A decision-making framework for ecological impacts associated with the accumulation of cyanotoxins (cylindrospermopsin and microcystin)

Lakes and Reservoirs: Science, Policy and Management for Sustainable Use

Volumn 10, Issue 1, 2005, Pages 25-37

  White, Susan H ^a   Duivenvoorden, Leo J ^a   Fabbro, Larelle D ^a  

^a CENTRAL QUEENSLAND UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

Bioaccumulation; Blue green algae; Cyanoprokaryotes; Cylindrospermopsin; Ecological risk assessment; Microcystin; Modelling

Indexed keywords

CYANOBACTERIUM; TOXIN;

CHLOROPHYTA; CYANOBACTERIA;

EID: 21744445141     PISSN: 13205331     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1770.2005.00258.x     Document Type: Review

References (113)

1. Baker P. D. & Humpage A. R. (1994) Toxicity associated with commonly occurring cyanobacteria in surface waters of the Murray-Darling basin, Australia. Aust. J. Mar. Freshwat. Res. 45, 773-86.
2. Beattie K. A., Ressler J., Wiegand C. et al. (2003) Comparative effects and metabolism of two microcystins and nodularin in the brine shrimp Artemia salina. Aquat. Toxicol. 62, 219-26.
3. Berg K., Skulberg O. M. & Skulberg R. (1987) Effects of decaying toxic blue-green algae on water quality - a laboratory study. Arch. Hydrobiol. 108, 549-63.
4. Best J. H., Eddy F. B. & Codd G. A. (2001) Effects of purified microcystin-LR and cell extracts of Microcystis strains PCC 7813 and CYA 43 on cardiac function in brown trout (Salmo trutta) alevins. Fish Physiol. Biochem. 24, 171-8.
5. Bickel H., Lyck S. & Utkilen H. (2000) Energy state and toxin content - experiments on Microcystis aeruginosa (Chroococcales, Cyanophyta). Phycologia 39, 212-8.
6. Boon P. I., Bunn S. E., Green J. D. & Shiel R. J. (1994) Consumption of cyanobacteria by freshwater zooplankton: Implications for the success of 'top-down' control of cyanobacterial blooms in Australia. Aust. J. Mar. Freshwat. Res. 45, 875-87.
7. Botes D. P., Tuiman A. A., Wessels P. L. et al. (1984) The structure of cyanoginosin-LA, a cyclic heptapeptide toxin from the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa. J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. 1, 2311-8.
8. Bouvy M., Falcao D., Marinho M., Pagano M. & Moura A. (2000) Occurrence of Cylindrospermopsis (Cyanobacteria) in 39 Brazilian tropical reservoirs during the 1998 drought. Aquat. Microbiol. Ecol. 23, 13-27.
9. Byth S. (1980) Palm Island mystery disease. Med. J. Aust. 2, 40-2.
10. Carmichael W. W. (1996) Toxic Microcystis and the environment. In: Toxic Microcystis (eds M. Watanabe, K. I. Harada, W. W. Carmichael & H. Fujiki) pp. 1-12. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
11. Carmichael W. W. (2001) Health effects of toxin-producing Cyanobacteria: 'The CyanoHABs'. Human Ecol. Risk Assess. 7, 1393-407.
12. Carmichael W. W., Azevedo S. M., Molica R. et al. (2001) Human fatalities from Cyanobacteria: chemical and biological evidence for cyanotoxins. Environ. Health Perspect. 109, 663-8.
13. Carmichael W. W. & Falconer I. R. (1993) Diseases related to freshwater blue-green algal toxins, and control measures. In: Algal Toxins in Seafood and Drinking Water (ed. I. R. Falconer) pp. 187-209. Academic Press, Sydney.
14. Carson B. (2000) Cylindrospermopsin - a review of toxicological literature. National Institute of Environmental Health Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA.
15. Casanova M. T., Burch M. D., Brock M. A. & Bond P. M. (1999) Does toxic Microcystis aeruginosa affect aquatic plant establishment? Environ. Toxicol. 14, 97-109.
16. Chiswell R. K., Shaw G. R., Eaglesham G. et al. (1999) Stability of cylindrospermopsin, the toxin from the cyanobacterium, Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii: Effect of pH, temperature and sunlight on decomposition. Environ. Toxicol. 14, 155-61.
17. Chong M. W. K., Gu K D., Lam P. K. S., Yang M. & Fong W. F. (2000) Study on the cytotoxicity of microcystin-LR on cultured cells. Chemosphere 41, 143-7.
18. Chorus I. (ed.). (2001) Cyanotoxins Occurrence, Causes, Consequences. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
19. Chorus I. & Bartram. J. (eds). (1999) Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water: A Guide to their Public Health Consequences, Monitoring and Management. E & FN Spoon, London.
20. Chorus I. V., Neisel J., Fastner C. et al. (2001) Environmental factors and microcystin levels in waterbodies. In: Cyanotoxins Occurrence, Causes, Consequences (ed. I. Chorus) pp. 159-77. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
21. Christoffersen K. (1996) Ecological implications of cyanobacterial toxins in aquatic food webs. Phycologia 35 (Suppl.), 42-50.
22. Connell D. W., Chaisuksant Y. & Yu J. (1999) Importance of internal biotic concentrations in risk evaluations with aquatic systems. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 39, 54-61.
23. Dawson R. M. (1998) The toxicology of microcystins. Toxicon 37, 953-62.
24. Delaney J. M. & Wilkins R. M. (1995) Toxicity of Microcystin-LP, isolated from Microcystis aeruginosa, against various insect species. Toxicon 33, 771-8.
25. Duy T. N., Lam P. K. S., Shaw G. R. & Connell D. W. (2000) Toxicology and risk assessment of freshwater cyanobacterial (blue-green algal) toxins in water. Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 163, 113-86.
26. Eriksson J. E., Meriluoto J. & Lindholm T. (1989) Accumulation of a peptide toxin from the cyanobacterium Oscillatoria agardhii in the freshwater mussel Anodonta cygnea. Hydrobiologia 183, 211-6.
27. Falconer I. R. (1993) Mechanism of toxicity of cyclic peptide toxins from blue-green algae. In: Algal Toxins in Seafood and Drinking Water (ed. I. R. Falconer) pp. 177-86. Academic Press, Sydney.
28. Falconer I. R. (1999) An overview of problems caused by toxic blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria) in drinking and recreational water. Environ. Toxicol. 14, 5-11.
29. Falconer I. R. (2001) Toxic cyanobacterial bloom problems in Australian waters: Risks and impacts on human health. Phycologia 40, 228-33.
30. Falconer I. R., Hardy S. J., Humpage A. R., Froscio, S. M., Tozer G. J. & Hawkins P. R. (1999) Hepatic and renal toxicity of the blue-green alga (Cyanobacterium) Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii. Male Swiss albino mice. Environ. Toxicol. 14, 143-50.
31. Falconer I. C., Jackson A. R., Langley J. & Runnegar M. (1981) Liver pathology in mice in poisoning by the blue-green algae Microcystis aeruginosa. Aust. J. Biol. Sci. 34, 179-87.
32. Ferrao-Filho A. & Azevedo S. M. F. O. (2003) Effects of unicellular and colonial forms of toxic Microcystis aeruginosa from laboratory cultures and natural populations on tropical cladocerans. Aquat. Ecol. 37, 23-35.
33. Ferrao-Filho A., Domingos P. & Azevedo M. T. P. (2002a) Influences of a Microcystis aeruginosa Kützing bloom on zooplankton populations in Jacarepaguá Lagoon (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil). Limnologica 32, 295-308.
34. Ferrao-Filho A., Kozlowsky-Suzuki B. & Azevedo S. M. F. O. (2002b) Accumulation of microcystins by a tropical zooplankton community. Aquat. Toxicol. 59, 201-8.
35. Fischer W. J., Hitzfield B. C., Tencalla F., Eriksson J. E., Mihailov A. & Dietrich D. R. (2000) Microcystin-LR toxicodynamics, induced pathology, and immunohistochemical localisation in livers of blue-green algae exposed rainbow trout (Onorhynchus mykissi). Toxicol. Sci. 54, 365-73.
36. Frank C. (2002) Microcystin-producing cyanobacteria in recreational waters in southwestern Germany. Environ. Toxicol. 17, 361-6.
37. Franke C., Studinger G., Berger G. et al. (1994) The assessment of bioaccumulation. Chemosphere 29, 1501-14.
38. Griffiths D. J. & Saker M. (2003) The Palm Island mystery disease 20 years on: a review of research on the cyanotoxin cylindrospermopsin. Environ. Toxicol. 18, 78-93.
39. Harada K. I. (1996) Chemistry and detection of microcystins. In: Toxic Microcystis (eds M. Watanabe, K. I. Harada, W. W. Carmichael & H. Fujiki) pp. 103-48. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
40. Hawkins P. R., Chandrasena N. R., Jones G. J., Humpage A. R. & Falconer I. R. (1997) Isolation and toxicity of Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii from an ornamental lake. Toxicon 35, 341-6.
41. Hawkins P. R., Putt E., Falconer I. R. & Humpage A. R. (2001) Phenotypical variation in a toxic strain of the phytoplankter, Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (Nostocales, Cyanophyceae) during batch culture. Environ. Toxicol. 16, 460-7.
42. Hawkins P. R., Runnegar M. T. C., Jackson A. R. B. & Falconer I. R. (1985) Severe hepatotoxicity caused by the tropical cyanobacterium (blue-green alga) Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (Woloszynska) Seenaya and Subba Raju isolated from a domestic water supply reservoir. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 50, 1292-5.
43. Heinze R. (1999) Toxicity of the cyanobacterial toxin microcystin-LR to rats after 28 days intake with drinking water. Environ. Toxicol. 14, 57-60.
44. Hiripi L., Nagy L., Kalmar T., Kovacs A. & Voros L. (1998) Insect (Locusta Migratoria Migratorioides) test monitoring the toxicity of cyanobacteria. Neurotoxicology 19, 605-8.
45. Hoeger S. J., Shaw G. R., Hitzfield B. C. & Dietrich D. R. (2004) Occurrence and elimination of cyanobacterial toxins in two Australian drinking water treatment plants. Toxicon 43, 639-49.
46. Jacoby J. M., Collier D. C., Welch E. B., Hardy F. J. & Crayton M. (2000) Environmental factors associated with a toxic bloom of Microcystis aeruginosa. Can. J. Fish Aquat. Sci. 57, 231-40.
47. Jones G., Baker P. D., Burch M. D. & Harvey F. L. (2002) National protocol for the monitoring of cyanobacteria and their toxins in surface waters. Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand (National Algal Management), Canberra, ACT, Australia. Draft V5.0.
48. Kankaanpää H. P., Vuorinen J., Sipiä V. & Keinänen M. (2002) Acute effects and bioaccumulation of nodularin in sea trout (Salmo trutta M. trutta L.) exposed orally to Nodularia spumigena under laboratory conditions. Aquat. Toxicol. 61, 155-68.
49. Kirpenko N. I. (1986) Phytopathic properties of blue-green algae toxin. Hydrobiol. J. 22, 44-7.
50. Kiss T., Vehovsky Á., Hiripi L., Kovács M. & Vörös L. (2002) Membrane effects of toxins isolated from a cyanobacterium, Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii, on identified molluscan neurones. Comp. Biochem. Physiol., C 131, 167-76.
51. Komarek J., Azevedo S., Domingos P., Komarkova J. & Tichy M. (2001) Background of the Caruaru tragedy: a case taxonomic study of toxic cyanobacteria. Algol. Stud. 103, 9-29.
52. Kotak B. G., Zurawell R., Prepas E. & Holmes C. F. (1996) Microcystin-LR concentration in aquatic food web compartments from lakes of varying trophic status. Can. J. Fish Aquat. Sci. 53, 1974-85.
53. Lahti K. M., Niemi J., Rapala K. S. & Sivonen K. (1997a) Biodegradation of cyanobacterial hepatotoxins - characterization of toxin degrading bacteria. In: Harmful Algae (eds B. Reguera, J. Blanco, M. Fernandez & T. Watt) pp. 363-5. Proceedings of the VIII International Conference on Harmful Algae; 25-29 June 1997, Vigo, Spain. Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
54. Lahti K., Rapala J., Fdrdig M., Niemelä M. & Sivonen K. (1997b) Persistence of cyanobacterial hepatotoxin, Microcystin-LF, in particulate material and dissolved in lake water. Water Res. 31, 1005-12.
55. Landsberg J. H. (2002) The effects of harmful algal blooms on aquatic organisms. Rev. Fish Sci. 10, 113-390.
56. Li R., Carmichael W., Brittain S. et al. (2001) First report of the cyanotoxins cylindrospermopsin and deoxycylindrospermopsin from Raphidiopsis curvata (Cyanobacteria). J. Phycol. 37, 1121-6.
57. Lirås V., Lindberg M., Nystrom P., Annadotter H., Lawton L. & Graf B. (1998) Can ingested cyanobacteria be harmful to the signal crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus)? Freshwat. Biol. 39, 233-42.
58. Liu Y., Song L., Li X. & Liu T. (2002) The toxic effects of microcystin-LR on embryo-larval and juvenile development of loach, Misguruns mizolepis Gunthe. Toxicon 40, 395-9.
59. Long B. M., Jones G. J. & Orr P. T. (2001) Cellular microcystin content in N-limited Microcystis aeruginosa can be predicted from growth rate. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67, 278-83.
60. MacKintosh C., Beattie K. A., Klumpp S., Cohen P. & Codd G. A. (1990) Cyanobacterial microcystin-LR is a potent and specific inhibitor of protein phosphatases 1 and 2A from both mammals and higher plants. FEBS Lett. 264, 187-92.
61. Magalhaes V. F., Soares R. & Azevedo S. (2001) Microcystin contamination in fish from the Jacarepaguá Lagoon (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil): Ecological implication and human health risk. Toxicon 39, 1077-85.
62. Markich S. J. & Camilleri C. (1996) Investigation of metal toxicity to tropical biota: Recommendations for revision of the Australian water quality guidelines. Office of the Supervising Scientist of the Alligator Rivers Region, Jabiru, NT, Australia. Internal Report No. 223.
63. Matveev V., Matveeva L. & Jones G. J. (1994) Study of the ability of Daphnia carinata King to control phytoplankton and resist cyanobacterial toxicity: Implications for biomanipulation in Australia. Aust. J. Mar. Freshwat. Res. 45, 899-904.
64. McCarty L. S. & Mackay D. (1993) Enhancing ecotoxicological modelling and assessment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 27, 1719-28.
65. McElhiney J., Lawton L. & Leifert C. (2001) Investigations into the inhibitory effects of microcystins in plant growth, and the toxicity of plant tissues following exposure. Toxicon 39, 1411-20.
66. Mohamed Z. A. (2001) Accumulation of cyanobacterial heptatotoxins by Daphnia in some Egyptian irrigation channels. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety 50, 4-8.
67. Nicholson B. C. & Burch M. D. (2001) Evaluation of Analytical Methods for Detection and Quantification of Cyanotoxins in Relation to Australian Drinking Water Guidelines. Cooperative Research Centre for Water Quality and Treatment, Canberra.
68. Norris K. R., Seawright A. A., Shaw G. et al. (2002) Hepatic xenobiotic metabolism of cylindrospermopsin in vivo in the mouse. Toxicon 40, 471-6.
69. Oberemm A. (2001) Effects of cyanotoxins on early life stages of fish and amphibians. In: Cyanotoxins Occurrence, Causes, Consequences (eds I. Chorus) pp. 240-8. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
70. Oberemm A., Becker J., Codd G. A. & Steinberg C. (1999) Effects of cyanobacterial toxins and aqueous crude extracts of cyanobacteria on the development of fish and amphibians. Environ. Toxicol. 14, 77-88.
71. Ohtani I., Moore R. E. & Runnegar M. T. C. (1992) Cylindrospermopsin: a potent hepatotoxin from the blue-green alga Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 114, 7941-2.
72. van der Oost R., Beyer J. & Vermeulen N. P. E. (2003) Fish bioaccumulation and biomarkers in environmental risk assessment: A review. Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 13, 57-149.
73. Orr P. & Jones G. (1993) Relationship between microcystin production and cell division rates in nitrogen-limited Microcystis aeruginosa cultures. Limnol. Oceanogr. 43, 1604-14.
74. Ozawa K., Yokoyama A., Ishikawa K., Kumagi M., Watanabe M. & Park H.-D. (2003) Accumulation and depuration of microcystin produced by the cyanobacterium Microcystis in a freshwater snail. Limnology 4, 131-8.
75. Padisák J. (1997) Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (Woloszynska) Seenayya et Subba Raju, an expanding highly adaptive cyanobacterium: worldwide distribution and review of its ecology. Archiv. Hydrobiol. Suppl. 107 (Monogr. Stud.) 4, 563-93.
76. Pflugmacher S. (2002) Possible allelopathic effects of cyanotoxins, with reference to Microcystin-LR, in aquatic ecosystems. Environ. Toxicol. 17, 407-13.
77. Prepas E. E., Kotak B. G., Campbell L. M., Evans J. C., Hrudey S. E. & Holmes C. F. (1997) Accumulation and elimination of cyanobacterial heptatotoxins by the freshwater clam, Anodonta grandis simpsonia. Can. J. Fish Aquat. Sci. 54, 41-6.
78. Queensland Department of Natural Resources and Mines (2003) Queensland Harmful Algal Bloom Operational Procedures. Harmful Algal Blooms Steering Committee, Queensland Department of Natural Resources and Mines, Rocklea, Qld, Australia.
79. Rinehart K. L., Namikoshi M. & Choi B. W. (1994) Structure and biosynthesis of toxins from blue-green algae (cyanobacteria). J. Appl. Phycol. 6, 159-76.
80. Romanowska-Duda Z. & Tarczynska M. (2002) The influences of microcystin-LR and hepatotoxic cyanobacterial extract on the water plant Spirodela oligorrhiza. Environ. Toxicol. 17, 434-40.
81. Runnegar M. T., Kong S. M., Zhong Y. Z., Ge J. L. & Lu S. C. (1994) The role of glutathione in the toxicity of a novel cyanobacterial alkaloid cylindrospermopsin in cultured rat hepatocytes. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 201, 235-41.
82. Saker M. L. & Eaglesham G. K. (1999) The accumulation of cylindrospermopsin from the cyanobacterium Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii in tissues of the Redclaw crayfish Cherax quadricarinatus. Toxicon 37, 1065-77.
83. Saker M. L. & Griffiths D. J. (2000) The effect of temperature on growth and cylindrospermopsin content of seven isolates of the cyanobacterium Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (Woloszynska) Seenaya and Subba Raju from water bodies in northern Australia. Phycologia 39, 349-54.
84. Saker M. L., Metcalf J. S., Codd G. A. & Vasconcelos V. M. (2004) Accumulation and depuration of the cyanobacterial toxin cylindrospermopsin in the freshwater mussel Anodonta cygnea. Toxicon 43, 185-94.
85. Saker M. & Neilan B. A. (2001) Varied diazotrophies, morphologies and toxicities of genetically similar isolates of Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (Nostocales, Cyanophyceae) from Northern Australia. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67, 1839-45.
86. Saker M., Thomas A. D. & Norton J. H. (1999) Cattle mortality attributed to the toxic cyanobacterium Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii in an outback region of North Queensland. Environ. Toxicol. 14, 179-82.
87. Schembrii M. A., Neilan B. A. & Saint C. P. (2001) Identification of genes implicates in toxin production in the cyanobacterium Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii. Environ. Toxicol. 16, 413-21.
88. Schwimmer M. & Schwimmer D. (1968) Medial aspects of phycology. In: Algae, Man and the Environment (ed. D. F. Jackson) pp. 279-358. Syracuse University Press, New York.
89. Shaw G., Seawright A. A., Moore M. R. & Lam P. K. S. (2000) Cylindrospermopsin, a cyanobacterial alkaloid: Evaluation of its toxicologic activity. Ther. Drug Monitor. 22, 89-92.
90. Shaw G., Sufenik A., Livne A. et al. (1999) Blooms of the cylindrospermopsin containing cyanobacterium, Aphanizomenon ovalisporum (Forti) in newly constructed lakes, Queensland, Australia. Environ. Toxicol. 14, 167-77.
91. Shen X., Lam P. K. S., Shaw G. R. & Wiickramasinghe W. (2002) Gentoxicity investigation of a cyanobacterial toxin, cylindrospermopsin. Toxicon 40, 1499-501.
92. Sijm D. T. H. & Hermens J. L. (2000) Internal effect concentration: link between bioaccumulation and ecotoxicity for organic chemicals. In: Bioaccumulation: New Aspects and Developments (ed. B. Beek) pp. 167-233. Springer, Berlin.
93. Sivonen K. & Jones G. (1999) Cyanobacterial toxins. In: Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water (eds I. Chorus & J. Bartram) pp. 41-111. E & FN Spoon, London.
94. Stephan C. E., Mount D. I., Hansen D. J., Gentile J. H., Chapman G. A. & Brungs W. A. (1985) Guidelines for Deriving Numerical National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and their Uses. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC.
95. Terao K. S., Ohmori K., Igarshi I. et al. (1994) Electron microscope studies on experimental poisoning in mice induced by cylindrospermopsin isolated from blue-green alga Umezakia natans. Toxicon 32, 833-43.
96. Ueno Y., Makita Y., Nagata S. et al. (1999) No chronic oral toxicity of a low dose of microcystin-LR, a cyanobacterial hepatotoxin, in female BALB/c mice. Environ. Toxicol. 14, 45-55.
97. Utkilen H. & Gjølme N. (1995) Iron-stimulated toxin production in Microcystis aeruginosa. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61, 797-800.
98. Vasas G., Gáspár A., Surányi G. et al. (2002) Capillary electrophorectic assay and purification of cylindrospermopsin, a cyanobacterial toxin from Aphanizomenon ovalisporum, by plant test (blue-green Sinapis test). Anal. Biochem. 302, 95-103.
99. Vasconcelos V. M. (1995) Uptake and depuration of the heptapeptide toxin microcystin-LR in Mytilus galloprovincialis. Aquat. Toxicol. 32, 227-37.
100. Vasconcelos V. M., Oliveira S. & Teles F. O. (2001) Impact of a toxic and a non-toxic strain of Microcystis aeruginosa on the crayfish Procambarus clarkii. Toxicon 39, 1461-70.
101. Vesterkvist P. S. M. & Meriluoto J. A O. (2003) Interaction between microcystins of different hydrophobicities and monolayers. Toxicon 41, 349-55.
102. Ward C. J. & Codd G. A. (1999) Comparative toxicity of four microcystins of different hydrophobicities to the protozoan, Tetrahymena pyriformis. J. Appl. Microbiol. 86, 874-82.
103. Watanabe M. F., Tsuji K., Watanabe Y., Harada K. I. & Suzuki M. (1992) Release of a heptapeptide toxin (microcystin) during the decomposition process of Microcystis aeruginosa. Nat. Toxins 1, 48-53.
104. Webster I. (1990) Effect of wind on the distribution of phytoplankton cells in lakes. Limnol. Oceanogr. 35, 989-1001.
105. Wiedner C., Visser P. M., Fastner J., Metcalf J. S., Codd G. A. & Mur L. R. (2003) Effects of light on the microcystin content of Microcystis strain PCC 7806. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69, 1475-81.
106. Wiegand C. & Pflugmacher S. (2001) Uptake of Microcystin-LR in aquatic organisms. In: Cyanotoxins Occurrence, Causes, Consequences (ed. I. Chorus) pp. 249-52. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
107. Williams D. E., Dawe S. C., Kent M. L., Andersen R. J., Craig M. & Holmes C. F. (1997) Bioaccumulation and clearance of microcystins from salt water mussels, Mytilus edulis, and in vivo evidence for covalently bound microcystins in mussel tissues. Toxicon 35, 1617-25.
108. Xie L., Xie P., Ozawa K., Honma T., Yokoyama A. & Park H.-D. (2004) Dynamics of microcystins-LR and -RR in the phytoplanktivorous silver carp in a sub-chronic toxicity experiment. Environ. Pollut. 127, 431-9.
109. Xu L. H., Lam P. K. S., Chen J. P. et al. (2000) Use of protein phosphatase inhibition assay to detect microcystins in Donghu Lake and a fish pond in China. Chemosphere 41, 53-8.
110. Yokoyama A. & Park H. (2002) Mechanism and prediction for contamination of freshwater bivalves (Unionidae) with the cyanobacterial toxin microcystin in hypereutrophic Lake Suwa, Japan. Environ. Toxicol. 17, 424-33.
111. Yokoyama A. & Park H. (2003) Depuration kinetics and persistence of the cyanobacterial toxin microcystin-LR in the freshwater bivalves Unio douglasiae. Environ. Toxicol. 18, 61-7.
112. Zimba P. V., Gaunt P. S., Brittain S. & Carmichael W. (2001) Confirmation of catfish, Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque) mortality from Microcystis toxins. J. Fish Dis. 24, 41-7.
113. Zurawell R. (2001) Occurrence and toxicity of microcystins in the freshwater pulmonate snail Lymnaea stagnalis. PhD thesis. University of Alberta, Alberta, Canada.