Resistance training: Cortical, spinal, and motor unit adaptations

Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology

Volumn 30, Issue 3, 2005, Pages 328-340

  Griffin, Lisa ^a   Cafarelli, Enzo ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN   (United States)

^b YORK UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

Cortical excitability; H reflex; Maximal voluntary contraction; Neural adaptation; Strength training

Indexed keywords

BRAIN CORTEX; CONFERENCE PAPER; CONTROLLED STUDY; ELECTROMYOGRAPHY; EXERCISE; HUMAN; MOTOR UNIT; MUSCLE HYPERTROPHY; MUSCLE ISOMETRIC CONTRACTION; MUSCLE STRENGTH; SPINAL CORD; TRAINING;

EID: 21144436161     PISSN: 10667814     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1139/h05-125     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (64)

1. Aagaard, P., Simonsen, E.B., Andersen, J.L., Magnusson, P., and DyhrePoulsen, P. (2002). Increased rate of force development and neural drive of human skeletal muscle following resistance training. J. Appl. Physiol. 93: 1318-1326.
2. Akima, H., Takahashi, H., Kuno, S.Y., Masuda, K., Masuda, T., Shimojo, H., Anno, I., Itai, Y., and Katsuta, S. (1999). Early phase adaptations of muscle use and strength to isokinetic training. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 31: 588-594.
3. Bawa, P., and Calancie, B. (1983). Repetitive doublets in human flexor carpi radialis muscle. J. Physiol. 339: 123-132.
4. Belanger, A.Y., and McComas, A.J. (1981). Extent of motor unit activation during effort. J. Appl. Physiol. 51: 1131-1135.
5. Cannon, R.J., and Cafarelli, E. (1987). Neuromuscular adaptations to training. J. Appl. Physiol. 63: 2396-2402.
6. Carolan, B., and Cafarelli, E. (1992). Adaptations in coactivation after isometric resistance training. J. Appl. Physiol. 73: 911-917.
7. Carroll, T.J., Riek, S., and Carson, R.G. (2002). The sites of adaptation induced by resistance training in humans. J. Physiol. 544: 641-652.
8. Casabona, A., Polizzi, M.C., and Perciavalle, V. (1990). Differences between athletes trained for explosive contractions and non-trained subjects. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 61: 26-32.
9. Chesley, A., MacDougall, J.D., Tarnopolsky, M.A., Atkinson, S.A., and Smith, K. (1992). Changes in human muscle protein synthesis after resistance exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 73: 1383-1388.
10. Conley, M.S., Stone, M.H., Nimmons, M., and Dudley, G.A. (1997). Specificity of resistance training responses in neck muscle size and strength. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 75: 443-448.
11. De Lorme, T.L., and Watkins, A.L. (1951). Progressive Resistance Exercise. New York: Appleton Century.
12. Denslow, J.S. (1948). Double discharges in human motor units. J. Neurophysiol. 11: 209-215.
13. Dowling, J.J., Konert, E., Ljucovic, P., and Andrews, D.M. (1994). Are humans able to voluntarily elicit maximum muscle force? Neurosci. Lett. 179: 25-28.
14. Duchateau, J., and Hainut, K. (1984). Isometric or dynamic training differential effects on mechanical properties of a human muscle. J. Appl. Physiol. 56: 296-301.
15. Duchateau, J., and Hainaut, K. (1986). Nonlinear summation of contractions in striated muscle. II. Potentiation of intracellular calcium movements in single barnacle muscle fibres. J. Muscle Res. Cell Motil. 7: 18-24.
16. Farina, D., Zennaro, D., Pozzo, M., Merletti, R., and Laubli, T. (in press). Single motor unit and spectral surface EMG analysis during low-force, sustained contractions of the upper trapezius muscle. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol.
17. Garfinkel, S., and Cafarelli, E. (1992). Relative changes in maximal force, EMG, and muscle cross-sectional area after isometric training. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 24: 1220-1227.
18. Garland, S.J., and Griffin, L. (1999). Motor unit double discharges: Statistical anomaly or functional entity? Can. J. Appl. Physiol. 24: 113-130.
19. Griffin, L., and Cafarelli, E. (2003). Neural excitability following resistance training studied with transcranial magnetic stimulation. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 35(5): S293.
20. Griffin, L., Garland, S.J., and Ivanova, T. (1998). Discharge patterns in human motor units during fatiguing arm movements. J. Appl. Physiol. 85: 1684-1692.
21. Hakkinen, K., Alen, M., Kallinen, M., Newton, R.U., and Kraemer, W.J. (2000). Neuromuscular adaptation during prolonged strength training, detraining and re-strength-training in middle aged and elderly people. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 83: 51-62.
22. Hakkinen, K., Alen, M., and Komi, P.V. (1985a). Changes in isometric force- and relaxation-time, electromyographic and muscle fibre characteristics of human skeletal muscle during strength training and detraining. Acta Physiol. Scand. 125: 573-585.
23. Hakkinen, K., and Kallinen, M. (1994). Distribution of strength training volume into one or two daily sessions and neuromuscular adaptations in female athletes. Electromyogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 34: 117-124.
24. Hakkinen, K., Kallinen, M., Izquierdo, M., Jokelainen, K., Lassila, H., Malkia, E., Kraemer, W.J., Newton, R.U., and Alen, M. (1998). Changes in agonist-antagonist EMG, muscle CSA, and force during strength training in middle-aged and older people. J. Appl. Physiol. 84: 1341-1349.
25. Hakkinen, K., and Komi, P.V. (1983). Electromyographic changes during strength training and detraining. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 15: 455-460.
26. Hakkinen, K., and Komi, P.V. (1986). Training-induced changes in neuromuscular performance under voluntary and reflex conditions. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 55: 147-155.
27. Hakkinen, K., Komi, P.V., and Alen, M. (1985b). Effect of explosive type strength training on isometric force- and relaxation-time, electromyographic and muscle fibre characteristics of leg extensor muscles. Acta Physiol. Scand. 125: 587-600.
28. Hakkinen, K., Pakarinen, A., and Kallinen, M. (1992). Neuromuscular adaptations and serum hormones in women during short-term intensive strength training. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 64: 106-111.
29. Herbert, R.D., Dean, C., and Gandevia, S.C. (1998). Effects of real and imagined training on voluntary muscle activation during maximal isometric contractions. Acta Physiol. Scand. 163: 361-368.
30. Hicks A.L., Cupido, C.M., Martin, J., and Dent, J. (1992). Muscle excitation in elderly adults: The effects of training. Muscle Nerve 15: 87-93.
31. Hortobagyi, T., Lambert, N.J., and Hill, J.P. (1997). Greater cross education following training with muscle lengthening than shortening. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 29: 107-112.
32. Housh, D.A., Housh, T.J., Johnson, G.O., and Chu, W. (1992). Hypertorphic response to unilateral concentric isokinetic resistance training. J. Appl. Physiol. 73: 65-70.
33. Huber, A., Suter, E., and Herzog, W. (1998). Inhibition of the quadriceps muscles in elite male volleyball players. J. Sports Sci. 16: 281-289.
34. Ishida, K., Moritani, T., and Itoh, K. (1990). Changes in voluntary and electrically induced contractions during strength training and detraining. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 60: 244-248.
35. Keen, D.A., Yue, G.H., and Enoka, R.M. (1994). Training-related enhancement in the control of motor output in elderly humans. J. Appl. Physiol. 77: 2648-2658.
36. Knight, C.A., and Kamen, G. (2001). Adaptations in muscular activation of the knee extensor muscles with strength training in young and older adults. J. Electromyogr. Kinesiol. 11: 405-412.
37. Komi, P.V., and Buskirk, E.R. (1972). Effect of eccentric and concentric muscle conditioning on tension and electrical activity of human muscle. Ergonomics 15: 417-434.
38. Komi, P.V., Viitasalo, J.T., Rauramaa, R., and Vihko, V. (1978). Effect of isometric strength training of mechanical, electrical, and metabolic aspects of muscle function. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 40: 45-55.
39. Krotkiewski, M., Aniansson, A., Grimby, G., Bjorntorp, P., and Sjostrom, L. (1979). The effect of unilateral isokinetic strength training on local adipose and muscle tissue morphology, thickness, and enzymes. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 42: 271-281.
40. Liepert, J., Tegenthoff, M., and Malin, J.P. (1995). Changes of cortical motor area size during immobilization. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 97: 382-386.
41. MacDougall, J.D., Tarnopolsky, M.A., Chesley, A., and Atkinson, S.A. (1992). Changes in muscle protein synthesis following heavy resistance exercise in humans: A pilot study. Acta Physiol. Scand. 146: 403-404.
42. Maffiuletti, N.A., Martin, A., Babault, N., Pensini, M., Lucas, B., and Schieppati, M. (2001). Electrical and mechanical Hmax-to-Mmax ratio in power- and endurance-trained athletes. J. Appl. Physiol. 90: 3-9.
43. Moritani, T., and DeVries, H. (1979). Neural factors versus hypertrophy in the time course of muscle strength gain. Am. J. Phys. Med. 58: 115-130.
44. Narici, M.V., Hoppeler, H., Kayser, B., Landoni, L., Claassen, H., Gavardi, C., Conti, M., and Cerretelli, P. (1996). Human quadriceps cross-sectional area, torque and neural activation during 6 months strength training. Acta Physiol. Scand. 157: 175-186.
45. Narici, M.V., Roi, G.S., Landoni, L., Minetti, A.E., and Cerretelli, P. (1989). Changes in force, cross-sectional area and neural activation during strength training and detraining of the human quadriceps. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 59: 310-319.
46. Nielsen, J., Crone, C., and Hultborn, H. (1993). H-reflexes are smaller in dancers from the Royal Danish Ballet than in well-trained athletes. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 66: 116-121.
47. Pensini, M., Martin, A., and Maffiuletti, N.A. (2002). Central versus peripheral adaptations following eccentric resistance training. Int. J. Sports Med. 23: 567-574.
48. Phillips, S.M. (2000). Short-term training: When do repeated bouts of resistance exercise become training? Can. J. Appl. Physiol. 25: 185-193.
49. Pucci, A., and Cafarelli, C. (1998). Force and neural activation during three weeks of isometric resistance training. FASEB J. 12(Part II): A1039.
50. Rabita, G., Perot, C., and Lensel-Corbeil, G. (2000). Differential effect of knee extension isometric training on the different muscles of the quadriceps femoris in humans. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 83: 531-538.
51. Rich, C., and Cafarelli, E. (2000). Submaximal motor unit firing rates after 8 wk of isometric resistance training. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 32: 190-196.
52. Rochconger, P., Dassonville, J., and Le Bars, R. (1979). Modification of the Hoffmann reflex in function of athletic training. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 40: 165-170.
53. Sale, D.G., MacDougall, J.D., Upton, A.R.M., and McComas, A.J. (1983). Effect of training upon motoneuron excitability in man. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 15: 57-62.
54. Sanes, J.N., and Donoghue, J.P. (2000). Plasticity and primary motor cortex. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 23: 393-415.
55. Semmler, J.G., and Nordstrom, M.A. (1998). Motor unit discharge and force tremor in skill and strength training individuals. Exp. Brain Res. 119: 27-38.
56. Simpson, J.A. (1969). Terminology of electromyography. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol. 26: 224-226.
57. Stein, R.B., and Parmiggiani, F. (1981). Nonlinear summation of contractions in cat muscles. I. Early depression. J. Gen. Physiol. 78: 277-293.
58. Trappe, S., Gallagher, P., Harber, M., Carrithers, J., Fluckey, J., and Trappe, T. (2003). Single muscle fibre contractile properties in young and old men and women. J. Physiol. 552: 47-58.
59. Van Cutsem, M.V., Duchateau, J., and Hainut, K. (1998). Changes in single motor unit behaviour contribute to the increase in contraction speed after dynamic training in humans. J. Physiol. 513: 295-305.
60. Weir, J.P., Housh, T.J., and Weir, L.L. (1994). Electromyographic evaluation of joint angle specificity and cross training after isometric training. J. Appl. Physiol. 77: 197-201.
61. Weir, J.P., Housh, T.J., Weir, L.L., and Johnson, G.O. (1995). Effects of unilateral isometric strength training on joint angle specificity and cross-training. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 70: 337-343.
62. Yue, G., and Cole, K.J. (1992). Strength increases from the motor program: Comparison of training with maximal voluntary and imagined contractions. J. Neurophysiol. 67: 1114-1123.
63. Young, W.B., and Bilby, G.E. (1993). The effect of voluntary effort to influence speed of contraction on strength, muscular power, and hypertrophy development. J. Strength Cond. Res. 7: 172-178.
64. Zhou, S. (2000). Chronic neural adaptations to unilateral exercise: Mechanisms of cross education. Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev. 28: 177-184.