The safety of antihypertensives for treatment of pregnancy hypertension

Expert Opinion on Drug Safety

Volumn 3, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 25-38

  Magee, L A ^a,b   Adullah, S ^a  

^a CHILDREN S AND WOMEN S HEALTH CENTRE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Antihypertensive theraphy; Breastfeeding; Controlled trials; Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy; Maternal risk; Mild to moderate hypertension; Perinatal outcome; Randomised; Severe hypertension

Indexed keywords

ACEBUTOLOL; ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; AMILORIDE; ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT; ATENOLOL; CAPTOPRIL; CLONIDINE; DIAZOXIDE; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DIURETIC AGENT; ENALAPRIL; HYDRALAZINE; HYDROCHLOROTHIAZIDE; ISRADIPINE; KETANSERIN; LABETALOL; LOSARTAN; MAGNESIUM SULFATE; METHYLDOPA; NIFEDIPINE; NITROPRUSSIDE SODIUM; OXPRENOLOL; PHENOXYBENZAMINE; PHENTOLAMINE; PRAZOSIN; PROPRANOLOL; TRIAMTERENE; UNINDEXED DRUG; VERAPAMIL;

ADULT; BLOOD PRESSURE MONITORING; BRADYCARDIA; BREAST FEEDING; CLINICAL TRIAL; DEVICE; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG CLASSIFICATION; DRUG DOSE REGIMEN; DRUG EXCRETION; DRUG MILK LEVEL; DRUG SAFETY; FEMALE; FETOTOXICITY; FETUS; FETUS DEATH; FETUS DISEASE; FETUS DISTRESS; FETUS MALFORMATION; FETUS RISK; HUMAN; HYPOTENSION; INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RETARDATION; JOINT CONTRACTURE; KIDNEY FAILURE; LIVER DYSFUNCTION; LUNG EDEMA; LUNG HYPOPLASIA; MATERNAL CARE; MATERNAL HYPERTENSION; MENTAL DEFICIENCY; OLIGOHYDRAMNIOS; REVIEW; RISK BENEFIT ANALYSIS; SLEEP DISORDER; TERATOGENICITY; THROMBOCYTOPENIA; CLASSIFICATION; CONTROLLED CLINICAL TRIAL; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG EFFECT; FETOMATERNAL TRANSFUSION; HYPERTENSION; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY COMPLICATION; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL;

ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENTS; BREAST FEEDING; DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP, DRUG; FEMALE; FETUS; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION; MATERNAL-FETAL EXCHANGE; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY COMPLICATIONS, CARDIOVASCULAR; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALS;

EID: 2142704236     PISSN: 14740338     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1517/14740338.3.1.25     Document Type: Review

References (101)

1. NO AUTHORS LISTED: Report of the National High Blood Pressure Education Program Working Group on High Blood Pressure in Pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. (2000) 183(1):S1-S22.
2. BEN AMI M, GILADI Y, SHALEV E: The combination of magnesium sulphate and nifedipine: a cause of neuromuscular blockade. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. (1994) 101(3):262-263.
3. NO AUTHORS LISTED: Why mothers die 1997 - 1999. The confidential enquiries into maternal deaths in the UK. RCOG Press, London (2001).
4. MAGPIE TRIAL COLLABORATION GROUP: Do women with pre-eclampsia, and their babies, benefit from magnesium sulphate? The Magpie Trial: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet (2002) 359(9321):1877-1890.
5. REY E, COUTURIER A. The prognosis of pregnancy in women with chronic hypertension. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. (1994) 171(2):410-416.
6. HELEWA ME, BURROWS RF, SMITH J, WILLIAMS K, BRAIN P, RABKIN SW: Report of the Canadian Hypertension Society Consensus Conference: 1. Definitions, evaluation and classification of hypertensive disorders in pregnancy. CMAJ (1997) 157(6):715-725.
7. ROBERTS JM, REDMAN CW: Pre-eclampsia: more than pregnancy-induced hypertension. Lancet (1993) 341(8858):1447-1451.
8. PICKERING TG, JAMES GD, BODDIE C, HARSHFIELD GA, BLANK S, LARAGH JH: How common is white coat hypertension? JAMA (1988) 259(2):225-228.
9. BELLOMO G, NARDUCCI PL, RONDONI F et al.: Prognostic value of 24-hour blood pressure in pregnancy. JAMA (1999) 282(15):1447-1452.
10. HERMIDA RC, AYALA DE: Prognostic value of office and ambulatory blood pressure measurements in pregnancy. Hypertension (2002) 40(3):298-303.
11. PEEK M, SHENNAN A, HALLIGAN A, LAMBERT PC, TAYLOR DJ, DE SWIET M: Hypertension in pregnancy: which method of blood pressure measurement is most predictive of outcome? Obstet. Gynecol. (1996) 88(6):1030-1033.
12. PENNY JA, HALLIGAN AW, SHENNAN AH et al.: Automated, ambulatory, or conventional blood pressure measurement in pregnancy: which is the better predictor of severe hypertension? Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. (1998) 178(3):521-526.
13. APPEL LJ, STASON WB: Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring and blood pressure self-measurement in the diagnosis and management of hypertension. Ann. Intern. Med. (1993) 118(11):867-882.
14. MILLAR JA, ISLES CG, LEVER AF: Blood pressure, 'white-coat' pressor responses and cardiovascular risk in placebo-group patients of the MRC Mild Hypertension trial. J. Hypertens. (1995) 13(2):175-183.
15. PERLOFF D, SOKOLOW M, COWAN R: The prognostic value of ambulatory blood pressure monitoring in treated hypertensive patients. J. Hypertens. Suppl. (1991) 9(1):S33-S39.
16. VERDECCHIA P, PORCELLATI C, SCHILLACI G et al.: Ambulatory blood pressure. An independent predictor of prognosis in essential hypertension. Hypertension (1994) 24(6):793-801.
17. O'BRIEN E, PETRIE J, LITTLER W, DE SWIET M, PADFIELD PL, ALTMAN DG et al.: An outline of the revised British Hypertension Society protocol for the evaluation of blood pressure measuring devices. J. Hypertens. (1993) 11(6):677-679.
18. MENGDEN T, HERNANDEZ MEDINA RM, BELTRAN B, ALVAREZ E, KRAFT K, VETTER H: Reliability of reporting self-measured blood pressure values by hypertensive patients. Am. J. Hypertens. (1998) 11(12):1413-1417.
19. DENOLLE T, WEBER JL, CALVEZ C et al.: Blood pressure measured telemetrically in hypertensive pregnant women. J. Hypertens. (1999) 17(3):228.
20. DENOLLE T, WEBER JL, CALVEZ C, DANIEL JC, CHEVE MT, MARECHAUD M et al.: Home blood pressure measured telemetrically in hypertensive pregnant women. Am. J. Hypertens. (2001) 14(4):A42-A43.
21. THIJS L, STAESSEN JA, CELIS H et al.: Reference values for self-recorded blood pressure: a meta-analysis of summary data. Arch. Intern. Med. (1998) 158(5):481-488.
22. CARNEY S: 24-hour blood pressure monitoring: what are the benefits? Aust. Prescriber (1997) 20:18-20.
23. TAYLOR RS, FREEMAN L, NORTH RA: Evaluation of ambulatory and self-initiated blood pressure monitors by pregnant and postpartum women. Hypertens. Pregnancy (2001) 20(1):25-33.
24. GOLARA M, JONES C, RANDHAWA M, SHENNAN AH: Inflationary oscillometric blood pressure monitoring: validation of the OMRON-MIT. Blood Press. Monit. (2002) 7(6):325-328.
25. BROWN MA, HAGUE WM, HIGGINS J et al.: The detection, investigation and management of hypertension in pregnancy: executive summary. Aust. NZ. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. (2000) 40(2):133-138.
26. GALLERY ED, HUNYOR SN, GYORY AZ: Plasma volume contraction: a significant factor in both pregnancy-associated hypertension (pre-eclampsia) and chronic hypertension in pregnancy. Q. J. Med. (1979) 48(192):593-602.
27. MAGEE LA, ORNSTEIN MP, VON DADELSZEN P: Fortnightly review: management of hypertension in pregnancy. Br. Med. J. (1999) 318(7194):1332-1336.
28. CHAM C, VON DADELSZEN P, WATERMAN EJ, MAGEE LA: Is hydralazine the drug of choice for treatment of severe hypertension in pregnancy? A meta-analysis of clinical trials. Br. Med. J. (2003) In Press.
29. DULEY L, HENDERSON-SMART DJ: Drugs for rapid treatment of very high blood pressure during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. (2000) (2):CD001449.
30. NO AUTHORS LISTED: 1999 World Health Organization-International Society of Hypertension Guidelines for the Management of Hypertension. Guidelines Subcommittee. J. Hypertens. (1999) 17:151-183.
31. CHOBANIAN AV, BAKRIS GL, BLACK HR et al.; NATIONAL HEART, LUNG, AND BLOOD INSTITUTE JOINT NATIONAL COMMITTEE ON PREVENTION, DETECTION, EVALUATION, AND TREATMENT OF HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE; NATIONAL HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE EDUCATION PROGRAM COORDINATING COMMITTEE: The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 report. JAMA (2003) 289(19):2560-2572.
32. FELDMAN RD, CAMPBELL N, LAROCHELLE P et al.: 1999 Canadian recommendations for the management of hypertension. Task Force for the Development of the 1999 Canadian Recommendations for the Management of Hypertension. CMAJ(1999) 161(Suppl. 12):S1-S17.
33. RAMSAY LE, WILLIAMS B, JOHNSTON GD et al.: British Hypertension Society guidelines for hypertension management 1999: summary. Br. Med. J. (1999) 319(7210):630-635.
34. REY E, LELORIER J, BURGESS E, LANGE IR, LEDUC L: Report of the Canadian Hypertension Society Consensus Conference: 3. Pharmacologic treatment of hypertensive disorders in pregnancy. CMAJ (1997) 157(9):1245-1254.
35. ABALOS E, DULEY L, STEYN DW, HENDERSON-SMART DJ: Antihypertensive drug therapy for mild to moderate hypertension during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. (2001) (2):CD002252.
36. MAGEE LA, DULEY L: Oral β-blockers for mild to moderate hypertension during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. (2000) (4):CD002863.
37. VON DADELSZEN P, ORNSTEIN MP, BULL SB, LOGAN AG, KOREN G, MAGEE LA: Fall in mean arterial pressure and fetal growth restriction in pregnancy hypertension: a meta-analysis. Lancet (2000) 355(9198):87-92.
38. BLAKE S, MACDONALD D: The prevention of the maternal manifestations of pre-eclampsia by intensive antihypertensive treatment. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. (1991) 98(3):244-248.
39. BORTOLUS R, RICCI E, CHATENOUD L, PARAZZINI F: Nifedipine administered in pregnancy. effect on the development of children at 18 months. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. (2000) 107(6):792-794.
40. CATALANO D, ERCOLANO S, POLLIO F et al.: [Evaluation of nifedipine monotherapy in the management of pregnancy hypertension]. G. Ital. Ost. Gin. (1997) 6:373-375. Italian.
41. NO AUTHORS LISTED: Nifedipine versus expectant management in mild to moderate hypertension in pregnancy. Gruppo di Studio Ipertensione in Gravidanza. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. (1998) 105:718-722.
42. ODENDAAL HJ, SCHABORT I, PATTINSON RC: Prazosin for the treatment of hypertension in pregnancy. a randomized control trial. Oxford Database of Perinatal Trials (1991) Version 1.2 (Disk Issue 6).
43. VON DADELSZEN P, MAGEE LA: Fall in mean arterial pressure and fetal growth restriction in pregnancy hypertension: an updated metaregression analysis. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Can. (2002) 24:941-945.
44. CAETANO M, ORNSTEIN M, VON DADELSZEN P et al.: A survey of Canadian practitioners regarding the management of the hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. Hypertens. Pregnancy (2003) In Press.
45. CAETANO M, ORNSTEIN M, VON DADELSZEN P et al.: A survey of Canadian practitioners regarding the diagnosis and evaluation of the hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. Hypertens. Pregnancy (2003) In Press.
46. GARLAND M: Pharmacology of drug transfer across the placenta. Obstet. Gynecol. Clin. North Am. (1998) 25(1):21-42.
47. SASTRY BV: Techniques to study human placental transport. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. (1999) 38(1):17-39.
48. JONES HM, CUMMINGS AJ, SETCHELL KD, LAWSON AM: A study of the disposition of α-methyldopa in newborn infants following its administration to the mother for the treatment of hypertension during pregnancy. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. (1979) 8(5):433-440.
49. LUNELL NO, BONDESSON U, GRUNEWALD C, INGEMARSSON I, NISELL H, WIDE-SWENSSON D: Transplacental passage of isradipine in the treatment of pregnancy-induced hypertension. Am. J. Hypertens. (1993) 6(3 Pt 2):S110-S111.
50. BRENT RL: Addressing environmentally caused human birth defects. Pediatr. Rev. (2001) 22(5):153-165.
51. MISRA DP: The effect of the pregnancy-induced hypertension on fetal growth: a review of the literature. Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol. (1996) 10(3):244-263.
52. ESKENAZI B, FENSTER L, SIDNEY S, ELKIN EP: Fetal growth retardation in infants of multiparous and nulliparous women with preeclampsia. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. (1993) 169(5):1112-1118.
53. BROWN MA, BUDDLE, ML: Hypertension in pregnancy: maternal and fetal outcomes according to laboratory and clinical features. Med. J. Aust. (1996) 165(7):360-365.
54. KIM CR, VOHR BR, OH W: Effects of maternal hypertension in very-low-birth-weight infants. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. (1996) 150(7):686-691.
55. PAGE EW, CHRISTIANSON R: Influence of blood pressure changes with and without proteinuria upon outcome of pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. (1976) 126(7):821-833.
56. BUCHBINDER A, SIBAI BM, CARITIS S et al.: Adverse perinatal outcomes are significantly higher in severe gestational hypertension than in mild preeclampsia. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. (2002) 186:66-71.
57. ITO S, LEE A. Drug excretion into breast milk - overview. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. (2003) 55(5):617-627.
58. COCKBURN J, MOAR VA, OUNSTED M, REDMAN CW: Final report of study on hypertension during pregnancy: the effects of specific treatment on the growth and development of the children. Lancet (1982) 1(8273):647-649.
59. NO AUTHORS LISTED: American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Drugs: the transfer of drugs and other chemicals into human milk. Pediatrics (1994) 93:137-150.
60. LIP GY, CHURCHILL D, BEEVERS M, AUCKETT A, BEEVERS DG: Angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors in early pregnancy. Lancet (1997) 350(9089):1446-1447.
61. NO AUTHORS LISTED: Postmarketing surveillance for angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor use during the first trimester of pregnancy - United States, Canada, and Israel, 1987 - 1995. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep. (1997) 46(11):240-242.
62. BURROWS RF, BURROWS EA: Assessing the teratogenic potential of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors in pregnancy. Aust. NZ. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. (1998) 38(3):306-311.
63. BARR M JR, COHEN MM Jr: ACE inhibitor fetopathy and hypocalvaria: the kidney-skull connection. Teratology (1991) 44(5):485-495.
64. BRENT RL, BECKMAN DA: Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, an embryopathic class of drugs with unique properties: information for clinical teratology counselors. Teratology (1991) 43(6):543-546.
65. PRYDE PG, SEDMAN AB, NUGENT CE, BARR M Jr: Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor fetopathy. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. (1993) 3(9):1575-1582.
66. SHOTAN A, WIDERHORN J, HURST A, ELKAYAM U: Risks of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition during pregnancy: experimental and clinical evidence, potential mechanisms, and recommendations for use. Am. J. Med. (1994) 96(5):451-456.
67. SAJI H, YAMANAKA M, HAGIWARA A, IJIRI R: Losartan and fetal toxic effects. Lancet (2001) 357(9253):363.
68. STEVENSON KM, GIBSON KJ, LUMBERS ER: Effects of losartan on the cardiovascular system, renal haemodynamics and function and lung liquid flow in fetal sheep. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. (1996) 23(2):125-133.
69. SAJI H, YAMANAKA M, HAGIWARA A. IJIRI R: Losartan and fetal toxic effects. Lancet (2001) 357(9253):363.
70. HORVATH JS, PHIPPARD A, KORDA A, HENDERSON-SMART DJ, CHILD A, TILLER DJ: Clonidine hydrochloride - a safe and effective antihypertensive agent in pregnancy. Obstet. Gynecol. (1985) 66(5):634-638.
71. ORNSTEIN MP, VON DADELSZEN P, MAGEE LA: Clinical trials in pregnancy hypertension. In: Handbook of Hypertension; Pregnancy Hypertension. Rubin PC (Ed.), Elsevier Science Publishers BV, Amsterdam (2000) 221-256.
72. MAGEE LA, BULL SB, KOREN G, LOGAN A: The generalizability of trial data; a comparison of β-blocker trial participants with a prospective cohort of women taking β-blockers in pregnancy. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. (2001) 94(2):205-210.
73. BUTTERS L, KENNEDY S, RUBIN PC: Atenolol in essential hypertension during pregnancy. Br. Med. J. (1990) 301(6752):587-589.
74. LIP GY, BEEVERS M, CHURCHILL D, SHAFFER LM, BEEVERS DG: Effect of atenolol on birth weight. Am. J. Cardiol. (1997) 79(10):1436-1438.
75. LYDAKIS C, LIP GY, BEEVERS M, BEEVERS DG: Atenolol and fetal growth in pregnancies complicated by hypertension. Am. J. Hypertens. (1999) 12(6):541-547.
76. EASTERLING TR, BRATENG D, SCHMUCKER B, BROWN Z, MILLARD SP: Prevention of preeclampsia: a randomized triad of atenolol in hyperdynamic patients before onset of hypertension. Obstet. Gynecol. (1999) 93(5 Pt 1):725-733.
77. BAYLISS H, CHURCHILL D, BEEVERS M, BEEVERS DG: Anti-hypertensive drugs in pregnancy and fetal growth: evidence for 'pharmacological programming' in the first trimester? Hypertens. Pregnancy (2002) 21(2):161-174.
78. HURST JA, HOULSTON RS, ROBERTS A, GOULD SJ, TTNGEY WG: Transverse limb deficiency, facial clefting and hypoxic renal damage - an association with treatment of maternal hypertension. Clin. Dysmorphol. (1995) 4(4):359-363.
79. MANNELLI M, BEMPORAD D: Diagnosis and management of pheochromocytoma during pregnancy. J. Endocrinol. Invest. (2002) 25(6):567-571.
80. BROWN MA, MCCOWAN LM, NORTH RA, WALTERS BN: Withdrawal of nifedipine capsules: jeopardizing the treatment of acute severe hypertension in pregnancy? Australasian Society for the Study of Hypertension in Pregnancy. Med. J. Aust. (1997) 166(12):640-643.
81. MAGEE LA, SCHICK B, DONNENFELD AE et al.: The safety of calcium channel blockers in human pregnancy: a prospective, multicenter cohort study. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. (1996) 174(3):823-828.
82. IMPEY L: Severe hypotension and fetal distress following sublingual administration of nifedipine to a patient with severe pregnancy induced hypertension at 33 weeks. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. (1993) 100(10):959-961.
83. WAISMAN GD, MAYORGA LM, CAMERA MI, VIGNOLO CA, MARTINOTTI A: Magnesium plus nifedipine: potentiation of hypotensive effect in preeclampsia? Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. (1988) 159(2):308-309.
84. SNYDER SW, CARDWELL MS: Neuromuscular blockade with magnesium-sulfate and nifedipine. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. (1989) 161(1):35-36.
85. BROWN MA, BUDDLE ML, FARRELL T, DAVIS GK: Efficacy and safety of nifedipine tablets for the acute treatment of severe hypertension in pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. (2002) 187(4):1046-1050.
86. YEMINI M, SHOHAM Z, DGANI R et al.: Lupus-like syndrome in a mother and newborn following administration of hydralazine: a case report. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. (1989) 30:193-197.
87. STEMPEL JE, O'GRADY JP, MORTON MJ, JOHNSON KA: Use of sodium nitroprusside in complications of gestational hypertension. Obstet. Gynecol. (1982) 60(4):533-538.
88. PSATY BM, SMITH NL, SISCOVICK DS et al.: Health outcomes associated with antihypertensive therapies used as first-line agents. A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA (1997) 277(9):739-745.
89. COLLINS R, YUSUF S, PETO R: Overview of randomised trials of diuretics in pregnancy. Br. Med. J. (1985) 290:17-23.
90. BEARDMORE KS, MORRIS JM, GALLERY EDM: Excretion of antihypertensive medication into human breast milk: a systematic review. Hypertens. Pregnancy (2002) 21(1):85-95.
91. SCHIMMEL MS, EIDELMAN AI, WILSCHANSKI MA et al.: Toxic effects of atenolol consumed during breast feeding. J. Pediatr. (1989) 114(3):476-478.
92. BOUTROY MJ, BIANCHETTI G, DUBRUC C, VERT P. MORSELLI PL: To nurse when receiving acebutolol: is it dangerous for the neonate? Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. (1986) 30(6):737-739.
93. LUNELL NO, KULAS J, RANE A: Transfer of labetalol into amniotic fluid and breast milk in lactating women. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. (1985) 28:597-599.
94. PENNY WJ, LEWIS MJ: Nifedipine is excreted in human milk. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. (1989) 36:427-428.
95. LUNELL NO, BONDESSON U, GRUNEWALD C, INGEMARSSON I, NISELL H, WIDE-SWENSSON D: Transplacental passage of isradipine in the treatment of pregnancy-induced hypertension. Am. J. Hypertens. (1993) 6(3 Pt 2):S110-S111.
96. WHITE WB: Management of hypertension during lactation. Hypertension (1984) 6(3):297-300.
97. MOUTQUIN JM, GARNER PR, BURROWS RF et al.: Report of the Canadian Hypertension Society Consensus Conference: 2. Nonpharmacologic management and prevention of hypertensive disorders in pregnancy. CMAJ (1997) 157(7):907-919.
98. GREER IA: Thrombosis in pregnancy: maternal and fetal issues. Lancet (1999) 353(9160):1258-1265.
99. DULEY L, HENDERSON-SMART D, KNIGHT M, KING J: Antiplatelet drugs for prevention of pre-eclampsia and its consequences: systematic review. Br. Med. J. (2001) 322(7282):329-333.
100. CHAPPELL LC, SEED PT, BRILEY AL et al.: Effect of antioxidants on the occurrence of pre-eclampsia in women at increased risk: a randomised trial. Lancet (1999) 354:810-816.
101. DULEY L, MAHOMED K: Magnesium sulphate in eclampsia. Lancet (1998) 351(9108):1061-1062.