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Volumn 278, Issue 5343, 1997, Pages 1604-1607

Two-dimensional melting of an anisotropic crystal observed at the molecular level

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANISOTROPY; ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPY; CHARACTERIZATION; CRYSTALS; DISLOCATIONS (CRYSTALS); INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY; LANGMUIR BLODGETT FILMS; MELTING; SMECTIC LIQUID CRYSTALS;

EID: 1842331539     PISSN: 00368075     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1126/science.278.5343.1604     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (53)

References (30)
  • 1
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    • D. R. Nelson, Phys. Rev. B 18, 2318 (1978); B. I. Halperin and D. R. Nelson, Phys. Rev. Lett. 41, 121 (1978); D. R. Nelson and B. I. Halperin, Phys. Rev. B 19, 2457 (1979); A. P. Young, ibid., p. 1855.
    • (1978) Phys. Rev. B , vol.18 , pp. 2318
    • Nelson, D.R.1
  • 2
    • 3843084641 scopus 로고
    • D. R. Nelson, Phys. Rev. B 18, 2318 (1978); B. I. Halperin and D. R. Nelson, Phys. Rev. Lett. 41, 121 (1978); D. R. Nelson and B. I. Halperin, Phys. Rev. B 19, 2457 (1979); A. P. Young, ibid., p. 1855.
    • (1978) Phys. Rev. Lett. , vol.41 , pp. 121
    • Halperin, B.I.1    Nelson, D.R.2
  • 3
    • 4243366131 scopus 로고
    • D. R. Nelson, Phys. Rev. B 18, 2318 (1978); B. I. Halperin and D. R. Nelson, Phys. Rev. Lett. 41, 121 (1978); D. R. Nelson and B. I. Halperin, Phys. Rev. B 19, 2457 (1979); A. P. Young, ibid., p. 1855.
    • (1979) Phys. Rev. B , vol.19 , pp. 2457
    • Nelson, D.R.1    Halperin, B.I.2
  • 4
    • 0001159253 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • D. R. Nelson, Phys. Rev. B 18, 2318 (1978); B. I. Halperin and D. R. Nelson, Phys. Rev. Lett. 41, 121 (1978); D. R. Nelson and B. I. Halperin, Phys. Rev. B 19, 2457 (1979); A. P. Young, ibid., p. 1855.
    • Phys. Rev. B , pp. 1855
    • Young, A.P.1
  • 12
    • 36549097033 scopus 로고
    • J. P. Rabe, J. D. Swalen, J. F. Rabolt, J. Chem. Phys. 86, 1601 (1987); L. Rothberg, G. S. Higashi, D. L. Allara, S. Garoff, Chem. Phys. Lett. 133, 67 (1987); T. Hasegawa, S. Takeda, A. Kawaguchi, J. Umemura, Langmuir 11, 1236 (1995).
    • (1987) J. Chem. Phys. , vol.86 , pp. 1601
    • Rabe, J.P.1    Swalen, J.D.2    Rabolt, J.F.3
  • 13
    • 0004999479 scopus 로고
    • J. P. Rabe, J. D. Swalen, J. F. Rabolt, J. Chem. Phys. 86, 1601 (1987); L. Rothberg, G. S. Higashi, D. L. Allara, S. Garoff, Chem. Phys. Lett. 133, 67 (1987); T. Hasegawa, S. Takeda, A. Kawaguchi, J. Umemura, Langmuir 11, 1236 (1995).
    • (1987) Chem. Phys. Lett. , vol.133 , pp. 67
    • Rothberg, L.1    Higashi, G.S.2    Allara, D.L.3    Garoff, S.4
  • 14
    • 33645101606 scopus 로고
    • J. P. Rabe, J. D. Swalen, J. F. Rabolt, J. Chem. Phys. 86, 1601 (1987); L. Rothberg, G. S. Higashi, D. L. Allara, S. Garoff, Chem. Phys. Lett. 133, 67 (1987); T. Hasegawa, S. Takeda, A. Kawaguchi, J. Umemura, Langmuir 11, 1236 (1995).
    • (1995) Langmuir , vol.11 , pp. 1236
    • Hasegawa, T.1    Takeda, S.2    Kawaguchi, A.3    Umemura, J.4
  • 23
    • 1842295163 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • 2 subphase (Millipore water was used), adjusted to pH = 6.5, and contained in a Nima (Coventry, England) LB trough. Imaging was performed with the use of a Nanoscope III Multimode atomic force microscope (Digital Instruments) in contact mode using a silicon nitride cantilever with integral tip. The equilibrium deflection of a given cantilever was quite sensitive to temperature; therefore, the tip was withdrawn before large temperature jumps and re-engaged after the temperature had stabilized. A small thermoelectric Peltier element (Melcor, Trenton, NJ) and a thermocouple (Omega Engineering, Stanford, CT) were sandwiched between a magnetic stainless steel base and a small piece of copper sheet and bonded together with thermally conductive epoxy. The entire assembly was less than 5 mm thick and 12 mm in cross section. Extremely thin and flexible electrical leads were carefully strain-relieved to avoid transmission of vibrations to the microscope. Over the usable temperature range of the device, 20° to 120°C, the scanner temperature remained below 35°C, minimizing difficulties associated with thermal drift. A previously reported temperature-controlled microstage (16) functioned only below 80°C. Several important control experiments were performed to validate the technique. Invariant molecular-resolution images of mica substrates were obtained to well above 100°C. High-resolution images of all three types of structure were quantitatively consistent after changing the scan size or rate, rotating the scan direction, or annealing at constant temperature for hours. The surface structure changed at the same temperature in nine separate repetitions of the experiment (using different samples and AFM tips) and reversibly changed back upon lowering of the temperature while using the same tip. On one occasion, we were even able to maintain the tip in contact with the film during this thermal cycling and continuously observed the loss and then reappearance of molecular order. These experiments prove that the loss of molecular resolution was due to increased molecular disorder, not degradation of a particular tip, and that the images represent structure indigenous to the sample, not related to temporal noise or induced by scanning.
  • 28
    • 1842291555 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Transmission IR spectra were recorded with the use of a Mattson Cygnus 100 spectrometer with a 6.4-mm pinhole defining the incident beam. The sample holder was heated using a thin film resistive heating element (Minco, Minneapolis, MN); the temperature was measured with a thermocouple (Omega). After obtaining the multilayer spectrum, the sample holder was removed and placed in an ultraviolet-oxygen cleaner (Boekel Industries, Feasterville, PA), where the film on both sides of the substrate was removed. The holder was then repositioned within the spectrometer, to within 0.1 mm of the original position, and the background spectrum was measured.
  • 30
    • 1842330303 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • We thank D. R. Nelson for his helpful comments regarding 2D melting. This work was supported by the National Science Foundation (NSF), the donors of the Petroleum Research Fund, and the Center for Photoinduced Processes (funded by NSF and the Louisiana Board of Regents).


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