Adolescent neighborhood effects on labor market and economic outcomes

Social Service Review

Volumn 73, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 142-167

  Vartanian, Thomas P ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 17544387244     PISSN: 00377961     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/514412     Document Type: Article

References (74)

1. Lawrence Mishel, Jared Bernstein, and John Schmitt, The State of Working America, 1996-97 (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1997). Wages for the top 10 percent of earners increased by 6 percent over this same time period.
2. For human capital factors see Joseph Altonji, "The Effects of High School Curriculum on Education and Labor Market Outcomes," Journal of Human Resources 30 (1995): 409-38; Gary Becker, Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, with Special Reference to Education (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993) ; Robert Willis, "Wage Determinants: A Survey and Reinterpretation of Human Capital Earnings Functions," in Handbook of Labor Economics, ed. Orley Ashenfelter and Richard Layard (New York: North Holland, 1986). For international competition and wage disparities between low-and high-skilled labor see John Kasarda and Kwok-fai Ting, "Joblessness and Poverty in America's Central Cities," Housing Policy Debate 7 (1996): 387-419; Mishel, Bernstein, and Schmitt, (n. 1 above); Arthur Sakamoto and Meichu Chen, "Inequality and Attainment in a Dual Labor Market," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 295-308; William Julius Wilson, When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor (New York: Knopf, 1996).
3. For human capital factors see Joseph Altonji, "The Effects of High School Curriculum on Education and Labor Market Outcomes," Journal of Human Resources 30 (1995): 409-38; Gary Becker, Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, with Special Reference to Education (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993) ; Robert Willis, "Wage Determinants: A Survey and Reinterpretation of Human Capital Earnings Functions," in Handbook of Labor Economics, ed. Orley Ashenfelter and Richard Layard (New York: North Holland, 1986). For international competition and wage disparities between low-and high-skilled labor see John Kasarda and Kwok-fai Ting, "Joblessness and Poverty in America's Central Cities," Housing Policy Debate 7 (1996): 387-419; Mishel, Bernstein, and Schmitt, (n. 1 above); Arthur Sakamoto and Meichu Chen, "Inequality and Attainment in a Dual Labor Market," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 295-308; William Julius Wilson, When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor (New York: Knopf, 1996).
4. For human capital factors see Joseph Altonji, "The Effects of High School Curriculum on Education and Labor Market Outcomes," Journal of Human Resources 30 (1995): 409-38; Gary Becker, Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, with Special Reference to Education (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993) ; Robert Willis, "Wage Determinants: A Survey and Reinterpretation of Human Capital Earnings Functions," in Handbook of Labor Economics, ed. Orley Ashenfelter and Richard Layard (New York: North Holland, 1986). For international competition and wage disparities between low-and high-skilled labor see John Kasarda and Kwok-fai Ting, "Joblessness and Poverty in America's Central Cities," Housing Policy Debate 7 (1996): 387-419; Mishel, Bernstein, and Schmitt, (n. 1 above); Arthur Sakamoto and Meichu Chen, "Inequality and Attainment in a Dual Labor Market," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 295-308; William Julius Wilson, When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor (New York: Knopf, 1996).
5. For human capital factors see Joseph Altonji, "The Effects of High School Curriculum on Education and Labor Market Outcomes," Journal of Human Resources 30 (1995): 409-38; Gary Becker, Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, with Special Reference to Education (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993) ; Robert Willis, "Wage Determinants: A Survey and Reinterpretation of Human Capital Earnings Functions," in Handbook of Labor Economics, ed. Orley Ashenfelter and Richard Layard (New York: North Holland, 1986). For international competition and wage disparities between low-and high-skilled labor see John Kasarda and Kwok-fai Ting, "Joblessness and Poverty in America's Central Cities," Housing Policy Debate 7 (1996): 387-419; Mishel, Bernstein, and Schmitt, (n. 1 above); Arthur Sakamoto and Meichu Chen, "Inequality and Attainment in a Dual Labor Market," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 295-308; William Julius Wilson, When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor (New York: Knopf, 1996).
6. For human capital factors see Joseph Altonji, "The Effects of High School Curriculum on Education and Labor Market Outcomes," Journal of Human Resources 30 (1995): 409-38; Gary Becker, Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, with Special Reference to Education (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993) ; Robert Willis, "Wage Determinants: A Survey and Reinterpretation of Human Capital Earnings Functions," in Handbook of Labor Economics, ed. Orley Ashenfelter and Richard Layard (New York: North Holland, 1986). For international competition and wage disparities between low-and high-skilled labor see John Kasarda and Kwok-fai Ting, "Joblessness and Poverty in America's Central Cities," Housing Policy Debate 7 (1996): 387-419; Mishel, Bernstein, and Schmitt, (n. 1 above); Arthur Sakamoto and Meichu Chen, "Inequality and Attainment in a Dual Labor Market," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 295-308; William Julius Wilson, When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor (New York: Knopf, 1996).
7. For human capital factors see Joseph Altonji, "The Effects of High School Curriculum on Education and Labor Market Outcomes," Journal of Human Resources 30 (1995): 409-38; Gary Becker, Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, with Special Reference to Education (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993) ; Robert Willis, "Wage Determinants: A Survey and Reinterpretation of Human Capital Earnings Functions," in Handbook of Labor Economics, ed. Orley Ashenfelter and Richard Layard (New York: North Holland, 1986). For international competition and wage disparities between low-and high-skilled labor see John Kasarda and Kwok-fai Ting, "Joblessness and Poverty in America's Central Cities," Housing Policy Debate 7 (1996): 387-419; Mishel, Bernstein, and Schmitt, (n. 1 above); Arthur Sakamoto and Meichu Chen, "Inequality and Attainment in a Dual Labor Market," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 295-308; William Julius Wilson, When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor (New York: Knopf, 1996).
8. For human capital factors see Joseph Altonji, "The Effects of High School Curriculum on Education and Labor Market Outcomes," Journal of Human Resources 30 (1995): 409-38; Gary Becker, Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, with Special Reference to Education (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993) ; Robert Willis, "Wage Determinants: A Survey and Reinterpretation of Human Capital Earnings Functions," in Handbook of Labor Economics, ed. Orley Ashenfelter and Richard Layard (New York: North Holland, 1986). For international competition and wage disparities between low-and high-skilled labor see John Kasarda and Kwok-fai Ting, "Joblessness and Poverty in America's Central Cities," Housing Policy Debate 7 (1996): 387-419; Mishel, Bernstein, and Schmitt, (n. 1 above); Arthur Sakamoto and Meichu Chen, "Inequality and Attainment in a Dual Labor Market," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 295-308; William Julius Wilson, When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor (New York: Knopf, 1996).
9. For family background factors see James Coleman, "Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital," American Journal of Sociology 94 (1989): S95-S120; Mary Corcoran, Christopher Jencks, and M. Olneck, "The Effects of Family Background on Earnings," American Economic Review 66 (1976): 430-35; Sara McLanahan, "Family Structure and the Reproduction of Poverty," American Journal of Sociology 90 (1985): 873-901; Mary Ann Powell and Toby Parcel, "Effects of Family Structure on Earnings Attainment Process: Differences by Gender," Journal of Marriage and the Family 59 (1997): 419-33; Arthur Sakamoto, "Labor Market Structure, Human Capital, and Earnings Inequality in Metropolitan Areas," Social Forces 67 (1988): 86-107; Lester Thurow, Generating Inequality (New York: Basic Books, 1975). For the effects of welfare programs see Charles Murray, Losing Ground: American Social Policy, 1950-1980 (New York: Basic Books, 1984); Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press, 1994); Lawrence Mead, Beyond Entitlement: The Social Obligations of Citizenship (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1986).
10. For family background factors see James Coleman, "Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital," American Journal of Sociology 94 (1989): S95-S120; Mary Corcoran, Christopher Jencks, and M. Olneck, "The Effects of Family Background on Earnings," American Economic Review 66 (1976): 430-35; Sara McLanahan, "Family Structure and the Reproduction of Poverty," American Journal of Sociology 90 (1985): 873-901; Mary Ann Powell and Toby Parcel, "Effects of Family Structure on Earnings Attainment Process: Differences by Gender," Journal of Marriage and the Family 59 (1997): 419-33; Arthur Sakamoto, "Labor Market Structure, Human Capital, and Earnings Inequality in Metropolitan Areas," Social Forces 67 (1988): 86-107; Lester Thurow, Generating Inequality (New York: Basic Books, 1975). For the effects of welfare programs see Charles Murray, Losing Ground: American Social Policy, 1950-1980 (New York: Basic Books, 1984); Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press, 1994); Lawrence Mead, Beyond Entitlement: The Social Obligations of Citizenship (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1986).
11. For family background factors see James Coleman, "Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital," American Journal of Sociology 94 (1989): S95-S120; Mary Corcoran, Christopher Jencks, and M. Olneck, "The Effects of Family Background on Earnings," American Economic Review 66 (1976): 430-35; Sara McLanahan, "Family Structure and the Reproduction of Poverty," American Journal of Sociology 90 (1985): 873-901; Mary Ann Powell and Toby Parcel, "Effects of Family Structure on Earnings Attainment Process: Differences by Gender," Journal of Marriage and the Family 59 (1997): 419-33; Arthur Sakamoto, "Labor Market Structure, Human Capital, and Earnings Inequality in Metropolitan Areas," Social Forces 67 (1988): 86-107; Lester Thurow, Generating Inequality (New York: Basic Books, 1975). For the effects of welfare programs see Charles Murray, Losing Ground: American Social Policy, 1950-1980 (New York: Basic Books, 1984); Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press, 1994); Lawrence Mead, Beyond Entitlement: The Social Obligations of Citizenship (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1986).
12. For family background factors see James Coleman, "Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital," American Journal of Sociology 94 (1989): S95-S120; Mary Corcoran, Christopher Jencks, and M. Olneck, "The Effects of Family Background on Earnings," American Economic Review 66 (1976): 430-35; Sara McLanahan, "Family Structure and the Reproduction of Poverty," American Journal of Sociology 90 (1985): 873-901; Mary Ann Powell and Toby Parcel, "Effects of Family Structure on Earnings Attainment Process: Differences by Gender," Journal of Marriage and the Family 59 (1997): 419-33; Arthur Sakamoto, "Labor Market Structure, Human Capital, and Earnings Inequality in Metropolitan Areas," Social Forces 67 (1988): 86-107; Lester Thurow, Generating Inequality (New York: Basic Books, 1975). For the effects of welfare programs see Charles Murray, Losing Ground: American Social Policy, 1950-1980 (New York: Basic Books, 1984); Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press, 1994); Lawrence Mead, Beyond Entitlement: The Social Obligations of Citizenship (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1986).
13. For family background factors see James Coleman, "Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital," American Journal of Sociology 94 (1989): S95-S120; Mary Corcoran, Christopher Jencks, and M. Olneck, "The Effects of Family Background on Earnings," American Economic Review 66 (1976): 430-35; Sara McLanahan, "Family Structure and the Reproduction of Poverty," American Journal of Sociology 90 (1985): 873-901; Mary Ann Powell and Toby Parcel, "Effects of Family Structure on Earnings Attainment Process: Differences by Gender," Journal of Marriage and the Family 59 (1997): 419-33; Arthur Sakamoto, "Labor Market Structure, Human Capital, and Earnings Inequality in Metropolitan Areas," Social Forces 67 (1988): 86-107; Lester Thurow, Generating Inequality (New York: Basic Books, 1975). For the effects of welfare programs see Charles Murray, Losing Ground: American Social Policy, 1950-1980 (New York: Basic Books, 1984); Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press, 1994); Lawrence Mead, Beyond Entitlement: The Social Obligations of Citizenship (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1986).
14. For family background factors see James Coleman, "Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital," American Journal of Sociology 94 (1989): S95-S120; Mary Corcoran, Christopher Jencks, and M. Olneck, "The Effects of Family Background on Earnings," American Economic Review 66 (1976): 430-35; Sara McLanahan, "Family Structure and the Reproduction of Poverty," American Journal of Sociology 90 (1985): 873-901; Mary Ann Powell and Toby Parcel, "Effects of Family Structure on Earnings Attainment Process: Differences by Gender," Journal of Marriage and the Family 59 (1997): 419-33; Arthur Sakamoto, "Labor Market Structure, Human Capital, and Earnings Inequality in Metropolitan Areas," Social Forces 67 (1988): 86-107; Lester Thurow, Generating Inequality (New York: Basic Books, 1975). For the effects of welfare programs see Charles Murray, Losing Ground: American Social Policy, 1950-1980 (New York: Basic Books, 1984); Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press, 1994); Lawrence Mead, Beyond Entitlement: The Social Obligations of Citizenship (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1986).
15. For family background factors see James Coleman, "Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital," American Journal of Sociology 94 (1989): S95-S120; Mary Corcoran, Christopher Jencks, and M. Olneck, "The Effects of Family Background on Earnings," American Economic Review 66 (1976): 430-35; Sara McLanahan, "Family Structure and the Reproduction of Poverty," American Journal of Sociology 90 (1985): 873-901; Mary Ann Powell and Toby Parcel, "Effects of Family Structure on Earnings Attainment Process: Differences by Gender," Journal of Marriage and the Family 59 (1997): 419-33; Arthur Sakamoto, "Labor Market Structure, Human Capital, and Earnings Inequality in Metropolitan Areas," Social Forces 67 (1988): 86-107; Lester Thurow, Generating Inequality (New York: Basic Books, 1975). For the effects of welfare programs see Charles Murray, Losing Ground: American Social Policy, 1950-1980 (New York: Basic Books, 1984); Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press, 1994); Lawrence Mead, Beyond Entitlement: The Social Obligations of Citizenship (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1986).
16. For family background factors see James Coleman, "Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital," American Journal of Sociology 94 (1989): S95-S120; Mary Corcoran, Christopher Jencks, and M. Olneck, "The Effects of Family Background on Earnings," American Economic Review 66 (1976): 430-35; Sara McLanahan, "Family Structure and the Reproduction of Poverty," American Journal of Sociology 90 (1985): 873-901; Mary Ann Powell and Toby Parcel, "Effects of Family Structure on Earnings Attainment Process: Differences by Gender," Journal of Marriage and the Family 59 (1997): 419-33; Arthur Sakamoto, "Labor Market Structure, Human Capital, and Earnings Inequality in Metropolitan Areas," Social Forces 67 (1988): 86-107; Lester Thurow, Generating Inequality (New York: Basic Books, 1975). For the effects of welfare programs see Charles Murray, Losing Ground: American Social Policy, 1950-1980 (New York: Basic Books, 1984); Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press, 1994); Lawrence Mead, Beyond Entitlement: The Social Obligations of Citizenship (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1986).
17. For family background factors see James Coleman, "Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital," American Journal of Sociology 94 (1989): S95-S120; Mary Corcoran, Christopher Jencks, and M. Olneck, "The Effects of Family Background on Earnings," American Economic Review 66 (1976): 430-35; Sara McLanahan, "Family Structure and the Reproduction of Poverty," American Journal of Sociology 90 (1985): 873-901; Mary Ann Powell and Toby Parcel, "Effects of Family Structure on Earnings Attainment Process: Differences by Gender," Journal of Marriage and the Family 59 (1997): 419-33; Arthur Sakamoto, "Labor Market Structure, Human Capital, and Earnings Inequality in Metropolitan Areas," Social Forces 67 (1988): 86-107; Lester Thurow, Generating Inequality (New York: Basic Books, 1975). For the effects of welfare programs see Charles Murray, Losing Ground: American Social Policy, 1950-1980 (New York: Basic Books, 1984); Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press, 1994); Lawrence Mead, Beyond Entitlement: The Social Obligations of Citizenship (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1986).
18. Herrnstein and Murray (n. 3 above).
19. Mead (n. 3 above); Herrnstein and Murray (n. 3 above).
20. Christopher Jencks and Susan Mayer, "The Social Consequences of Growing Up in Poor Neighborhoods," in Inner City Poverty in the United States, ed. Laurence Lynn, Jr., and Michael McGeary (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1990); William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).
21. Christopher Jencks and Susan Mayer, "The Social Consequences of Growing Up in Poor Neighborhoods," in Inner City Poverty in the United States, ed. Laurence Lynn, Jr., and Michael McGeary (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1990); William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).
22. Greg Duncan, Martha Hill, and Saul Hoffman, "Welfare Dependence within and across Generations," Science 239 (1990): 111-86; Thomas Vartanian and Philip Gleason, "Do Neighborhood Conditions Affect High School Dropout and College Graduation Rates?" Journal of Socio-Economics 28, no. 1 (1999), in press.
23. Greg Duncan, Martha Hill, and Saul Hoffman, "Welfare Dependence within and across Generations," Science 239 (1990): 111-86; Thomas Vartanian and Philip Gleason, "Do Neighborhood Conditions Affect High School Dropout and College Graduation Rates?" Journal of Socio-Economics 28, no. 1 (1999), in press.
24. Paul Jargowsky, Poverty and Place: Ghettos, Barrios, and the American City (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1997).
25. Susan Popkin, James Rosenbaum, and Patricia Meaden, "Labor Market Experiences of Low-Income Black Women in Middle-Class Suburbs: Evidence from a Survey of Gautreaux Program Participants," Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 12 (1993): 556-73; Craig Thornton, David Long, and Peter Kemper, A Comparative Evaluation of the Benefits and Costs of the Job Corps Program after Forty-Eight Months of Post-Program Observation (Princeton, N.J.: Mathematica Policy Research, 1982).
26. Susan Popkin, James Rosenbaum, and Patricia Meaden, "Labor Market Experiences of Low-Income Black Women in Middle-Class Suburbs: Evidence from a Survey of Gautreaux Program Participants," Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 12 (1993): 556-73; Craig Thornton, David Long, and Peter Kemper, A Comparative Evaluation of the Benefits and Costs of the Job Corps Program after Forty-Eight Months of Post-Program Observation (Princeton, N.J.: Mathematica Policy Research, 1982).
27. Herrnstein and Murray (n. 3 above); Murray (n. 3 above); Mead (n. 3 above).
28. Robert Moffit, "Incentive Effects of the U.S. Welfare System," Journal of Economic Literature 30 (1992): 1-61.
29. Becker (n. 2 above).
30. Murray (n. 3 above); Mead (n. 3 above).
31. Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (n. 6 above), and When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor (n. 2 above).
32. Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (n. 6 above), and When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor (n. 2 above).
33. Thomas Vartanian, "Neighborhood Effects on AFDC Exits: Examining the Social Isolation, Relative Deprivation and Epidemic Theories," Social Service Review 71 (1997): 548-73.
34. Jencks and Mayer (n. 6 above).
35. Robert Mare, "Social Background and School Continuation Decisions," Journal of the American Statistical Association 75 (1980): 295-305;
36. McLanahan (n. 3 above); Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (n. 6 above). The models given are from Jencks and Mayer (n. 6 above) and not from the authors cited in this note. For example, it is not clear that Wilson would distinguish between the social isolation hypothesis and the epidemic theory. Wilson's arguments are generally for high-poverty areas. Also note that what is tested in this article are the effects of neighborhoods on various outcomes, not the mechanisms by which neighborhoods work.
37. Rebecca Blank, It Takes a Nation: A New Agenda for Fighting Poverty (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1997).
38. Rebecca Clark, "Neighborhood Effects on Dropping Out of School among Teenage Boys," Discussion Paper Series no. UI-SDC-UI-13 (Urban Institute, Population Studies Center, Washington, D.C., 1992); Mary Corcoran, Robert Gordon, and Deborah Laren, "The Association between Men's Economic Status and Their Family and Community Origins," Journal of Human Resources 27 (1992): 575-601; Linda Datcher, "Effects of Community and Family Background on Achievement," Review of Economics and Statistics 64 (1982): 32-41; Deborah Ginther, Robert Haveman, and Barbara Wolfe, "Neighborhood Characteristics as Determinants of Children's Outcomes: How Robust Are the Relationships?" unpublished manuscript (University of Wisconsin - Madison, Department of Economics, 1993); Thomas Vartanian, "Neighborhood Effects on AFDC Exits: Examining the Social Isolation, Relative Deprivation and Epidemic Theories" (n. 15 above), and "Childhood Conditions and Adult Welfare Use: Examining Neighborhood and Family Factors," Journal of Marriage and the Family 61 (1999): 225-37.
39. Rebecca Clark, "Neighborhood Effects on Dropping Out of School among Teenage Boys," Discussion Paper Series no. UI-SDC-UI-13 (Urban Institute, Population Studies Center, Washington, D.C., 1992); Mary Corcoran, Robert Gordon, and Deborah Laren, "The Association between Men's Economic Status and Their Family and Community Origins," Journal of Human Resources 27 (1992): 575-601; Linda Datcher, "Effects of Community and Family Background on Achievement," Review of Economics and Statistics 64 (1982): 32-41; Deborah Ginther, Robert Haveman, and Barbara Wolfe, "Neighborhood Characteristics as Determinants of Children's Outcomes: How Robust Are the Relationships?" unpublished manuscript (University of Wisconsin - Madison, Department of Economics, 1993); Thomas Vartanian, "Neighborhood Effects on AFDC Exits: Examining the Social Isolation, Relative Deprivation and Epidemic Theories" (n. 15 above), and "Childhood Conditions and Adult Welfare Use: Examining Neighborhood and Family Factors," Journal of Marriage and the Family 61 (1999): 225-37.
40. Rebecca Clark, "Neighborhood Effects on Dropping Out of School among Teenage Boys," Discussion Paper Series no. UI-SDC-UI-13 (Urban Institute, Population Studies Center, Washington, D.C., 1992); Mary Corcoran, Robert Gordon, and Deborah Laren, "The Association between Men's Economic Status and Their Family and Community Origins," Journal of Human Resources 27 (1992): 575-601; Linda Datcher, "Effects of Community and Family Background on Achievement," Review of Economics and Statistics 64 (1982): 32-41; Deborah Ginther, Robert Haveman, and Barbara Wolfe, "Neighborhood Characteristics as Determinants of Children's Outcomes: How Robust Are the Relationships?" unpublished manuscript (University of Wisconsin - Madison, Department of Economics, 1993); Thomas Vartanian, "Neighborhood Effects on AFDC Exits: Examining the Social Isolation, Relative Deprivation and Epidemic Theories" (n. 15 above), and "Childhood Conditions and Adult Welfare Use: Examining Neighborhood and Family Factors," Journal of Marriage and the Family 61 (1999): 225-37.
41. Rebecca Clark, "Neighborhood Effects on Dropping Out of School among Teenage Boys," Discussion Paper Series no. UI-SDC-UI-13 (Urban Institute, Population Studies Center, Washington, D.C., 1992); Mary Corcoran, Robert Gordon, and Deborah Laren, "The Association between Men's Economic Status and Their Family and Community Origins," Journal of Human Resources 27 (1992): 575-601; Linda Datcher, "Effects of Community and Family Background on Achievement," Review of Economics and Statistics 64 (1982): 32-41; Deborah Ginther, Robert Haveman, and Barbara Wolfe, "Neighborhood Characteristics as Determinants of Children's Outcomes: How Robust Are the Relationships?" unpublished manuscript (University of Wisconsin - Madison, Department of Economics, 1993); Thomas Vartanian, "Neighborhood Effects on AFDC Exits: Examining the Social Isolation, Relative Deprivation and Epidemic Theories" (n. 15 above), and "Childhood Conditions and Adult Welfare Use: Examining Neighborhood and Family Factors," Journal of Marriage and the Family 61 (1999): 225-37.
42. Rebecca Clark, "Neighborhood Effects on Dropping Out of School among Teenage Boys," Discussion Paper Series no. UI-SDC-UI-13 (Urban Institute, Population Studies Center, Washington, D.C., 1992); Mary Corcoran, Robert Gordon, and Deborah Laren, "The Association between Men's Economic Status and Their Family and Community Origins," Journal of Human Resources 27 (1992): 575-601; Linda Datcher, "Effects of Community and Family Background on Achievement," Review of Economics and Statistics 64 (1982): 32-41; Deborah Ginther, Robert Haveman, and Barbara Wolfe, "Neighborhood Characteristics as Determinants of Children's Outcomes: How Robust Are the Relationships?" unpublished manuscript (University of Wisconsin - Madison, Department of Economics, 1993); Thomas Vartanian, "Neighborhood Effects on AFDC Exits: Examining the Social Isolation, Relative Deprivation and Epidemic Theories" (n. 15 above), and "Childhood Conditions and Adult Welfare Use: Examining Neighborhood and Family Factors," Journal of Marriage and the Family 61 (1999): 225-37.
43. These studies generally found significant coefficient estimates for continuous neighborhood variables.
44. Jeanne Brookes-Gunn, Greg Duncan, Pamela Klebanov, and Naomi Sealand, "Do Neighborhoods Influence Child and Adolescent Development?" American Journal of Sociology 99 (1993): 353-95; Mary Corcoran and Terry Adams, "Race, Sex, and the Intergenerational Transmission of Poverty," in Consequences of Growing Up Poor, ed. Greg Duncan and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1997); Robert Plotnick and Saul Hoffman, Using Sister Pairs to Estimate How Neighborhoods Affect Young Adult Outcomes, unpublished manuscript (Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management, Washington, D.C., 1993); Vartanian and Gleason (n. 7 above).
45. Jeanne Brookes-Gunn, Greg Duncan, Pamela Klebanov, and Naomi Sealand, "Do Neighborhoods Influence Child and Adolescent Development?" American Journal of Sociology 99 (1993): 353-95; Mary Corcoran and Terry Adams, "Race, Sex, and the Intergenerational Transmission of Poverty," in Consequences of Growing Up Poor, ed. Greg Duncan and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1997); Robert Plotnick and Saul Hoffman, Using Sister Pairs to Estimate How Neighborhoods Affect Young Adult Outcomes, unpublished manuscript (Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management, Washington, D.C., 1993); Vartanian and Gleason (n. 7 above).
46. Jeanne Brookes-Gunn, Greg Duncan, Pamela Klebanov, and Naomi Sealand, "Do Neighborhoods Influence Child and Adolescent Development?" American Journal of Sociology 99 (1993): 353-95; Mary Corcoran and Terry Adams, "Race, Sex, and the Intergenerational Transmission of Poverty," in Consequences of Growing Up Poor, ed. Greg Duncan and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1997); Robert Plotnick and Saul Hoffman, Using Sister Pairs to Estimate How Neighborhoods Affect Young Adult Outcomes, unpublished manuscript (Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management, Washington, D.C., 1993); Vartanian and Gleason (n. 7 above).
47. Brookes-Gunn, Duncan, Klebanov, and Sealand (n. 21 above).
48. For studies on education see Jonathan Crane, "The Epidemic Theory of Ghettos and Neighborhood Effects on Dropping Out and Teenage Childbearing," American Journal of Sociology 96 (1991): 1226-59; Plotnick and Hoffman (n. 21 above); Vartanian and Gleason (n. 7 above). For studies on nonmarital births and criminal activity see Ann Case and Lawrence Katz, "The Company You Keep: The Effects of Family and Neighborhoods on Disadvantaged Youths," Working Paper no. 3705 (National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass., 1991).
49. For studies on education see Jonathan Crane, "The Epidemic Theory of Ghettos and Neighborhood Effects on Dropping Out and Teenage Childbearing," American Journal of Sociology 96 (1991): 1226-59; Plotnick and Hoffman (n. 21 above); Vartanian and Gleason (n. 7 above). For studies on nonmarital births and criminal activity see Ann Case and Lawrence Katz, "The Company You Keep: The Effects of Family and Neighborhoods on Disadvantaged Youths," Working Paper no. 3705 (National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass., 1991).
50. Crane (n. 23 above).
51. Of the 3,709 total observations for the study, 447 observations became neither heads of household nor wives (12.1%). Statistical tests indicated that neighborhood conditions had an insignificant effect on the likelihood of becoming a head of household or a wife.
52. City size is also controlled in the study since researchers have hypothesized that living in more urbanized areas decreases the welfare stigma and therefore makes welfare use more likely. See Mark Rank and Thomas Hirschl, "A Rural-Urban Comparison of Welfare Exits: The Importance of Population Density," Rural Sociology 53 (1988): 190-206; John Fitzgerald, "Local Labor Markets and Local Area Effects on Welfare Durations," Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 14 (1995): 545-61; Thomas Vartanian, "Locational Effects on AFDC Exits: Examining Local Labor Markets," Journal of Socio-Economics 28, no. 5 (1999), in press.
53. City size is also controlled in the study since researchers have hypothesized that living in more urbanized areas decreases the welfare stigma and therefore makes welfare use more likely. See Mark Rank and Thomas Hirschl, "A Rural-Urban Comparison of Welfare Exits: The Importance of Population Density," Rural Sociology 53 (1988): 190-206; John Fitzgerald, "Local Labor Markets and Local Area Effects on Welfare Durations," Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 14 (1995): 545-61; Thomas Vartanian, "Locational Effects on AFDC Exits: Examining Local Labor Markets," Journal of Socio-Economics 28, no. 5 (1999), in press.
54. City size is also controlled in the study since researchers have hypothesized that living in more urbanized areas decreases the welfare stigma and therefore makes welfare use more likely. See Mark Rank and Thomas Hirschl, "A Rural-Urban Comparison of Welfare Exits: The Importance of Population Density," Rural Sociology 53 (1988): 190-206; John Fitzgerald, "Local Labor Markets and Local Area Effects on Welfare Durations," Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 14 (1995): 545-61; Thomas Vartanian, "Locational Effects on AFDC Exits: Examining Local Labor Markets," Journal of Socio-Economics 28, no. 5 (1999), in press.
55. Jane Armitage and Richard Sabot, "Socioeconomic Background and the Returns to Schooling in Two Low-Income Economies," Economica 54 (1995): 409-38; Russell Rumberger, "The Influence of Family Background on Education, Earnings, and Wealth," Social Forces 61 (1983): 755-73; Vartanian, "Neighborhood Effects on AFDC Exits: Examining the Social Isolation, Relative Deprivation and Epidemic Theories" (n. 15 above).
56. Jane Armitage and Richard Sabot, "Socioeconomic Background and the Returns to Schooling in Two Low-Income Economies," Economica 54 (1995): 409-38; Russell Rumberger, "The Influence of Family Background on Education, Earnings, and Wealth," Social Forces 61 (1983): 755-73; Vartanian, "Neighborhood Effects on AFDC Exits: Examining the Social Isolation, Relative Deprivation and Epidemic Theories" (n. 15 above).
57. Jane Armitage and Richard Sabot, "Socioeconomic Background and the Returns to Schooling in Two Low-Income Economies," Economica 54 (1995): 409-38; Russell Rumberger, "The Influence of Family Background on Education, Earnings, and Wealth," Social Forces 61 (1983): 755-73; Vartanian, "Neighborhood Effects on AFDC Exits: Examining the Social Isolation, Relative Deprivation and Epidemic Theories" (n. 15 above).
58. Elchanan Cohn and B. Kiker, "Socioeconomic Background, Schooling, Experience, and Monetary Rewards in the United States," Economica 53 (1986): 497-503; F. Mott, Absent Fathers and Child Development: Emotional and Cognitive Effects at Ages 5-9 (Bethesda, Md.: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 1993); McLanahan (n. 3 above); Sara McLanahan and K. Booth, "Mother-Only Families: Problems, Prospects, and Politics," in Contemporary Families: Looking Forward, Looking Back, ed. Alan Booth (Minneapolis: National Council on Family Relations, 1991).
59. Elchanan Cohn and B. Kiker, "Socioeconomic Background, Schooling, Experience, and Monetary Rewards in the United States," Economica 53 (1986): 497-503; F. Mott, Absent Fathers and Child Development: Emotional and Cognitive Effects at Ages 5-9 (Bethesda, Md.: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 1993); McLanahan (n. 3 above); Sara McLanahan and K. Booth, "Mother-Only Families: Problems, Prospects, and Politics," in Contemporary Families: Looking Forward, Looking Back, ed. Alan Booth (Minneapolis: National Council on Family Relations, 1991).
60. Elchanan Cohn and B. Kiker, "Socioeconomic Background, Schooling, Experience, and Monetary Rewards in the United States," Economica 53 (1986): 497-503; F. Mott, Absent Fathers and Child Development: Emotional and Cognitive Effects at Ages 5-9 (Bethesda, Md.: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 1993); McLanahan (n. 3 above); Sara McLanahan and K. Booth, "Mother-Only Families: Problems, Prospects, and Politics," in Contemporary Families: Looking Forward, Looking Back, ed. Alan Booth (Minneapolis: National Council on Family Relations, 1991).
61. Vartanian and Gleason (n. 7 above).
62. Plotnick and Hoffman (n. 21 above); Vartanian, "Neighborhood Effects on AFDC Exits: Examining the Social Isolation, Relative Deprivation and Epidemic Theories" (n. 15 above), and "Childhood Conditions and Adult Welfare Use: Examining Neighborhood and Family Factors" (n. 19 above).
63. This was done in order to replicate Crane (n. 23 above).
64. James Heckman, "Sample Selection Bias as a Specification Error," in Female Labor Supply: Theory and Estimation, ed. James P. Smith (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1980); James Tobin, "Estimation of Relationships for Limited Dependent Variables," Econometrica 26 (1958): 24-36.
65. James Heckman, "Sample Selection Bias as a Specification Error," in Female Labor Supply: Theory and Estimation, ed. James P. Smith (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1980); James Tobin, "Estimation of Relationships for Limited Dependent Variables," Econometrica 26 (1958): 24-36.
66. Robert Hauser, "Comments on 'Stratification in a Dual Economy,'" American Journal of Sociology 45 (1980): 702-12.
67. John McDonald and Robert Moffit, "The Use of Tobit Analysis," Review of Economics and Statistics 62 (1980): 318-21.
68. b - 1) * 100. See Paul Allison, Multiple Regression (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Pine Forge, 1999).
69. The effects of AFDC income had very similar effects on outcomes as did the percentage of years on AFDC. The results from these tests are quite similar to the results found by Corcoran and Adams (n. 21 above) for particular groups. They measure welfare use by the percentage that welfare makes up total income and find that for black men and white women, income-to-needs is significantly lower for those who receive a substantial portion of income from welfare.
70. When income and poverty status are replaced with a set of dummy variables for income, the coefficient estimates for these variables display a relatively consistent, stepwise effect on the dependent variables.
71. See Vartanian and Gleason (n. 7 above).
72. These same regressions were run for those adolescents who were poor at some point. None of these results gave support to the relative deprivation theory.
73. 2 values for the models by any appreciable amount.
74. See Corcoran and Adams (n. 21 above); Miles Shore, "Psychological Factors in Poverty," in The New Paternalism, ed. Lawrence Mead (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute Press, 1997).