey to Mercer, 14 April 1836
182. A. G. L. Shaw, "British Policy Towards the Australian Aborigines, 1830-1850," Australian Historical Studies 25 (1992): 265-85
183. J. M. Bennett, ed. , Some Papers of Sir Francis Forbes (Sydney: Parliament of New South Wales, 1998), 228
184. R. v. Steele (1834), in Kercher, ed. , Decisions
185. Normanby to Gipps, 29 June 1839, CO 202/40, p. 127, PRO
186. Attorney-General v. Brown, 1 Legge 312 (1847)
187. A. R. Buck, "'Strangers in Their Own Land': Capitalism, Dispossession and the Law," in A. R. Buck et al. , eds. , Land and Freedom, 39-56.
188. British Parliamentary Papers: Colonies: Australia, 2:147
189. Campbell to Burton, 22 June 1838, Supreme Court: Miscellaneous Correspondence Relating to Aborigines, 5/1161, 2:492, SRNSW
190. Clement Hodgkinson, Australia, from Port Macquarie to Moreton Bay (London: T. and W. Boone, 1845), 242
191. Henry William Haygarth, Reminiscences of Bush Life in Australia, During a Residence of Eight Years in the Interior (London, 1848) (London: John Murray, 1861), 107.
192. See also Thomas Bartlett, New Holland: Its Colonization, Productions & Resources (London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1843), 70.
193. Sydney Gazette, 19 August 1824, 4:1
194. Richard Windeyer, "On the Rights of the Aborigines of Australia" (ca. 1842), A1400, 32, ML
195. Southern Australian, 8 May 1839, 2:5
196. "The Aborigines of New Holland," The Blossom 1 (1828): 46-47
197. Sydney Herald, 5 December 1838, 2:1
198. Richard Howitt, Impressions of Australia Felix, During Four Years' Residence in that Colony (London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1845), 277
199. Samuel Kittle, A Concise History of the Colony and Natives of New South Wales (Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, [1815]), 7.
200. Report from the Select Committee on the Aborigines and Protectorate (Sydney: W. W. Davies, 1849), 20
201. Edward Stone Parker, The Aborigines of Australia (Melbourne: Hugh M'Coll, 1854), 30
202. N. G. Butlin, Forming a Colonial Economy, Australia 1810-1850 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 210-13.
203. William Pridden, Australia, Its History and Present Condition, 2d ed. (London: James Burns, 1845), 72-73
204. Graham's Town Journal, 22 February 1844, CO 386/155, p. 164, PRO
205. Lachlan Macquarie, Journals of His Tours in New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land 1810-1822 (Sydney: Trustees of the Public Library of New South Wales, 1956), 160.
206. R. H. W. Reece, Aborigines and Colonists: Aborigines and Colonial Society in New South Wales in the 1830s and 1840s (Sydney: Sydney University Press, 1974), 166-69.
207. Saxe Bannister, Humane Policy; or Justice to the Aborigines of New Settlements (London: Thomas and George Underwood, 1830), 51, 87.
208. See also Saxe Bannister, British Colonization and Coloured Tribes (London: William Ball, 1838), 277.
209. Report from the Committee on the Aborigines Question (Sydney: J. Spilsbury, 1838), 31, 33
210. Alexander Maconochie, Thoughts on Convict Management (Hobart: J. C MacDougall, 1838), 192
211. Christopher Pemberton Hodgson, Reminiscences of Australia, with Hints on the Squatter's Life (London: W. N. Wright, 1846), 76
212. Report from the Select Committee on the Condition of the Aborigines (Sydney: W. W. Davies, 1845), 10.
213. Quoted in Henry Reynolds, An Indelible Stain? The Question of Genocide in Australia's History (Ringwood, Vic: Viking, 2001), 99
214. William Walker to Richard Watson, 29 November 1821
215. Heather Goodall, Invasion to Embassy: Land in Aboriginal Politics in New South Wales, 1770-1992 (St. Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin, 1996), 44-56
216. Macquarie to Bathurst, 24 February 1820 and 27 July 1822
217. and 3:329
218. Proclamation, June 1838, Supreme Court: Miscellaneous Correspondence Relating to Aborigines, 5/1161, 2:495, SRNSW.
219. Cf. Bruce Kercher, An Unruly Child: A History of Law in Australia (St. Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin, 1995), 19.
220. Glenelg to Bourke, 13 April 1836
221. South Australian Register, 1 August 1840, 5:1.
222. CO 1/63, pp. 119, 116, PRO
223. The Declaration of the Gentlemen, Merchants, and Inhabitants of Boston (Boston, 1689)
224. in The Andros Tracts, ed. W. H. Whitmore (Boston: Prince Society, 1868-74), 1:15-16 (emphasis in the original).