Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis

Seminars in Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine

Volumn 25, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 191-202

  Herbrecht, Raoul ^a   Natarajan Amé, Shanti ^a   Letscher Bru, Valérie ^b   Canuet, Matthieu ^a  

^a HÔPITAL DE HAUTEPIERRE   (France)

^b Institut de Parasitologie   (France)

Author keywords

Amphotericin B; Aspergillus; Caspofungin; Chest CT scan; Galactomannan; Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation; Itraconazole; Leukemia; Pulmonary infection; Voriconazole

Indexed keywords

AMPHOTERICIN B; AMPHOTERICIN B DEOXYCHOLATE; CASPOFUNGIN; FLUCONAZOLE; GALACTOMANNAN; ITRACONAZOLE; MICAFUNGIN; NUCLEIC ACID; POSACONAZOLE; VORICONAZOLE;

ASPERGILLUS; BRONCHOSPASM; CHILL; CLINICAL TRIAL; COLOR VISION DEFECT; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CONFUSION; CONIDIUM; COUGHING; DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURE; DRUG CONTRAINDICATION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG FORMULATION; DRUG SAFETY; FEVER; FUNGUS CULTURE; FUNGUS HYPHAE; FUNGUS ISOLATION; HALLUCINATION; HEMOPTYSIS; HIGH RISK PATIENT; HUMAN; HYPOXIA; IMMUNE DEFICIENCY; LIVER TOXICITY; LUNG ASPERGILLOSIS; LUNG LAVAGE; LUNG MYCOSIS; META ANALYSIS; MICROSCOPY; MORTALITY; NAUSEA; NEPHROTOXICITY; NONHUMAN; PHAGOCYTOSIS; PHOTOPHOBIA; PHOTOSENSITIVITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SKIN MANIFESTATION; SURVIVAL; TREATMENT INDICATION; VISUAL IMPAIRMENT;

EID: 2142755514     PISSN: 10693424     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1055/s-2004-824903     Document Type: Review

References (116)

1. Cornet M, Fleury L, Maslo C, et al. Epidemiology of IA in France: a six-year multicentric survey in the Greater Paris area. J Hosp Infect 2002;51:288-296
2. Dasbach EJ, Davies GM, Teutsch SM. Burden of aspergillosis-related hospitalizations in the United States. Clin Infect Dis 2000;31:1524-1528
3. Chandrasekar PH, Weinmann A, Shearer C. Autopsy-identified infections among bone marrow transplant recipients: a clinico-pathologic study of 56 patients. Bone Marrow Transplantation Team. Bone Marrow Transplant 1995;16: 675-681
4. Ascioglu S, Rex JH, de Pauw B, et al. Defining opportunistic invasive fungal infections in immunocompromised patients with cancer and hematopoietic stem cell transplants: an international consensus. Clin Infect Dis 2002;34:7-14
5. Faure O, Fricker-Hidalgo H, Lebeau B, et al. Eight-year surveillance of environmental fungal contamination in hospital operating rooms and haematological units. J Hosp Infect 2002;50:155-160
6. Lass-Florl C, Rath P, Niederwieser D, et al. Aspergillus terreus infections in haematological malignancies: molecular epidemiology suggests association with in-hospital plants. J Hosp Infect 2000;46:31-35
7. Burwen DR, Lasker BA, Rao N, et al. IA outbreak on a hematology-oncology ward. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2001;22:45-48
8. Loo VG, Bertrand C, Dixon C, et al. Control of construction-associated nosocomial aspergillosis in an antiquated hematology unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996;17:360-364
9. Denning DW. IA. Clin Infect Dis 1998;26:781-803
10. Anaissie EJ, Penzak SR, Dignani MC. The hospital water supply as a source of nosocomial infections: a plea for action. Arch Intern Med 2002;162:1483-1492
11. Iwen PC, Rupp ME, Langnas AN, et al. Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis due to Aspergillus terreus: 12-year experience and review of the literature. Clin Infect Dis 1998;26:1092-1097
12. Grossi P, Farina C, Fiocchi R, et al. Prevalence and outcome of invasive fungal infections in 1,963 thoracic organ transplant recipients: a multicenter retrospective study. Italian Study Group of Fungal Infections in Thoracic Organ Transplant Recipients. Transplantation 2000;70:112-116
13. Latge JP. Aspergillus fumigatus and aspergillosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 1999;12:310-350
14. Philippe B, Ibrahim-Granet O, Prevost MC, et al. Killing of Aspergillus fumigatus by alveolar macrophages is mediated by reactive oxidant intermediates. Infect Immun 2003;71:3034-3042
15. Hebart H, Bollinger C, Fisch P, et al. Analysis of T-cell responses to Aspergillus fumigatus antigens in healthy individuals and patients with hematologic malignancies. Blood 2002;100:4521-4528
16. Gerson SL, Talbot GH, Hurwitz S, et al. Prolonged granulocytopenia: the major risk factor for invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in patients with acute leukemia. Ann Intern Med 1984;100:345-351
17. Agusti C, Rano A, Filella X, et al. Pulmonary infiltrates in patients receiving long-term glucocorticoid treatment: etiology, prognostic factors, and associated inflammatory response. Chest 2003;123:488-498
18. Wald A, Leisenring W, van Burik JA, et al. Epidemiology of Aspergillus infections in a large cohort of patients undergoing bone marrow transplantation. J Infect Dis 1997;175:1459-1466
19. Dimopoulos G, Piagnerelli M, Berre J, et al. Disseminated aspergillosis in intensive care unit patients: an autopsy study. J Chemother 2003;15:71-75
20. Rello J, Esandi ME, Mariscal D, et al. Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: report of eight cases and review. Clin Infect Dis 1998;26:1473-1475
21. Singh N, Arnow PM, Bonham A, et al. IA in liver transplant recipients in the 1990s. Transplantation 1997;64:716-720
22. Allam MF, Del Castillo AS, Diaz-Molina C, et al. Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis: identification of risk factors. Scand J Infect Dis 2002;34:819-822
23. Lin SJ, Schranz J, Teutsch SM. Aspergillosis case-fatality rate: systematic review of the literature. Clin Infect Dis 2001;32:358-366
24. Martino R, Lopez R, Sureda A, et al. Risk of reactivation of a recent invasive fungal infection in patients with hematological malignancies undergoing further intensive chemoradiotherapy: a single-center experience and review of the literature. Haematologica 1997;82:297-304
25. Offner F, Cordonnier C, Ljungman P, et al. Impact of previous aspergillosis on the outcome of bone marrow transplantation. Clin Infect Dis 1998;26:1098-1103
26. Marr KA, Carter RA, Boeckh M, et al. IA in allogeneic stem cell transplant recipients: changes in epidemiology and risk factors. Blood 2002;100:4358-4366
27. Patterson JE, Peters J, Calhoon JH, et al. Investigation and control of aspergillosis and other filamentous fungal infections in solid organ transplant recipients. Transpl Infect Dis 2000;2:22-28
28. Mehrad B, Paciocco G, Martinez FJ, et al. Spectrum of Aspergillus infection in lung transplant recipients: case series and review of the literature. Chest 2001;119:169-175
29. Minari A, Husni R, Avery RK, et al. The incidence of IA among solid organ transplant recipients and implications for prophylaxis in lung transplants. Transpl Infect Dis 2002; 4:195-200
30. Gordon SM, Avery RK. Aspergillosis in lung transplantation: incidence, risk factors, and prophylactic strategies. Transpl Infect Dis 2001;3:161-167
31. Cahill BC, Hibbs JR, Savik K, et al. Aspergillus airway colonization and invasive disease after lung transplantation. Chest 1997;112:1160-1164
32. Fortun J, Martin-Davila P, Moreno S, et al. Risk factors for IA in liver transplant recipients. Liver Transpl 2002;8:1065-1070
33. Singh N, Avery RK, Munoz P, et al. Trends in risk profiles for and mortality associated with IA among liver transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis 2003;36:46-52
34. Panackal AA, Dahlman A, Keil KT, et al. Outbreak of IA among renal transplant recipients. Transplantation 2003;75: 1050-1053
35. Groll AH, Kurz M, Schneider W, et al. Five-year-survey of IA in a paediatric cancer centre: epidemiology, management and long-term survival. Mycoses 1999;42:431-442
36. Denning DW, Marinus A, Cohen J, et al. An EORTC multicentre prospective survey of IA in haematological patients: diagnosis and therapeutic outcome. EORTC Invasive Fungal Infections Cooperative Group. J Infect 1998;37:173-180
37. Lortholary O, Ascioglu S, Moreau P, et al. IA as an opportunistic infection in nonallografted patients with multiple myeloma: a European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer/Invasive Fungal Infections Cooperative Group and the Intergroupe Francais du Myelome. Clin Infect Dis 2000;30:41-46
38. Shetty D, Giri N, Gonzalez CE, et al. IA in human immunodeficiency virus-infected children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1997;16:216-221
39. Wallace JM, Lim R, Browdy BL, et al. Risk factors and outcomes associated with identification of Aspergillus in respiratory specimens from persons with HIV disease. Pulmonary Complications of HIV Infection Study Group. Chest 1998;114:131-137
40. Mylonakis E, Barlam TF, Flanigan T, et al. Pulmonary aspergillosis and invasive disease in AIDS: review of 342 cases. Chest 1998;114:251-262
41. Mouy R, Veber F, Blanche S, et al. Long-term itraconazole prophylaxis against Aspergillus infections in thirty-two patients with chronic granulomatous disease. J Pediatr 1994;125:998-1003
42. Chudwin DS, Wara DW, Cowan MJ, et al. Aspergillus pneumonia in chronic granulomatous disease: recurrence and long-term outcome. Acta Paediatr Scand 1982;71:915-917
43. Lundin J, Hagberg H, Repp R, et al. Phase 2 study of alemtuzumab (anti-CD52 monoclonal antibody) in patients with advanced mycosis fungoides/Sezary syndrome. Blood 2003;101:4267-4272
44. Kim WU, Kim SI, Yoo WH, et al. Adult respiratory distress syndrome in systemic lupus erythematosus: causes and prognostic factors: a single center, retrospective study. Lupus 1999;8:552-557
45. Garrett DO, Jochimsen E, Jarvis W. Invasive Aspergillus spp. infections in rheumatology patients. J Rheumatol 1999;26: 146-149
46. Warris A, Bjorneklett A, Gaustad P. Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis associated with infliximab therapy. N Engl J Med 2001;344:1099-1100
47. De Rosa FG, Shaz D, Campagna AC, et al. Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis soon after therapy with infliximab, a tumor necrosis factor-alpha-neutralizing antibody: a possible healthcare-associated case? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2003;24:477-482
48. Karim M, Alam M, Shah AA, et al. Chronic IA in apparently immunocompetent hosts. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 24:723-733
49. Patterson TF, Kirkpatrick WR, White M, et al. IA: disease spectrum, treatment practices, and outcomes. I3 Aspergillus Study Group. Medicine (Baltimore) 2000;79:250-260
50. Brenier-Pinchart MP, Lebeau B, Devouassoux G, et al. Aspergillus and lung transplant recipients: a mycologic and molecular epidemiologic study. J Heart Lung Transplant 1998;17:972-979
51. Helmi M, Love RB, Welter D, et al. Aspergillus infection in lung transplant recipients with cystic fibrosis: risk factors and outcomes comparison to other types of transplant recipients. Chest 2003;123:800-808
52. Subira M, Martino R, Rovira M, et al. Clinical applicability of the new EORTC/MSG classification for invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in patients with hematological malignancies and autopsy-confirmed IA. Ann Hematol 2003;82:80-82
53. Hauggaard A, Ellis M, Ekelund L. Early chest radiography and CT in the diagnosis, management and outcome of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Acta Radiol 2002;43:292-298
54. Greene RE, Schlamm HT, Stark P, et al. Radiological findings in acute invasive pulmonary aspergillosis: utility and reliability of halo sign and air-crescent sign for diagnosis and treatment of IPA in high-risk patients. Proceedings of the 13th European Congress of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases; May 10-13, 2003; Glasgow, Scotland
55. Herbrecht R, Denning DW, Patterson TF, et al. Voriconazole versus amphotericin B for primary therapy of IA. N Engl J Med 2002;347:408-415
56. von Eiff M, Roos N, Schulten R, et al. Pulmonary aspergillosis: early diagnosis improves survival. Respiration 1995;62:341-347
57. Westney GE, Kesten S, De Hoyos A, et al. Aspergillus infection in single and double lung transplant recipients. Transplantation 1996;61:915-919
58. Caillot D, Casasnovas O, Bernard A, et al. Improved management of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in neutropenic patients using early thoracic computed tomographic scan and surgery. J Clin Oncol 1997;15:139-147
59. Brown MJ, Worthy SA, Flint JD, et al. IA in the immunocompromised host: utility of computed tomography and bronchoalveolar lavage. Clin Radiol 1998;53:255-257
60. Burt ME, Flye MW, Webber BL, et al. Prospective evaluation of aspiration needle, cutting needle, transbronchial, and open lung biopsy in patients with pulmonary infiltrates. Ann Thorac Surg 1981;32:146-153
61. Pagano L, Girmenia C, Mele L, et al. Infections caused by filamentous fungi in patients with hematologic malignancies: a report of 391 cases by GIMEMA Infection Program. Haematologica 2001;86:862-870
62. Andreas S, Heindl S, Wattky C, et al. Diagnosis of pulmonary aspergillosis using optical brighteners. Eur Respir J 2000;15:407-411
63. Kontoyiannis DP, Sumoza D, Tarrand J, et al. Significance of aspergillemia in patients with cancer: a 10-year study. Clin Infect Dis 2000;31:188-189
64. Girmenia C, Nucci M, Martino P. Clinical significance of Aspergillus fungaemia in patients with haematological malignancies and IA. Br J Haematol 2001;114:93-98
65. Maertens J, Verhaegen J, Demuynck H, et al. Autopsy-controlled prospective evaluation of serial screening for circulating galactomannan by a sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for hematological patients at risk for IA. J Clin Microbiol 1999;37:3223-3228
66. Maertens J, Verhaegen J, Lagrou K, et al. Screening for circulating galactomannan as a noninvasive diagnostic tool for IA in prolonged neutropenic patients and stem cell transplantation recipients: a prospective validation. Blood 2001;97:1604-1610
67. Sulahian A, Tabouret M, Ribaud P, et al. Comparison of an enzyme immunoassay and latex agglutination test for detection of galactomannan in the diagnosis of IA. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1996;15:139-145
68. Verweij PE, Stynen D, Rijs AJ, et al. Sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay compared with Pastorex latex agglutination test for diagnosing IA in immunocompromised patients. J Clin Microbiol 1995;33:1912-1914
69. Herbrecht R, Letscher-Bru V, Oprea C, et al. Aspergillus galactomannan detection in the diagnosis of IA in cancer patients. J Clin Oncol 2002;20:1898-1906
70. Siemann M, Koch-Dorfler M, Gaude M. False-positive results in premature infants with the Platelia Aspergillus sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Mycoses 1998;41:373-377
71. Gangneux JP, Lavarde D, Bretagne S, et al. Transient Aspergillus antigenaemia: think of milk. Lancet 2002;359: 1251
72. Ansorg R, van den Boom R, Rath PM. Detection of Aspergillus galactomannan antigen in foods and antibiotics. Mycoses 1997;40:353-357
73. Becker MJ, Lugtenburg EJ, Cornelissen JJ, et al. Galactomannan detection in computerized tomography-based broncho-alveolar lavage fluid and serum in haematological patients at risk for invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Br J Haematol 2003;121:448-457
74. Bretagne S, Costa JM, Marmorat-Khuong A, et al. Detection of Aspergillus species DNA in bronchoalveolar lavage samples by competitive PCR. J Clin Microbiol 1995;33: 1164-1168
75. Raad I, Hanna H, Huaringa A, et al. Diagnosis of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis using polymerase chain reaction-based detection of Aspergillus in BAL. Chest 2002;121:1171-1176
76. Spiess B, Buchheidt D, Baust C, et al. Development of a LightCycler PCR assay for detection and quantification of Aspergillus fumigatus DNA in clinical samples from neutropenic patients. J Clin Microbiol 2003;41:1811-1818
77. Kami M, Fukui T, Ogawa S, et al. Use of real-time PCR on blood samples for diagnosis of IA. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33:1504-1512
78. Einsele H, Hebart H, Roller G, et al. Detection and identification of fungal pathogens in blood by using molecular probes. J Clin Microbiol 1997;35:1353-1360
79. Hebart H, Loffler J, Meisner C, et al. Early detection of Aspergillus infection after allogeneic stem cell transplantation by polymerase chain reaction screening. J Infect Dis 2000; 181:1713-1719
80. Hebart H, Loffler J, Reitze H, et al. Prospective screening by a panfungal polymerase chain reaction assay in patients at risk for fungal infections: implications for the management of febrile neutropenia. Br J Haematol 2000;111:635-640
81. Einsele H, Quabeck K, Muller KD, et al. Prediction of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis from colonisation of lower respiratory tract before marrow transplantation. Lancet 1998;352:1443
82. Nash G, Irvine R, Kerschmann RL, et al. Pulmonary aspergillosis in acquired immune deficiency syndrome: autopsy study of an emerging pulmonary complication of human immunodeficiency virus infection. Hum Pathol 1997; 28:1268-1275
83. Franquet T, Serrano F, Gimenez A, et al. Necrotizing aspergillosis of large airways: CT findings in eight patients. J Comput Assist Tomogr 2002;26:342-345
84. Denning DW. Therapeutic outcome in IA. Clin Infect Dis 1996;23:608-615
85. Boutboul F, Alberti C, Leblanc T, et al. IA in allogeneic stem cell transplant recipients: increasing antigenemia is associated with progressive disease. Clin Infect Dis 2002;34: 939-943
86. Groll AH, Shah PM, Mentzel C, et al. Trends in the postmortem epidemiology of invasive fungal infections at a university hospital. J Infect 1996;33:23-32
87. Ribaud P, Chastang C, Latge JP, et al. Survival and prognostic factors of IA after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. Clin Infect Dis 1999;28:322-330
88. Yeghen T, Kibbler CC, Prentice HG, et al. Management of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in hematology patients: a review of 87 consecutive cases at a single institution. Clin Infect Dis 2000;31:859-868
89. Subira M, Martino R, Franquet T, et al. Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in patients with hematologic malignancies: survival and prognostic factors. Haematologica 2002;87:528-534
90. Caillot D, Couaillier JF, Bernard A, et al. Increasing volume and changing characteristics of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis on sequential thoracic computed tomography scans in patients with neutropenia. J Clin Oncol 2001;19:253-259
91. Withington S, Chambers ST, Beard ME, et al. IA in severely neutropenic patients over 18 years: impact of intranasal amphotericin B and HEPA filtration. J Hosp Infect 1998; 38:11-18
92. Oren I, Haddad N, Finkelstein R, et al. Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in neutropenic patients during hospital construction: before and after chemoprophylaxis and institution of HEPA filters. Am J Hematol 2001;66:257-262
93. Cornet M, Levy V, Fleury L, et al. Efficacy of prevention by high-efficiency particulate air filtration or laminar airflow against Aspergillus airborne contamination during hospital renovation. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1999;20:508-513
94. Morgenstern GR, Prentice AG, Prentice HG, et al. A randomized controlled trial of itraconazole versus fluconazole for the prevention of fungal infections in patients with haematological malignancies. U.K. Multicentre Antifungal Prophylaxis Study Group. Br J Haematol 1999;105:901-911
95. Kibbler CC. Antifungal prophylaxis with itraconazole oral solution in neutropenic patients. Mycoses 1999;42(suppl 2):S121-S124
96. Nucci M, Biasoli I, Akiti T, et al. A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of itraconazole capsules as antifungal prophylaxis for neutropenic patients. Clin Infect Dis 2000;30:300-305
97. Herbrecht R, Neuville S, Letscher-Bru V, et al. Fungal infections in patients with neutropenia: challenges in prophylaxis and treatment. Drugs Aging 2000;17:339-351
98. Harousseau JL, Dekker AW, Stamatoullas-Bastard A, et al. Itraconazole oral solution for primary prophylaxis of fungal infections in patients with hematological malignancy and profound neutropenia: a randomized, double-blind, double-placebo, multicenter trial comparing itraconazole and amphotericin B. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000;44: 1887-1893
99. Glasmacher A, Hahn A, Molitor E, et al. Itraconazole for antifungal prophylaxis in neutropenic patients: a meta-analysis of 2181 patients. American Society for Microbiology, Washington DC. Program and Abstracts of the 40th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Abstract J-681, p. 378; 2001; Chicago, IL
100. Tollemar J, Ringden O, Andersson S, et al. Randomized double-blind study of liposomal amphotericin B (Ambisome) prophylaxis of invasive fungal infections in bone marrow transplant recipients. Bone Marrow Transplant 1993;12:577-582
101. Schwartz S, Behre G, Heinemann V, et al. Aerosolized amphotericin B inhalations as prophylaxis of invasive aspergillus infections during prolonged neutropenia: results of a prospective randomized multicenter trial. Blood 1999; 93:3654-3661
102. Tiphine M, Letscher-Bru V, Herbrecht R. Amphotericin B and its new formulations: pharmacologic characteristics, clinical efficacy, and tolerability. Transpl Infect Dis 1999;1: 273-283
103. Bowden R, Chandrasekar P, White MH, et al. A double-blind, randomized, controlled trial of amphotericin B colloidal dispersion versus amphotericin B for treatment of IA in immunocompromised patients. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 35:359-366
104. Wingard JR, Kubilis P, Lee L, et al. Clinical significance of nephrotoxicity in patients treated with amphotericin B for suspected or proven aspergillosis. Clin Infect Dis 1999;29: 1402-1407
105. Leenders AC, Daenen S, Jansen RL, et al. Liposomal amphotericin B compared with amphotericin B deoxycholate in the treatment of documented and suspected neutropenia-associated invasive fungal infections. Br J Haematol 1998; 103:205-212
106. Linden PK, Coley K, Fontes P, et al. IA in liver transplant recipients: outcome comparison of therapy with amphotericin B lipid complex and a historical cohort treated with conventional amphotericin B. Clin Infect Dis 2003;37:17-25
107. Barrett JP, Vardulaki KA, Conlon C, et al. A systematic review of the antifungal effectiveness and tolerability of amphotericin B formulations. Clin Ther 2003;25:1295-1320
108. Wingard JR, White MH, Anaissie E, et al. A randomized, double-blind comparative trial evaluating the safety of liposomal amphotericin B versus amphotericin B lipid complex in the empirical treatment of febrile neutropenia. L Amph/ABLC Collaborative Study Group. Clin Infect Dis 2000;31:1155-1163
109. Johnson LB, Kauffman CA. Voriconazole: a new triazole antifungal agent. Clin Infect Dis 2003;36:630-637
110. Denning DW, Ribaud P, Milpied N, et al. Efficacy and safety of voriconazole in the treatment of acute IA. Clin Infect Dis 2002;34:563-571
111. Caillot D, Bassaris H, McGeer A, et al. Intravenous itraconazole followed by oral itraconazole in the treatment of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in patients with hematologic malignancies, chronic granulomatous disease, or AIDS. Clin Infect Dis 2001;33:e83-e90
112. Caillot D. Intravenous itraconazole followed by oral itraconazole for the treatment of amphotericin-B-refractory invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Acta Haematol 2003;109: 111-118
113. Denning DW, Lee JY, Hostetler JS, et al. NIAID Mycoses Study Group multicenter trial of oral itraconazole therapy for IA. Am J Med 1994;97:135-144
114. Dupont B. Itraconazole therapy in aspergillosis: study in 49 patients. J Am Acad Dermatol 1990;23:607-614
115. Maertens J, Raad I, Sable CA, et al. Multicenter, noncomparative study to evaluate safety and efficacy of caspofungin in adults with IA refractory or intolerant to amphotericin B, AMB lipid formulations, or azoles. American Society for Microbiology, Washington DC. Program and Abstracts of the 40th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Abstract J-1103, p. 371; 2000; Toronto, Canada
116. Salerno CT, Ouyang DW, Pederson TS, et al. Surgical therapy for pulmonary aspergillosis in immunocompromised patients. Ann Thorac Surg 1998;65:1415-1419