The metaphysics of the national interest and the 'mysticism' of the nation-state: Reading Hans J. Morgenthau

Review of International Studies

Volumn 31, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 217-236

  Pin Fat, Véronique ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 17544367080     PISSN: 02602105     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S026021050500642X     Document Type: Article

References (115)

1. Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, 3rd edn. (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1964), p. 11. All references refer to this edition.
2. Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, p. 11.
3. The pages to which I refer are his (in)famous 'Six Principles of Political Realism', Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, pp. 3-15. For more sensitive readings of Morgenthau, see for example, Benjamin Wong, 'Hans Morgenthau's Anti-Machiavellian Machiavellianism', Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 29:2 (2000), pp. 389-409; A. J. H. Murray, 'The Moral Politics of Hans Morgenthau', The Review of Politics, 58:1 (1996), pp. 81-107; Ulrik Enemark Peterson, 'Breathing Nietzche's Air: New Reflections on Morgenthau's Concepts of Power and Nature', Alternatives, 24:1 (1999), pp. 83-118; Hans Karl Pichler, The Godfathers of "Truth": Max Weber and Carl Schmitt in Morgenthau's Theory of Power Politics', Review of International Studies, 24:2 (1988), pp. 185-200, and William Bain, 'Deconfusing Morgenthau: Moral Inquiry and Classical Realism Reconsidered', Review of International Studies, 26:3 (2000), pp. 445-464.
4. The pages to which I refer are his (in)famous 'Six Principles of Political Realism', Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, pp. 3-15. For more sensitive readings of Morgenthau, see for example, Benjamin Wong, 'Hans Morgenthau's Anti-Machiavellian Machiavellianism', Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 29:2 (2000), pp. 389-409; A. J. H. Murray, 'The Moral Politics of Hans Morgenthau', The Review of Politics, 58:1 (1996), pp. 81-107; Ulrik Enemark Peterson, 'Breathing Nietzche's Air: New Reflections on Morgenthau's Concepts of Power and Nature', Alternatives, 24:1 (1999), pp. 83-118; Hans Karl Pichler, The Godfathers of "Truth": Max Weber and Carl Schmitt in Morgenthau's Theory of Power Politics', Review of International Studies, 24:2 (1988), pp. 185-200, and William Bain, 'Deconfusing Morgenthau: Moral Inquiry and Classical Realism Reconsidered', Review of International Studies, 26:3 (2000), pp. 445-464.
5. The pages to which I refer are his (in)famous 'Six Principles of Political Realism', Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, pp. 3-15. For more sensitive readings of Morgenthau, see for example, Benjamin Wong, 'Hans Morgenthau's Anti-Machiavellian Machiavellianism', Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 29:2 (2000), pp. 389-409; A. J. H. Murray, 'The Moral Politics of Hans Morgenthau', The Review of Politics, 58:1 (1996), pp. 81-107; Ulrik Enemark Peterson, 'Breathing Nietzche's Air: New Reflections on Morgenthau's Concepts of Power and Nature', Alternatives, 24:1 (1999), pp. 83-118; Hans Karl Pichler, The Godfathers of "Truth": Max Weber and Carl Schmitt in Morgenthau's Theory of Power Politics', Review of International Studies, 24:2 (1988), pp. 185-200, and William Bain, 'Deconfusing Morgenthau: Moral Inquiry and Classical Realism Reconsidered', Review of International Studies, 26:3 (2000), pp. 445-464.
6. The pages to which I refer are his (in)famous 'Six Principles of Political Realism', Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, pp. 3-15. For more sensitive readings of Morgenthau, see for example, Benjamin Wong, 'Hans Morgenthau's Anti-Machiavellian Machiavellianism', Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 29:2 (2000), pp. 389-409; A. J. H. Murray, 'The Moral Politics of Hans Morgenthau', The Review of Politics, 58:1 (1996), pp. 81-107; Ulrik Enemark Peterson, 'Breathing Nietzche's Air: New Reflections on Morgenthau's Concepts of Power and Nature', Alternatives, 24:1 (1999), pp. 83-118; Hans Karl Pichler, The Godfathers of "Truth": Max Weber and Carl Schmitt in Morgenthau's Theory of Power Politics', Review of International Studies, 24:2 (1988), pp. 185-200, and William Bain, 'Deconfusing Morgenthau: Moral Inquiry and Classical Realism Reconsidered', Review of International Studies, 26:3 (2000), pp. 445-464.
7. The pages to which I refer are his (in)famous 'Six Principles of Political Realism', Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, pp. 3-15. For more sensitive readings of Morgenthau, see for example, Benjamin Wong, 'Hans Morgenthau's Anti-Machiavellian Machiavellianism', Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 29:2 (2000), pp. 389-409; A. J. H. Murray, 'The Moral Politics of Hans Morgenthau', The Review of Politics, 58:1 (1996), pp. 81-107; Ulrik Enemark Peterson, 'Breathing Nietzche's Air: New Reflections on Morgenthau's Concepts of Power and Nature', Alternatives, 24:1 (1999), pp. 83-118; Hans Karl Pichler, The Godfathers of "Truth": Max Weber and Carl Schmitt in Morgenthau's Theory of Power Politics', Review of International Studies, 24:2 (1988), pp. 185-200, and William Bain, 'Deconfusing Morgenthau: Moral Inquiry and Classical Realism Reconsidered', Review of International Studies, 26:3 (2000), pp. 445-464.
8. The pages to which I refer are his (in)famous 'Six Principles of Political Realism', Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, pp. 3-15. For more sensitive readings of Morgenthau, see for example, Benjamin Wong, 'Hans Morgenthau's Anti-Machiavellian Machiavellianism', Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 29:2 (2000), pp. 389-409; A. J. H. Murray, 'The Moral Politics of Hans Morgenthau', The Review of Politics, 58:1 (1996), pp. 81-107; Ulrik Enemark Peterson, 'Breathing Nietzche's Air: New Reflections on Morgenthau's Concepts of Power and Nature', Alternatives, 24:1 (1999), pp. 83-118; Hans Karl Pichler, The Godfathers of "Truth": Max Weber and Carl Schmitt in Morgenthau's Theory of Power Politics', Review of International Studies, 24:2 (1988), pp. 185-200, and William Bain, 'Deconfusing Morgenthau: Moral Inquiry and Classical Realism Reconsidered', Review of International Studies, 26:3 (2000), pp. 445-464.
9. This reading runs counter to the one eloquently and incisively presented by Peterson, 'Breathing Nietzche's Air'.
10. Whilst many readings of Morgenthau have, legitimately, focused on the connections between his work and that of, for example, Nietzche, Schmitt, Machiavelli, Weber and/or Kant this article is primarily concerned with the Ancient Greek roots of Morgenthau's grammar. Offering a genealogy of the grammar emphasised here, within the context of the history of Western philosophy, is beyond the scope of this article. See note 3 above and Hans Blumenberg, The Legitimacy of the Modern Age (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1985). Thanks to the reviewers for pointing this out.
11. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations. 3rd edn. (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1958), §370. On the implications of reading Morgenthau grammatically for thinking about the place of religion in International Relations, see Carsten Bagge Lausten and Ole Wæver, 'In Defence of Religion: Sacred Referent Objects for Securitization', Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 29:3 (2000), pp. 705-39, at 734.
12. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations. 3rd edn. (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1958), §370. On the implications of reading Morgenthau grammatically for thinking about the place of religion in International Relations, see Carsten Bagge Lausten and Ole Wæver, 'In Defence of Religion: Sacred Referent Objects for Securitization', Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 29:3 (2000), pp. 705-39, at 734.
13. Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, §295.
14. I have discussed this in detail elsewhere in Véronique Pin-Fat, '(Im)possible Universalism: Reading Human Rights in World Politics', Review of International Studies, 26:4 (2000), pp. 663-74. On the - contentious - links between Wittgenstein and deconstruction, see Henry Staten, Wittgenstein and Derrida (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1985).
15. I have discussed this in detail elsewhere in Véronique Pin-Fat, '(Im)possible Universalism: Reading Human Rights in World Politics', Review of International Studies, 26:4 (2000), pp. 663-74. On the - contentious - links between Wittgenstein and deconstruction, see Henry Staten, Wittgenstein and Derrida (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1985).
16. Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, §372.
17. Hans J. Morgenthau, Scientific Man vs. Power Politics (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1946).
18. Hans J. Morgenthau, Science: Servant or Master? (New York: New American Library, 1972), p. 24. For a significantly different reading of this separation and its implications for Morgenthau's metaphysics and ontology, see Peterson's 'Breathing Nietzche's Air'.
19. Hans J. Morgenthau, Science: Servant or Master? (New York: New American Library, 1972), p. 24. For a significantly different reading of this separation and its implications for Morgenthau's metaphysics and ontology, see Peterson's 'Breathing Nietzche's Air'.
20. What F call a 'constitutive dynamic' in Pin-Fat, '(Im)possible Universalism'. Wittgenstein says 'grammar is the shadow of possibility cast by language on phenomena', in Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Grammar (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1974), §329.
21. See in particular, Hans J. Morgenthau, 'Positivism, Functionalism, and International Law'. American Journal of International Law, 34 (1940), pp. 260-84; Morgenthau, Scientific Man; Hans J. Morgenthau, The Nature and Limits of a Theory of International Relations', in W. T. R. Fox (ed.), Theoretical Aspects of International Relations (Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959): Morgenthau, Decline of Democratic Politics; Hans J. Morgenthau, 'Thought and Action in Politics', Social Research: An International Quarterly of the Social Sciences, 38 (Winter 1971), pp. 611-32, and Morgenthau, Servant or Master? Russell also focuses on the details of Morgenthau's metaphysics which underlie his separation of thought and action in Greg Russell, Hans J. Morgenthau and the Ethics of American Statecraft (London: Louisiana State University Press, 1990).
22. See in particular, Hans J. Morgenthau, 'Positivism, Functionalism, and International Law'. American Journal of International Law, 34 (1940), pp. 260-84; Morgenthau, Scientific Man; Hans J. Morgenthau, The Nature and Limits of a Theory of International Relations', in W. T. R. Fox (ed.), Theoretical Aspects of International Relations (Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959): Morgenthau, Decline of Democratic Politics; Hans J. Morgenthau, 'Thought and Action in Politics', Social Research: An International Quarterly of the Social Sciences, 38 (Winter 1971), pp. 611-32, and Morgenthau, Servant or Master? Russell also focuses on the details of Morgenthau's metaphysics which underlie his separation of thought and action in Greg Russell, Hans J. Morgenthau and the Ethics of American Statecraft (London: Louisiana State University Press, 1990).
23. See in particular, Hans J. Morgenthau, 'Positivism, Functionalism, and International Law'. American Journal of International Law, 34 (1940), pp. 260-84; Morgenthau, Scientific Man; Hans J. Morgenthau, The Nature and Limits of a Theory of International Relations', in W. T. R. Fox (ed.), Theoretical Aspects of International Relations (Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959): Morgenthau, Decline of Democratic Politics; Hans J. Morgenthau, 'Thought and Action in Politics', Social Research: An International Quarterly of the Social Sciences, 38 (Winter 1971), pp. 611-32, and Morgenthau, Servant or Master? Russell also focuses on the details of Morgenthau's metaphysics which underlie his separation of thought and action in Greg Russell, Hans J. Morgenthau and the Ethics of American Statecraft (London: Louisiana State University Press, 1990).
24. See in particular, Hans J. Morgenthau, 'Positivism, Functionalism, and International Law'. American Journal of International Law, 34 (1940), pp. 260-84; Morgenthau, Scientific Man; Hans J. Morgenthau, The Nature and Limits of a Theory of International Relations', in W. T. R. Fox (ed.), Theoretical Aspects of International Relations (Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959): Morgenthau, Decline of Democratic Politics; Hans J. Morgenthau, 'Thought and Action in Politics', Social Research: An International Quarterly of the Social Sciences, 38 (Winter 1971), pp. 611-32, and Morgenthau, Servant or Master? Russell also focuses on the details of Morgenthau's metaphysics which underlie his separation of thought and action in Greg Russell, Hans J. Morgenthau and the Ethics of American Statecraft (London: Louisiana State University Press, 1990).
25. See in particular, Hans J. Morgenthau, 'Positivism, Functionalism, and International Law'. American Journal of International Law, 34 (1940), pp. 260-84; Morgenthau, Scientific Man; Hans J. Morgenthau, The Nature and Limits of a Theory of International Relations', in W. T. R. Fox (ed.), Theoretical Aspects of International Relations (Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959): Morgenthau, Decline of Democratic Politics; Hans J. Morgenthau, 'Thought and Action in Politics', Social Research: An International Quarterly of the Social Sciences, 38 (Winter 1971), pp. 611-32, and Morgenthau, Servant or Master? Russell also focuses on the details of Morgenthau's metaphysics which underlie his separation of thought and action in Greg Russell, Hans J. Morgenthau and the Ethics of American Statecraft (London: Louisiana State University Press, 1990).
26. See in particular, Hans J. Morgenthau, 'Positivism, Functionalism, and International Law'. American Journal of International Law, 34 (1940), pp. 260-84; Morgenthau, Scientific Man; Hans J. Morgenthau, The Nature and Limits of a Theory of International Relations', in W. T. R. Fox (ed.), Theoretical Aspects of International Relations (Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959): Morgenthau, Decline of Democratic Politics; Hans J. Morgenthau, 'Thought and Action in Politics', Social Research: An International Quarterly of the Social Sciences, 38 (Winter 1971), pp. 611-32, and Morgenthau, Servant or Master? Russell also focuses on the details of Morgenthau's metaphysics which underlie his separation of thought and action in Greg Russell, Hans J. Morgenthau and the Ethics of American Statecraft (London: Louisiana State University Press, 1990).
27. See in particular, Hans J. Morgenthau, 'Positivism, Functionalism, and International Law'. American Journal of International Law, 34 (1940), pp. 260-84; Morgenthau, Scientific Man; Hans J. Morgenthau, The Nature and Limits of a Theory of International Relations', in W. T. R. Fox (ed.), Theoretical Aspects of International Relations (Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959): Morgenthau, Decline of Democratic Politics; Hans J. Morgenthau, 'Thought and Action in Politics', Social Research: An International Quarterly of the Social Sciences, 38 (Winter 1971), pp. 611-32, and Morgenthau, Servant or Master? Russell also focuses on the details of Morgenthau's metaphysics which underlie his separation of thought and action in Greg Russell, Hans J. Morgenthau and the Ethics of American Statecraft (London: Louisiana State University Press, 1990).
28. Due to the limitation of space I shall not address the gender-bias in Morgenthau's notion of 'man' and 'human nature', though it is acknowledged that this is an important aspect of his language game. For a detailed argument that addresses this point, see J. Ann Tickner, 'Hans Morgenthau's Principles of Political Realism: A Feminist Reformulation', Millennium: Journal of International Studies 17:3 (1988), pp. 429-40.
29. Morgenthau, Servant or Master?, p. 25.
30. Ibid., p. 25. Italics added.
31. Ibid., p. 29.
32. Ibid., p. 25.
33. Ibid., p. 71.
34. The implications of Morgenthau's view of the relationship between sense-objects and knowledge deny the possibility that he is an empiricist or a positivist. See the section on reason for a sustained elaboration of this theme.
35. An anonymous reviewer pointed this out to me for which I am grateful.
36. Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, §372.
37. Ibid., §371.
38. Grammar is not accountable to reality and in that sense is arbitrary and autonomous. Wittgenstein, Philosophical Grammar, p. 184.
39. Russell, Huns. J. Morgenthau, pp. 74-80.
40. Morgenthau's definition of man's 'consciousness of the divine' is as the unfulfilled longing for union with God in perfection.
41. Russell, Hans. J. Morgenthau, p. 75. Italics added.
42. Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, p. 4.
43. Here I am in agreement with Griffith's statement that Morgenthau's understanding of human nature 'invokes a metaphysical and religious conception of "fallen man'". See Martin Griffiths, Realism, Idealism and International Politics: A Reinterpretation (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 38. This mitigates against a reading of Morgenthau as a positivist.
44. Morgenthau, Scientific Man, p. 191.
45. I b i d.
46. Morgenthau, Scientific Man, p. 201.
47. Ibid., p. 192.
48. Ibid., p. 191. This argument is only compelling if one accepts that the single criterion of selfishness is self reference. On this formulation, selfishness is unavoidable in so far as every action requires an actor.
49. I b i d.
50. Ibid., p. 192.
51. I b i d.
52. Ibid., p. 188.
53. Ibid., p. 193.
54. I b i d.
55. Morgenthau, Decline of Democratic Politics, p. 13.
56. Morgenthau, Scientific Man, pp. 189-190.
57. Morgenthau, Decline of Democratic Politics, p. 375.
58. Ibid., pp. 368-76. See also Hans J. Morgenthau, 'The Sanctity of Moral Law', Christian Ethics Today: Journal of Christian Ethics, Issue 12 On-Line, 3:4 (September 1997), and Hans J. Morgenthau, The Intellectual and Moral Dilemma of History', Christianity and Crisis (8 February 1960).
59. Ibid., pp. 368-76. See also Hans J. Morgenthau, 'The Sanctity of Moral Law', Christian Ethics Today: Journal of Christian Ethics, Issue 12 On-Line, 3:4 (September 1997), and Hans J. Morgenthau, The Intellectual and Moral Dilemma of History', Christianity and Crisis (8 February 1960).
60. Ibid., pp. 368-76. See also Hans J. Morgenthau, 'The Sanctity of Moral Law', Christian Ethics Today: Journal of Christian Ethics, Issue 12 On-Line, 3:4 (September 1997), and Hans J. Morgenthau, The Intellectual and Moral Dilemma of History', Christianity and Crisis (8 February 1960).
61. However, what Plato and Aristotle believed to be universal differs. In the case of Plato it was the Forms (eide) and in the case of Aristotle substance (ousia).
62. Morgenthau, Decline of Democratic Politics, p. 372.
63. Ibid., p. 373.
64. I b i d.
65. Ibid., p. 375.
66. Ibid., pp. 372-73.
67. Ibid., p. 375.
68. Morgenthau, Scientific Man, p. 188.
69. Morgenthau, Servant or Master?, p. 34.
70. Aristotle quoted in Russell, Hans. J. Morgenthau, p. 79.
71. Morgenthau, Servant or Master?, p. 34.
72. Ibid., pp. 58-60.
73. Ibid., p. 59.
74. See his section 'Science without Meaning', Morgenthau, Servant or Master?, pp. 11-18.
75. Ibid., p. 13.
76. Ibid., p. 46.
77. For a discussion of Weber's notion of a world disenchanted see Alkis Kontos, 'The World Disenchanted', in Asher Horowitz and Terry Maley (eds.), The Barbarism of Reason: Max Weber and the Twilight of Enlightenment (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994).
78. The links of Morgenthau's work with Weber are now well documented. See Michael Joseph Smith, Realist Thought from Weber to Kissinger (Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1986) and S.P. Turner and R.A. Factor, Max Weber and the Dispute over Reason and Value: A Study in Philosophy, Ethics and Politics (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1984). Although Morgenthau only explicitly references Weber once in his work (Politics Among Nations), in later life he acknowledged his intellectual debts to his thought. He later said, 'Weber's political thought possessed all the intellectual and moral qualities I had looked for in vain in the contemporary literature inside and outside the universities...While as a citizen he was a passionate observer of the political scene and a frustrated participant in it, as a scholar he looked at politics without passion and pursued no political purpose beyond the intellectual one of understanding.' See Hans J. Morgenthau, 'Fragment of an Intellectual Autobiography', in Kenneth W. Thompson and Robert J. Myers (eds.), Truth and Tragedy: A Tribute to Hans Morgenthau (Washington, DC: The New Republic Book Company, 1977), p. 7.
79. The links of Morgenthau's work with Weber are now well documented. See Michael Joseph Smith, Realist Thought from Weber to Kissinger (Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1986) and S.P. Turner and R.A. Factor, Max Weber and the Dispute over Reason and Value: A Study in Philosophy, Ethics and Politics (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1984). Although Morgenthau only explicitly references Weber once in his work (Politics Among Nations), in later life he acknowledged his intellectual debts to his thought. He later said, 'Weber's political thought possessed all the intellectual and moral qualities I had looked for in vain in the contemporary literature inside and outside the universities...While as a citizen he was a passionate observer of the political scene and a frustrated participant in it, as a scholar he looked at politics without passion and pursued no political purpose beyond the intellectual one of understanding.' See Hans J. Morgenthau, 'Fragment of an Intellectual Autobiography', in Kenneth W. Thompson and Robert J. Myers (eds.), Truth and Tragedy: A Tribute to Hans Morgenthau (Washington, DC: The New Republic Book Company, 1977), p. 7.
80. The links of Morgenthau's work with Weber are now well documented. See Michael Joseph Smith, Realist Thought from Weber to Kissinger (Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1986) and S.P. Turner and R.A. Factor, Max Weber and the Dispute over Reason and Value: A Study in Philosophy, Ethics and Politics (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1984). Although Morgenthau only explicitly references Weber once in his work (Politics Among Nations), in later life he acknowledged his intellectual debts to his thought. He later said, 'Weber's political thought possessed all the intellectual and moral qualities I had looked for in vain in the contemporary literature inside and outside the universities...While as a citizen he was a passionate observer of the political scene and a frustrated participant in it, as a scholar he looked at politics without passion and pursued no political purpose beyond the intellectual one of understanding.' See Hans J. Morgenthau, 'Fragment of an Intellectual Autobiography', in Kenneth W. Thompson and Robert J. Myers (eds.), Truth and Tragedy: A Tribute to Hans Morgenthau (Washington, DC: The New Republic Book Company, 1977), p. 7.
81. Morgenthau, Scientific Man, p. 209.
82. I b i d.
83. Morgenthau, Servant or Master?, p. 61.
84. Morgenthau, Decline of Democratic Politics, p. 319.
85. Morgenthau, Servant or Master?, p. 34.
86. Raymond Aron, 'Max Weber and Power Politics', in O. Stammer (ed.), Max Weber and Sociology Today (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1971), p. 85.
87. Max Weber, 'Politics as a Vocation', in H. H. Gerth and C. W. Mills (eds.), From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), p. 78. Morgenthau accepted this, repeating Weber's position almost verbatim in Morgenthau, Scientific Man, p. 195.
88. Max Weber, 'Politics as a Vocation', in H. H. Gerth and C. W. Mills (eds.), From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), p. 78. Morgenthau accepted this, repeating Weber's position almost verbatim in Morgenthau, Scientific Man, p. 195.
89. Morgenthau, Scientific Man, p. 168.
90. Ibid., p. 203.
91. Turner and Factor, Max Weber.
92. Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, p. 5.
93. Weber, 'Politics as a Vocation', p. 121.
94. Morgenthau, Servant or Master?, p. 45.
95. G. Roth and W. Schluchter, Max Weber's Vision of History (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1979), p. 85.
96. Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, p. 8.
97. Morgenthau, Servant or Master?, p. 45.
98. Hans J. Morgenthau, 'Another "Great Debate": The National Interest of the United States', The American Political Science Review, XLVI:4 (1952), p. 972.
99. I b i d.
100. Hans J. Morgenthau, In Defense of the National Interest (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1951), p. 38.
101. Morgenthau, Another "Great Debate'", p. 973.
102. Ibid., p. 976.
103. Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, p. 11.
104. Ibid., p. 10.
105. Morgenthau, Defense of the National Interest, p. 35.
106. Ibid., p. 34.
107. I b i d.
108. I b i d.
109. Plato, 'Parmenides' in Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns (eds.), Plato: The Collected Dialogues including the Letters (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1961). See also Véronique Pin-Fat, 'Participation and the Later Theory of Forms in the "Parmenides": The Dismantling of a Two-World Interpretation', Hong Kong University Annual Journal of Philosophy (1990).
110. Plato, 'Parmenides' in Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns (eds.), Plato: The Collected Dialogues including the Letters (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1961). See also Véronique Pin-Fat, 'Participation and the Later Theory of Forms in the "Parmenides": The Dismantling of a Two-World Interpretation', Hong Kong University Annual Journal of Philosophy (1990).
111. Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, p. 11.
112. This is not the only difficulty, of course. The whole notion of transcendent, timeless, eternal universals, the existence of God and so on, is deeply contentious. I do not address well-rehearsed criticisms here.
113. Morgenthau, Servant or Master?, p. 57.
114. Morgenthau, Decline of Democratic Politics, p. 109. Italics added.
115. Ibid., p. 108.