Artificial drainage of peatlands: Hydrological and hydrochemical process and wetland restoration

Progress in Physical Geography

Volumn 28, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 95-123

  Holden, J ^a   Chapman, P J ^a   Labadz, J C ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS   (United Kingdom)

^b NOTTINGHAM TRENT UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Afforestation; Blanket peat; Drainage; Moorland gripping; Peat; Water table; Wetland restoration

Indexed keywords

AFFORESTATION; DRAINAGE; ENVIRONMENTAL RESTORATION; HYDROLOGICAL CHANGE; PEATLAND; WATER TABLE; WETLAND;

EID: 1842815947     PISSN: 03091333     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1191/0309133304pp403ra     Document Type: Article

References (151)

1. Adamson, J.K., Scott, W.A. and Rowland, A.P. 1998: The dynamics of dissolved nitrogen in a blanket peat dominated catchment. Environmental Pollution 99, 69-77.
2. Adamson, J.K., Scott, W.A., Rowland, A.P. and Beard, G.R. 2000: Ionic concentrations in a blanket peat bog in northern England and correlations with deposition and climatic variables. European Journal of Soil Science 51, 1-15.
3. Ahti, E. 1980: Ditch spacing experiments in estimating the effects of peatland drainage on summer runoff. International Association of Hydrological Sciences Publication 130, Wallingford: IAHS, 49-53.
4. Anderson, A.R, Pyatt, D.G. and White, I.M.S. 1995: Impacts of conifer plantations on blanket bogs and prospects of restoration. In Wheeler, B.D., Shaw, S.C., Fojt, W. and Robertson, R.A., editors, The restoration of temperate wetlands. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, 533-48.
5. Anderson, A.R., Ray, D. and Pyatt, D.G. 2000: Physical and hydrological impacts of blanket peat afforestation at Bad a Cheo, Caithness: the first 5 years. Forestry 73, 467-78.
6. Astrom, M., Aaltonen, E.K. and Koivusaari, J. 2001: Impact of ditching in a small forested catchment on concentrations of suspended material, organic carbon, hydrogen ions and metals in stream water. Aquatic Geochemistry 7, 57-73.
7. Baden, W. and Eggelsmann, R. 1970: Hydrological budget of high bogs in the Atlantic region. Proceedings of the 3rd international peat congress 1968, Quebec. Ottawa: Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, 260-311.
8. Bailey-Denton, J. 1862: On the discharge from under-drainage and its effect on the arterial channels and outfalls of the country. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers 21, 48-130.
9. Baird, A.J. 1997: Field estimation of macropore functioning and surface hydraulic conductivity in a fen peat. Hydrological Processes 11, 287-95.
10. Baldock, D. 1984: Wetland drainage in Europe. Nottingham: International Institute for Environment and Development.
11. Bay, R.R. 1969: Runoff from small peatland watersheds. Journal of Hydrology 9, 90-102.
12. Boelter, D.H. 1972: Water table drawdown around an open ditch in organic soils. Journal of Hydrology 15, 329-40.
13. Bowler, D.G. 1980: The drainage of wet soils. London: Hodder and Stoughton.
14. Bragg, O.M. and Tallis, J.H. 2001: The sensitivity of peat-covered upland landscapes. Catena 42, 345-60.
15. Burke, W. 1967: Principles of drainage with special reference to peat. Irish Forestry 24, 1-7.
16. Burke, W. 1975a: Aspects of the hydrology of blanket peat in Ireland. Hydrology of marsh-ridden areas. Proceedings of the Minsk symposium, June 1972. IAHS Studies and Reports in Hydrology, 19. Paris: Unesco Press, 171-82.
17. Burke, W. 1975b: Effect of drainage on the hydrology of blanket-bog. Irish Journal of Agricultural Research 14, 145-62.
18. Burt, T.P. 1994: Long-term study of the natural environment: perceptive science or mindless monitoring? Progress in Physical Geography 18, 475-96.
19. Burt, T.P. 1995: The role of wetlands in runoff generation from headwater catchments. In Hughes, J.M.R. and Heathwaite, A.L., editors, Hydrology and hydrochemistry of British Wetlands. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, 21-38.
20. Burt, T.P., Donohue, M.A. and Vann, A.R. 1983: The effect of forestry drainage operations on upland sediment yields: the results of a storm-based study. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 8, 339-46.
21. Burt, T.P., Heathwaite, A.L. and Labadz, J.C. 1990: Runoff production in peat covered catchments. In Anderson, M.G. and Burt, T.P., editors, Process studies in hillslope hydrology. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, 463-500.
22. Burt, T.P., Labadz, J.C. and Butcher, D.P. 1997: The hydrology and fluvial geomorphology of blanket peat: implications for integrated catchment management. In Tallis, J.H., Meade, R. and Hulme, P.D., editors, Blanket mire degradation. Aberdeen: British Ecological Society, 121-27.
23. Cannel, M.G.R., Dewar, R.C. and Pyatt, D.G. 1993: Conifer plantations on drained peatlands in Briatin: a net gain or loss of carbon? Forestry 66, 353-69.
24. Carling, P.A., Irvine, B.J., Hill, A. and Wood, M. 2001: Reducing sediment inputs to Scottish streams: a review of the efficiency of soil conservation practices in upland forestry. Science of the Total Environment 265, 209-27.
25. Carpenter, S.R. and Lathrop, R.C. 1999: Lake restoration: capabilities and needs. Hydrobiologia 395/396, 19-28.
26. Chapman, P.J., Edwards, A.C., Reynolds, B. and Neal, C. 1999: The nitrogen composition of streams draining grassland and forested catchments: Influence of afforestation on the nitrogen cycle in upland ecosystems. In Heathwaite, A.L., editor, Impact of land-use change on nutrient loads from diffuse sources. Wallingford: IAHS publication 257, 17-26.
27. Charman, D. 2002: Peatlands and environmental change. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons.
28. Clausen, J.C. 1980: The quality of runoff from natural and disturbed Minnesota peatlands. The role of peatlands in a world of limited resources, energy food fibre and natural areas. Proceedings 6th international peat congress, Duluth, Minnesota, 1980. International Peat Society, 523-32.
29. Clymo, R.S. 1983: Peat. In Gore, A.J.P., editor, Ecosystems of the world 4A. Mires: swamps, bog, fen and moor. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 159-224.
30. Cole, G. 1976: Land drainage in England and Wales. Journal of the Institute of Water Engineers 30, 345-67.
31. Common, R. 1970: Land drainage and water use in Ireland. In Stephens, N. and Glasscock, R.E., editors, Irish geographical studies in honour of E. Estyn Evans. Belfast: Queens University Belfast, 342-59.
32. Conway, V.M. and Millar, A. 1960: The hydrology of some small peat-covered catchments in the northern Pennines. Journal of the Institute of Water Engineers 14, 415-24.
33. Cooper, A., Murray, R. and McCann, T. 1991: The environmental effects of blanket peat exploitation. Coleraine: University of Ulster.
34. Croft, A.R. and Hoover, M.P. 1951: The relation of forestry to our water supply. Journal of Forestry 49, 245-49.
35. Darby, H.C. 1956: The draining of the fens. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
36. David, J.S. and Ledger, D.C. 1988: Runoff generation in a plough-drained peat bog in southern Scotland. Journal of Hydrology 99, 187-99.
37. De Mars, H., Wassen, M.J. and Peeters, W. 1996: The effect of drainage and management on peat chemistry and nutrient deficiency in the former Jegrznia-floodplain (NE-Poland). Chemical and physical dynamics of fen hydrology. Nederlandse Geografische Studies 203, 51-68.
38. Department of Transport and the Regions 1999: Pentland issues: Report of the working group on peat extraction and related matters. London: DETR.
39. Domish, T., Finer, L., Karsisto, M., Laiho, R. and Laine, J. 1998: Relocation of carbon from decaying litter in drained peat soils. Soil Biology and biochemistry 30, 1529-36.
40. Dykes, A.P. and Kirk, K.J. 2001: Initiation of a multiple peat slide on Cuilcagh Mountain, Northern Ireland. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 26, 395-408.
41. Edwards, A., Martin, D. and Mitchell, G., editors 1987: Colour in upland waters. Proceedings of Yorkshire Water/Water Research Centre Workshop, Leeds, 29 September 1987.
42. Egglesmann, R. 1975: Physical effects of drainage in peat soils of the temperate zone and their forecasting. International Association of Hydrological Sciences Publication No. 105, Wallingford: IAHS, 69-77.
43. Egglesmann, R. 1988: Rewetting for protection and renaturation/regeneration of peatland after or without peat winning. In Proceedings of the 8th international peat congress, Leningrad 3, 251-60.
44. Egglesmann, R., Heathwaite, A.L., Gross-Braukmann, G., Kuster, E., Naucke, W., Schich, M. and Schweikle, V. 1993: Physical processes and properties of mires. In Heathwaite, A.L. and Gottlich, Kh, editors, Mires, process, exploration and conservation. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, 171-262.
45. Evans, M.G., Burt, T.P., Holden, J. and Adamson, J.K. 1999: Runoff generation and water table fluctuations in blanket peat: evidence from UK data spanning the dry summer of 1995. Journal of Hydrology 221, 141-60.
46. Finn, S., Mulqueen, J., Collins, J.F., Ryan, T.D. and Finnerty, P. 1984: Stratigraphy and hydrology of a cutover raised big in County Mayo. In Proceedings of the 7th international peat congress, Dublin, 1984. International Peat Society, 1, 148-67.
47. Fisher, A.S., Podniesinski, G.S. and Leopold, D.J. 1996: Effects of drainage ditches on vegetation patterns in abandoned agricultural peatlands in central New York. Wetlands 16, 397-409.
48. Forestry Commission 1988: Forest and water guidelines. 1st edition (2nd edition 1991, 3rd edition 1993). London: HMSO.
49. Freeman, C., Lock, M.A. and Reynolds, B. 1993: Impacts of climate change on peatland hydrochemistry: a laboratory-based experiment. Chemistry and Ecology 8, 49-59.
50. Gardiner, A.T. 1983: Runoff and erosional processes in a peat-moorland catchment. MPhil Thesis, Huddersfield Polytechnic, unpublished.
51. Gorham, E. 1991: Northern peatlands: role in the carbon cycle and probable response to global warming. Ecological Applications 1, 182-95.
52. Green, F.H.W. 1973: Aspects of the changing environment: some factors affecting the aquatic environment in recent years. Journal of Environmental Management 1, 377-91.
53. Green, F.H.W. 1974: Changes in artificial drainage, fertilisers and climate in Scotland. Journal of Environmental Management 2, 107-21.
54. Guertin, D.P., Barten, P.K. and Brooks, K.N. 1987: The peatland hydrologic impact model: development and testing. Nordic Hydrology 18, 79-100.
55. Gunn, J. and Walker, C. 2000: Peat cutting and bog restoration. In Gunn, J., editor, The geomorphology of Culcagh Mountain, Ireland: a field guide for the British Geomorphological Research Group spring field meeting, May 2000. Huddersfield: Limestone Research Group, University of Huddersfield, 15-25.
56. Heathwaite, A.L. 1987: Chemical transformations in a drained fen peat. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Bristol, unpublished.
57. Heikurainen, L. 1968: Results of draining peatland for forestry in Finland. In Robertson, R.A., editor, Transactions of the 2nd international peat congress, Leningrad, USSR, 1963. London: HMSO, 773-80.
58. Helikurainen, L., Kenttamies, K. and Laine, J. 1978: The environmental effects of forest drainage. Suo 29, 49-58.
59. Higgs, G. 1987: Environmental change and hydrological response: flooding in the Upper Severn catchment. In Gregory, K.J., Lewin, J. and Thornes, J.B., editors, Palaeohydrology in practice. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, 131-59.
60. Hill Farming Research Organisation 1964: Third report, 1961-1964.
61. Hobbs, N.B. 1986: Mire morphology and the properties and behaviour of some British and foreign peats. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology 19, 7-80.
62. Holden, J. and Burt, T.F. 2002a: Piping and pipeflow in a deep peat catchment. Catena 48, 163-99.
63. Holden, J. and Burt, T.F. 2002b: Infiltration, runoff and sediment production in blanket peat covered catchments: Implications of rainfall simulation experiments: Hydrological Processes 16, 2537-57.
64. Holden, J. and Burt, T.F. 2002c: Laboratory experiments on drought and runoff in blanket peat. European Journal of Soil Science 53, 675-89.
65. Holden, J. and Burt, T.F. 2003a: Hydrological studies on blanket peat: the significance of the acrotelan-catotelan model. Journal of Ecology 91, 86-102.
66. Holden, J. and Burt, T.F. 2003b: Hydraulic conductivity in upland blanket peat: measurement and variability. Hydrological Processes 17, 1227-1237.
67. Holden, J., Burt, T.P. and Cox, N.J. 2001: Macroporosity and infiltration in blanket peat: the implications of tension disc infiltrometer measurements. Hydrological Processes 15, 289-303.
68. Holden, J., Burt, T.P. and Vilas, M. 2002: Application of ground penetrating radar to the identification of subsurface piping in blanket peat. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 27, 235-49.
69. Hoover, M.P. 1944: Effect of removal of forest vegetation upon water yields. Transactions, American Geophysical Union 6, 969-77.
70. Howe, G.M. and Rodda, J.C. 1960: An investigation of the hydrological cycle in the catchment area of the river Ystwyth during 1958. Water and Water Engineering 767, 10-16.
71. Howe, G.M., Slaymaker, H.O. and Harding, D.M. 1967: Some aspects of the flood hydrology of the upper catchments of the Severn and Wye. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 41, 33-58.
72. Hudson, J.A. and Roberts, G. 1982: The effect of a tile drain on the soil moisture content of peat. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 27, 495-500.
73. Huikari, O. 1968: Effect of distance between drains on the water economy and surface runoff of Sphagnum bogs. In Robertson, R.A., editor, Transactions of the second international peat congress, Leningrad, USSR, 1963. London: HMSO, 739-42.
74. Humphrey, W.D. and Pluth, D.J. 1996: Net nitrogen mineralization in natural and drained fen peatlands in Alberta, Canada. Soil Science Society of America 60, 932-40.
75. Hursh, C.R. 1951: Research in forest streamflow relations. UNASYLVA 5, 2-9.
76. Immirzi, C.P., Maltby, E. and Clymo, R.S. 1992: The global status of peatlands and their role in carbon cycling. A report for Friends of the Earth. London: Friends of the Earth, 1-145.
77. Ingram, H.A.P. 1982: Size and shape in raised mire ecosystems: a geophysical model. Nature 297, 300-303.
78. Institute of Hydrology 1972: Peat hydrology. Institute of Hydrology Report Number 16. Wallingford: Institute of Hydrology.
79. Institution of Civil Engineers 1993: Land drainage and flood defence responsibilities: a practical guide. London: Thomas Telford.
80. Ivanov, K. E. 1981: Water movement in mirelands. New York: Academic Press.
81. Johnson, G.A.L. and Dunham, K.C. 1963: The geology of Moorhouse: a national nature reserve in north-east Westmoorland, London: HMSO.
82. Joint Nature Conservation Committee 1994: Guidelines for selection of biological SSSIs: bogs. Peterborough: Joint Nature Conservation Committee.
83. Jones, J.A.A., Richardson, J.M. and Jacob, H.J. 1997: Factors controlling the distribution of piping in Britain: a reconnaissance. Geomorphology 20, 289-306.
84. Karsisto, K. 1970: Losses of fertilizers from peaty soils. Suo 21, 60-66.
85. Kaunisto, S. and Mailanen, M. 1992: Potassium fertilization on peatland forests. Proceedings of the 9th International Peat Congress, Uppsala, Sweden. International Peat Journal 248, special issue.
86. Labadz, J.C. 1988: Runoff and sediment production in blanket peat moorland: studies in the southern Pennines. PhD Thesis, Huddersfield Polytechnic, unpublished.
87. Laiho, R., Sallantaus, T. and Laine, J. 1998: The effect of forestry drainage on the vertical distribution of major plant nutrients in peat soils. Plant and Soil 207, 169-81.
88. Laine, A. 2001: Effects of peatland drainage on the size and diet of yearling salmon in a humic northern river. Archiv für Hydrobiologie 151, 83-99.
89. Laine, J. and Minkkinen, K. 1996: Effects of forest drainage on the carbon balance of a mire: a case study. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 11, 307-12.
90. Lane, S.N. 2001: More floods, less rain: changing hydrology in a Yorkshire context. Regional Review 11, 18-19. 1.
91. Lewis, W.K. 1957: An investigation or rainfall, runoff and yield in the Alwen and Brenig catchments. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers 8, 17-52.
92. Lindsay, R. 1995: Bogs: the ecology, classification and conservation of ombrotrophic mires. Battleby: Scottish Natural Heritage
93. Lindsay, R. and Immirzi, C.P. 1996: An inventory of lowland raised bogs in Great Britain. Scottish National Heritage Research Survey and Monitoring Report 78, Edinburgh: Scottish National Heritage.
94. Lundin, L. 1991: Retention or loss of N in forest wetlands. Vatten 47, 301-304.
95. Maltby, E. 1997: Peatlands: the science case for conservation and sound management. In Parkyn, L., Stoneman, R.E. and Ingram, H.A.P., editors, Conserving peatlands. Wallingford: CAB International, 121-31.
96. Mawby, F.J. 1995: Effects of damming peat cuttings on Glasson Moss and Wedholme Flow, two lowland raised bogs in north-west England. In Wheeler, B.D., Shaw, S.C., Fojt, W.J. and Robertson, R.A., editors, Restoration of temperate wetlands. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, 349-58.
97. Mayfield, B. and Pearson, M.C. 1972: Human interference with the north Derbyshire blanket peat. East Midland Geographer 12, 245-51.
98. McDonald, A.T. 1973: Some views on the effects of peat drainage. Scottish Forestry 27, 315-27.
99. McDonald, A.T., Lane, S.N., Kirkby, M.J., Holden, J., Ashley, D., Reid, S.C., Tayefi, V. and Brookes, C.J. 2003: Information requirements for the integrated management of agricultural areas in sensitive river basins. Environment Agency Report E1-108. York: Environment Agency.
100. Miller, J.D., Anderson, H.A., Ferrier, R.C. and Walker, T.A.B. 1990: Hydrochemical fluxes and their effects on stream acidity in two forested catchments. Forestry 63, 311-31.
101. Miller, J.D., Anderson, H.A., Ray, D. and Anderson, A.R. 1996: Impact of some initial forestry practices on the drainage waters from blanket peatland. Forestry 69, 193-203.
102. Milne, R. and Brown, T.A. 1997: Carbon in the vegetation and soils of Great Britain. Journal of Environmental Management 49, 413-33.
103. Minkkinen, K. and Laine, J. 1998: Long-term effect of forest drainage on the peat carbon stores of pine mires in Finland. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 28, 1267-75.
104. Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries 1978: Poaching of grassland and role of drainage. Field Drainage Experimental Unit Technical Report 1. Trumpington: MAFF.
105. Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries 1980: Land drainage service research and development. Field Drainage Experimental Unit Technical Report 3. Trumpington: MAFF.
106. Moklyak, V.I., Kubyshkin, G.P. and Karkutsiev, G.N. 1975: The effect of drainage works on streamflow. Hydrology of marsh-ridden areas, Proceedings of the Minsk symposium, June 1972. IAHS Studies and Reports in Hydrology, 19. Paris: Unesco Press, 439-46.
107. Moore, T.R. 1987: A preliminary study of the effects of drainage and harvesting on water quality in an ombrotrophic bogs near Sept-Iles, Quebec. Water Resources Bulletin 23, 785-91.
108. Mustonen, S. 1964: The influence of drainage on hydrology of peat land. Ratennustekniikka 3, 204-209.
109. Mustonen, S.E. and Seuna, P. 1971: Influence of forest drainage on the hydrology of peatlands. Water Research Institute Publication 2. Helsinki: National Board of Waters (in Finnish with an English summary).
110. Newbould, P. 1985: Improvement of native grasslands in the uplands. Soil Use and Management 1, 43-49.
111. Newson, M.D. 1992: Conservation management of peatlands and the drainage threat: hydrology, politics and the ecologist in the UK. In Bragg, O.M., editor, Peatland ecosystems and man: an impact assessment, proceedings. Dundee: University of Dundee, 94-103.
112. Newson, M.D. and Robinson, M. 1983: Effects of agricultural drainage on upland streamflow: case studies in mid-Wales. Journal of Environmental Management 17, 333-48.
113. Oliver, J. 1958: The wetness of Wales. Rainfall as a factor in the geography of Wales. Geography 43, 151-63.
114. Paavilainen, E. and Paivanen, J. 1995: Peatland forestry: ecology and principles. Ecological studies 111. Heidelberg: Springer Verlag.
115. Podschlud, P. 1988: Vegetationsentwicklung ehemaliger Torfabbaugebiete in Hochmooren des bayerischen Alpenvorlandes. Tuxenia 8, 31-53.
116. Prevost M., Plamondon, A.P. and Belleau, P. 1999: Effects of drainage of a forested peatland on water quality and quantity. Journal of Hydrology 214, 130-43.
117. Price, J. 1997: Soil moisture, water tension, and water table relationships in a managed cutover bog. Journal of Hydrology 202, 21-32.
118. Price, J.S., Rochefort, L. and Quinty, E. 1998: Energy and moisture considerations on cutover peatlands: surface microtopography, mulch cover, and Sphagnum regeneration. Ecological Engineering 10, 293-312.
119. Prus-Chacinski, T.M. 1962: Shrinkage of peatlands due to drainage operations. Journal of the Institute of Water Engineers 16, 436-48.
120. Ratcliffe, D.A. and Oswald, P.H., editors 1988: The flow country: the peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland. Peterborough: Nature Conservancy Council.
121. Rawes, M. and Hobbs, R. 1979: Management of semi-natural blanket bog in the northern Pennines. Journal of Ecology 67, 789-807.
122. Reynolds, B. and Hughes, S. 1989: An ephemeral forest drainage ditch as a source of aluminum for surface waters. Science of the Total Environment 80, 185-93.
123. Robertson, R.A., Nicholson, I.A. and Hughes, R. 1968: Runoff studies on a peat catchment. In Robertson, R.A., editor, Transactions of the second international peat congress, Leningrad, USSR, 1963. London: HMSO, 161-66.
124. Robinson, M. 1980: The effect of pre-afforestation drainage on the streamflow and water quality of a small upland upland catchment. Institute of Hydrology Report, 73, Wallingford: IAHS.
125. Robinson, M. 1985: The hydrological effects of moorland gripping: a re-appraisal of the Moor House research. Journal of Environmental Management 21, 205-11.
126. Robinson, M. 1986: Changes in catchment runoff following drainage and afforestation. Journal of Hydrology 86, 71-84.
127. Robinson, M. and Armstrong, A.C. 1988: The extent of agricultural field drainage in England and Wales, 1971-1980. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 13, 19-28.
128. Royal Society 1993: The peat report, London: Royal Society.
129. Sallantaus, T. 1995: Leaching in the material balance of peatlands - preliminary results. Suo 43, 253-58.
130. Schouwenaars, J.M. 1993: Hydrological differences between bogs and bog-relicts and consequences for bog restoration. Hydrobiologia 265, 217-24.
131. Silins, U. and Rothwell, R.L. 1998: Forest peatland drainage and subsidence affect soil water retention and transport properties in an Alberta Peatland. Soil Science Society of America Journal 62, 1048-56.
132. Stephens, N. and Symons, L.J. 1956: The Lough Erne drainage system. In Suggate, L.S., editor, This changing world. Geography 41, 123-26.
133. Stewart, A.J.A. 1963: Investigations into migratory fish propagation in the area of the Lancashire River Board. Barber: Lancashire River Board.
134. Stewart, A.J.A. and Lance, A.N. 1983: Moordraining: a review of impacts on land use. Journal of Environmental Management 17, 81-99.
135. Stewart A.J.A. and Lance, A.N. 1991: Effects of moor-draining on the hydrology and vegetation of northern Pennine blanket bog. Journal of Applied Ecology 28, 1105-17.
136. Sundstrom, E., Magnusson, T. and Hanell, B. 2000: Nutrient concentrations in drained peatlands along a north-south climatic gradient in Sweden. Forest Ecology and Management 216, 149-61.
137. Tallis, J.H. 1998: The southern Pennine experience: an overview of blanket mire degradation. In Tallis, J.H., Meade, R. and Hulme, P.D., editors, Blanket mire degradation, proceedings. Aberdeen: British Ecological Society, 7-15.
138. Tomlinson, R.W. 1981: The erosion of peat in the uplands of Northern Ireland. Irish Geography 14, 51-64.
139. Turner, N. 1757: An essay on draining and improving peat bogs; in which their nature and properties are fully considered. London: Baldwin and Pew.
140. Updegraff, K., Pator, J., Bridgham, S.D. and Johnston, C.A. 1995: Environmental and substrate controls over carbon and nitrogen mineralization in northern wetlands. Ecological Applications 51, 151-63.
141. Van Seters, T.E. and Price, J.S. 2001: The impact of peat harvesting and natural regeneration on the water balance of an abandoned, cut-over bog, Quebec. Hydrological Processes 15, 233-48.
142. van Strien, A.J., van der Berg, T., Rip, W.J. and Strucker, R.C.W. 1991: Effects of mechanical ditch management on the vegetation of ditch banks in Dutch peat areas. Journal of Applied Ecology 28, 501-13.
143. Warburton, J., Holden, J. and Mills, AJ. 2004: Hydrological controls of surficial mass movements in peat. Earth-Science Reviews, in press.
144. Wells, E.D. and Williams, B.L. 1996: Effects of drainage, tilling and PK-fertilization on bulk density, total N, P, K, Ca and Fe and net N-mineralization in two peatland forestry sites in Newfoundland, Canada. Forest Ecology and Management 84, 97-108.
145. White, P. and Butcher, D.P. 1994: Hydrological monitoring of rehabilitation work on lowland peatland NNRs: an evaluation. English Nature Research Report No. 72. Peterborough: English Nature.
146. Wilcock, D. 1979: The hydrology of a peatland catchment in Northern Ireland following channel clearance and land drainage. In Hollis, G.E., editor, Man's impact on the hydrological cycle in the United Kingdom. Norwich: GeoAbstracts, 93-107.
147. Williams, B.L. 1974: Effect of water table level on nitrogen mineralisation in peat. Forestry 47, 195-201.
148. Williams, B.L. and Wheatley, R.E. 1988: Nitrogen mineralisation and water table height in oligotrophic deep peat. Biology and Fertility of Soils 6, 141-47.
149. Williams, R. 1995: Wetlands - Tealham Moor. London: Immel.
150. Wilson, P. and Hegarty, C. 1993: Morphology and causes of recent peat slides on Skerry Hill, County Antrim, Northern Ireland. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 18, 593-601.
151. Wilson, P., Griffiths, D. and Carter, C. 1996: Characteristics, impacts and causes of the Carntogher bog-flow. Sperrin Mountains, Northern Ireland. Scottish Geographical Magazine 112, 39-46.