Small vessel vasculitis of the lung

Chronic Respiratory Disease

Volumn 2, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 75-84

  Frankel, S K ^a   Cosgrove, G P ^a   Brown, Kevin K ^a  

^a NATIONAL JEWISH MEDICAL AND RESEARCH CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

ANCA; Churg Strauss syndrome; Lung; Microscopic polyangiitis; Vasculitis; Wegener's granulomatosis

Indexed keywords

AUTOANTIBODY; AZATHIOPRINE; BISPHOSPHONIC ACID DERIVATIVE; CALCIUM; CORTICOSTEROID; COTRIMOXAZOLE; CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE; ETANERCEPT; IMMUNOGLOBULIN; INFLIXIMAB; LEFLUNOMIDE; METHOTREXATE; METHYLPREDNISOLONE; MYCOPHENOLIC ACID 2 MORPHOLINOETHYL ESTER; MYELOPEROXIDASE ANTIBODY; NEUTROPHIL CYTOPLASMIC ANTIBODY; PREDNISONE; PSEUDOMONIC ACID; RITUXIMAB; THYMOCYTE ANTIBODY; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA ANTIBODY; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VITAMIN D;

BLADDER CANCER; CANCER RISK; CHILL; CHURG STRAUSS SYNDROME; CLINICAL EXAMINATION; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; CORRELATION ANALYSIS; CORTICOSTEROID THERAPY; DIARRHEA; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DISEASE ACTIVITY; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; DISEASE SEVERITY; DYSPEPSIA; ENZYME LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY; EOSINOPHILIA; FATIGUE; FEVER; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; GLOMERULONEPHRITIS; HEMORRHAGIC CYSTITIS; HUMAN; IMMUNOFLUORESCENCE; IMMUNOGLOBULIN DEPOSITION; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE TREATMENT; INFECTION; INFECTION RISK; LEUKOPENIA; LUNG BIOPSY; LUNG CAVITY; LUNG DISEASE; LUNG HEMORRHAGE; LUNG NODULE; MALAISE; META ANALYSIS; MICROSCOPIC POLYANGIITIS; MONONEUROPATHY MULTIPLEX; MYALGIA; NAUSEA; OSTEOPOROSIS; PLASMAPHERESIS; PNEUMOCYSTIS PNEUMONIA; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PURPURA; REVIEW; SERODIAGNOSIS; SIDE EFFECT; SMALL VESSEL VASCULITIS; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; THORAX RADIOGRAPHY; TREATMENT INDICATION; VOMITING; WEGENER GRANULOMATOSIS;

HUMANS; LUNG DISEASES; RARE DISEASES; VASCULITIS;

EID: 17444429691     PISSN: 14799723     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1191/1479972305cd070rs     Document Type: Review

References (121)

1. Cotch MF, Hoffman GS, Yerg DE, Kaufman GI, Targonski P, Kaslow RA. The epidemiology of Wegener's granulomatosis: estimates of the five-year period prevalence, annual mortality, and geographic disease distribution from population based data sources. Arthritis Rheum 1996; 39: 87-92.
2. Watts RA, Lane SE, Bentham G, Scott DG. Epidemiology of systemic vasculitis: a ten-year study in the United Kingdom. Arthritis Rheum 2000; 43: 414-19.
3. Abdou NI, Kullman GJ, Hoffman GS et al. Wegener's granulomatosis: survey of 701 patients in North America. Changes in outcome in the 1990s. J Rheumatol 2002; 29: 309-16.
4. Jennette JC, Falk RJ, Andrassy K et al. Nomenclature of systemic vasculitides. Proposal of an international consensus conference. Arthritis Rheum 1994; 37: 187-92.
5. Jennette JC, Falk RJ. Clinical and pathological classification of ANCA-associated vasculitis: what are the controversies? Clin Exp Immunol 1995; 101(Suppl 1): 18-22.
6. Jennette JC, Falk R, Andrassay K et al. Nomenclature of systemic vasculitides. Arthritis Rheum 1990; 37: 187-92.
7. Rao JK, Allen NB, Pincus T. Limitations of the 1990 American College of Rheumatology classification criteria in the diagnosis of vasculitis. Ann Intern Med 1998; 129: 345-52.
8. Sorensen SF, Slot O, Tvede N, Petersen J. A prospective study of vasculitis patients collected in a five year period: evaluation of the Chapel Hill nomenclature. Ann Rheum Dis 2000; 59: 478-82.
9. Zamora MR, Warner ML, Tuder R, Schwarz MI. Diffuse alveolar hemorrhage and systemic lupus erthematosus (SLE): clinical presentation, histology, survival and outcome. Medicine 1997; 76: 192-202.
10. Bolton WK. Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis. Semin Nephrol 1996; 16: 517-26.
11. Couser WG. Glomerulonephritis. Lancet 1999; 353: 1509-15.
12. Madaio MP, Harrington JT. The diagnosis of glomerular diseases. Arch Intern Med 2001; 161: 25-34.
13. Niles JL, Bottinger EP, Saurina GR et al. The syndrome of lung hemorrhage and nephritis is usually an ANCA-associated condition. Arch Intern Med 1996; 156: 440-45.
14. Saxena R, Bygren P, Arvastsin B, Wieslander J. Circulating autoantibodies as serological markers in the differential diagnosis of pulmonary renal syndrome. J Intern Med 1995; 238: 143-52.
15. Jayne DR. Pulmonary-renal syndrome. Semin in Respir and Crit Care Med 1998; 19: 69-77.
16. Cordier J-F, Valeyre D, Guillevin L, Loire R, Crechot J-M. Pulmonary Wegener's granulomatosis. A clinical and imaging study of 77 cases. Chest 1990; 97: 906-12.
17. Reuter M, Schnabel A, Wesner F et al. Pulmonary Wegener's granulomatosis: correlation between high-resolution CT findings and clinical scoring of disease activity. Chest 1998; 114: 500-506.
18. Frankel SK, Sullivan EJ, Brown KK. Vasculitis: Wegener granulomatosis, Churg-Strauss syndrome, microscopic polyangiitis, polyarteritis nodosa, and Takayasu arteritis. Crit Care Clin 2002; 18: 855-79.
19. Hoffman GS, Kerr GS, Leavitt RY et al. Wegener's granulomatosis: an analysis of 158 patients. Ann Intern Med 1992; 116: 488-98.
20. Swerlick RA, Lawley TJ. Cutaneous vasculitis: its relationship to systemic disease. Med Clin North Am 1989; 73: 1221 -35.
21. Moore PM, Fauci AS. Neurologic manifestations of systemic vasculitis. Am J Med 1981; 71: 517-24.
22. Guillevin L, Lhote F, Gherardi R. Polyarteritis nodosa, microscopic polyangiitis, and Churg-Strauss syndrome: clinical aspects, neurologic manifestations, and treatment. Neurol Clin 1997; 15: 865-86.
23. Moore PM, Calabrese LH. Neurologic manifestations of systemic vasculitides. Semin Neurol 1994; 14: 300-306.
24. Moore PM. Vasculitis of the central nervous system. Semin Neurol 1994; 14: 307-12.
25. Hoffman GS, Specks U. Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies. Arthritis Rheum 1998; 41: 1521-37.
26. Cohen-Tervaert JW, van der Woude FJ, Fauci AS et al. Association between active Wegener's granulomatosis and anticytoplasmic antibodies. Arch Intern Med 1989; 149: 2461-65.
27. Falk RJ, Jennette JC. Anti-neutorphil cytoplasmic autoantibodies with specificity from myeloperoxidase in patients with systemic vasculitis and idiopathic necrotizing and crescentic glomerulonephritis. NEJM 1988; 325: 1651-57.
28. Halbwachs-Mecarelli L, Nusbaum P, Noel LH, Remaux D, Erlinger S. Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA) directed against cathepsin G in ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease and primary sclerosing cholangitis. Clin Exp Immunol 1992; 90: 79-84.
29. van der Woude FJ. Taking anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA) testing beyond the limits. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2002; 17: 2081-83.
30. Stone JH, Talor M, Stebbing J et al. Test characteristics of immunofluorescence and ELISA tests in 856 consecutive patients with possible ANCA-associated conditions. Arthritis Care Res 2000; 13: 424-34.
31. Mandl LA, Solomon DH, Smith EL, Lew RA, Katz JN, Shmerling RH. Using antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody testing to diagnose vasculitis. Arch Intern Med 2002; 162: 1509-14.
32. Hagen EC, Daha MR, Hermans J et al. Diagnostic value of standardized assays for anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies in idiopathic systemic vasculitis. EC/BCR Project for ANCA Assay Standardization. Kidney Int 1998; 53: 743-53.
33. Choi HK, Liu S, Merkel PA, Colditz GA, Niles JL. Diagnostic performance of antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody tests for idiopathic vasculitides: metaanalysis with a focus on myeloperoxidase antibodies. J Rheumatol 2001; 28: 1584-90.
34. Russell KA, Wiegert E, Schroeder ER, Homburger HA, Specks U. Detection of anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies under actual clinical testing conditions. Clin Immunol 2002; 103: 196-203.
35. Devaney KO, Travis WD, Hoffman G, Leavitt R, Lebovics R, Fauci AS. Interpretation of head and neck biopsies in Wegener's granulomatosis. A pathologic study of 126 biopsies in 70 patients. Am J Surg Pathol 1990; 14: 555-64.
36. Haas M, Spargo BH, Wit EJ, Meehan SM. Etiologies and outcome of acute renal insufficiency in older adults: a renal biopsy study of 259 cases. Am J Kidney Dis 2000; 35: 433-47.
37. Jennette JC, Falk RJ. The pathology of vasculitis involving the kidney. Am J Kidney Dis 1994; 24: 130-41.
38. Weiss MA, Crissman JD. Segmental necrotizing glomerulonephritis: diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic significance. Am J Kidney Dis 1985; 6: 199-211.
39. Hauer HA, Bajema IM, van Houwelingen HC et al. Renal histology in ANCA-associated vasculitis: differences between diagnostic and serologic subgroups. Kidney Int 2002; 61: 80-89.
40. Schnabel A, Holl-Ulrich K, Dalhoff K, Reuter M, Gross WL. Efficacy of transbronchial biopsy in pulmonary vasculitides. Eur Respir J 1997; 10: 2738-43.
41. Specks U. Pulmonary vasculitis. In Schwarz MI, King TE, eds. Intersitial lung disease, third edition, Hamilton: B.C. Decker; 1998, 507-34.
42. Langford CA. Treatment of ANCA-associated vasculitis. N Engl J Med 2003; 349: 3-4.
43. Jayne D, Rasmussen N, Andrassy K et al. A randomized trial of maintenance therapy for vasculitis associated with antineutrophil cytoplasmic autoantibodies. N Engl J Med 2003; 349: 36-44.
44. Falk RJ, Hogan SL, Carey TS, Jennette JC. Network TGDC. Clinical course of anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic autoantibody-associated glomerulnephritis and systemic vasculitis. Ann Intern Med 1990; 113: 656-63.
45. Kallenberg CGM, Tervaert JWC. New treatments of ANCA-associated vasculitis. Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis 2000; 17: 125-29.
46. Cohen Tervaert JW, Stegeman CA, Kallenberg CG. Novel therapies for anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2001; 10: 211-17.
47. Jayne D. Evidence-based treatment of systemic vasculitis. Rhematology 2000; 39: 585-95.
48. Aasarod K, Iversen BM, Hammerstrom J, Bostad L, Vatten L, Jorstad S. Wegener's granulomatosis: clinical course in 108 patients with renal involvement. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2000; 15: 611-18.
49. Reinhold-Keller E, Beuge N, Latza U et al. An interdisciplinary approach to the care of patients with Wegener's granulomatosis. Arthritis Rheum 2000; 43: 1021-32.
50. Koldingsnes W, Nossent H. Predictors of survival and organ damage in Wegener's granulomatosis. Rhematology 2002; 41: 572-81.
51. Luqmani RA, Bacon PA, Moots RJ et al. Birmingham Vasculitis Activity Score (BVAS) in systemic necrotizing vasculitis. Q J Med 1994; 87: 671-78.
52. Guillevin L, Lhote F, Gayraud M et al. Prognostic factors in polyarteritis nodosa and Churg-Strauss syndrome. A prospective study in 342 patients. Medicine 1996; 75: 17-28.
53. Hogan SL, Nachman PH, Wilkman AS, Jennette JC, Falk RJ. Prognostic markers in patients with antineutrophil cytoplasmic autoantibody-associated microscopic polyangiitis and glomerulonephritis. J Am Soc Nephrol 1996; 7: 23-32.
54. De'Oliviera J, Gaskin G, Dash A, Rees AJ, Pusey CD. Relationship between disease activity and anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody concentration in long-term management of systemic vasculitis. Am J Kidney Dis 1995; 25: 380-89.
55. Mahr A, Girard T, Agher R, Guillevin L. Analysis of factors predictive of survival based on 49 patients with systemic Wegener's granulomatosis and prospective follow-up. Rhematology 2001; 40: 492-98.
56. Koldingsnes W, Nossent JC. Baseline features and initial treatment as predictors of remission and relpase in Wegener's granulomatosis. J Rheumatol 2003; 30: 80-88.
57. www.vasculitis.org. In EUVAS Study Group; 2004.
58. Langford CA, Talar-Williams C, Sneller MC. Use of methotrexate and glucocorticoids in the treatment of Wegener's granulomatosis. Long-term renal outcome in patients with glomerulonephritis. Arthritis Rheum 2000; 43: 1836-40.
59. de Groot K, Muhler M, Reinhold-Keller E, Paulsen J, Gross WL. Induction of remission in Wegener's granulomatosis with low dose methotrexate. J Rheumatol 1998; 25: 492-95.
60. Stone JH, Tun W, Hellman DB. Treatment of non-life threatening Wegener's granulomatosis with methotrexate and daily prednisone as the initial therapy of choice. J Rheumatol 1999; 26: 1134-39.
61. Fauci AS, Haynes BF, Katz P, Wolff SM. Wegener's granulomatosis: propsective clinical and therapeutic expeience with 85 patients for 21 years. Ann Intern Med 1983; 98: 76-85.
62. Hoffman GS, Leavitt RY, Fleisher TA, Minor JR, Fauci AS. Treatment of Wegener's granulomatosis with intermittent high-dose intravenous cyclophosphamide. Am J Med 1990; 89: 399-402.
63. de Groot K, Adu D, Savage CO. The value of pulse cyclophosphamide in ANCA-associated vasculitis: meta-analysis and critical review. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2001; 16: 2018-27.
64. Pusey CD, Rees AJ, Evans DJ, Peters DK, Lockwood CM. Plasma exchange in focal necrotizing glomerulonephritis without anti-GBM antibodies. Kidney Int 1991; 40: 757-63.
65. Guillevin L, Lhote F, Cohen P et al. Corticosteroids plus pulse cyclophosphamide and plasma exchanges versus corticosteroids plus pulse cyclophosphamide alone in the treatment of polyarteritis nodosa and Churg-Strauss syndrome patients with factors predicting poor prognosis. A prospective, randomized trial in sixty-two patients. Arthritis Rheum 1995; 38: 1638-45.
66. Gaskin G, Pusey C. Plasmapheresis in antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated systemic vasculitis. Ther Apher 2001; 5: 176-81.
67. Frasca GM, Soverini ML, Falaschini A, Tampieri E, Vangelista A, Stefoni S. Plasma exchange treatment improves prognosis of antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated crescentic glomerulonephritis: a case-control study in 26 patients from a single center. Therap Apher Dial 2003; 7: 540-46.
68. Bosch X, Font J, Mirapeix E, Revert L, Ingelmo M, Urbano-Marquez A. Antimyeloperoxidase autoantibody-associated necrotizing alveolar capillaritis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 146: 1326-29.
69. Schmitt WH, Hagen EC, Neumann I, Nowack R, Flores-Suarez LF, van der Woude FJ. Treatment of refractory Wegeners granulomatosis with antithymocyte globulin (ATG): an open study in 15 patients. Kidney Int 2004; 65: 1440-48.
70. Stone JH, Uhlfelder ML, Hellmann DB, Crook S, Bedocs NM, Hoffman GS. Etanercept combined with conventional treatment in Wegener's granulomatosis: a six-month open-label trial to evaluate safety. Arthritis Rheum 2001; 44: 1149-54.
71. Lamprecht P, Voswinkel J, Lilienthal T et al. Effectiveness of TNF-a blockade with infliximab in refractory Wegener's granulomatosis. Rheumatology 2002; 41: 1303-307.
72. Bartolucci P, Ramanoelina J, Cohen P et al. Efficacy of the anti-TNF-alpha antibody infliximab against refractory systemic vascuiltides: an open pilot study on 10 patients. Rhematology 2002; 41: 1126-32.
73. Levy Y, George J, Fabbrizzi F, Rotman P, Paz Y, Shoenfeld Y. Marked improvement of Churg-Strauss vasculitis with intravenous gamma-globulins. South Med J 1999; 92: 412-14.
74. Jordan SC. Treatment of systemic and renal-limited vasculitic disorders with pooled human intravenous immune globulin. J Clin Immunol 1995; 15(Suppl 6): 76S-85S.
75. Jayne DR, Chapel H, Adu D et al. Intravenous immunoglobulin for ANCA-associated systemic vasculitis with persistent disease activity. Q J Med 2000; 93: 433-39.
76. Jayne D. Update on the European Vasculitis Study Group trials. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2001; 13: 48-55.
77. Specks U, Fervenza FC, McDonald TJ, Hogan MC. Response of Wegener's granulomatosis to anti-CD20 chimeric monoclonal antibody therapy. Arthritis Rheum 2001; 44: 2836-40.
78. Reinhold-Keller E, Fink CO, Herlyn K, Gross WL, de Groot K. High rate of renal relapse in 71 patients with Wegener's granulomatosis under maintenance remission with low-dose methotrexate. Arthritis-Rheum 2002; 47: 326-32.
79. Haubitz M, de Groot K. Tolerance of mycophenolate mofetil in end-stage renal disease patients with ANCA-associated vasculitis. Clin Nephrol 2002; 57: 421-24.
80. Nowack R, Gobel U, Klooker P, Hergesell O, Andrassy K, van der Woude FJ. Mycophenolate mofetil for maintenance therapy of Wegener's granulomatosis and microscopic polyangiitis: a pilot study in 11 patients with renal involvement. J Am Soc Nephrol 1999; 10: 1965-71.
81. Metzler C, Fink C, Lamprecht P, Gross WL, Reinhold-Keller E. Maintenance of remission with leflunomide in Wegener's granulomatosis. Rhematology (Oxford) 2004; 43: 315-20.
82. Hoffman GS, Leavitt RY, Kerr GS, Fauci AS. The treatment of Wegener's granulomatosis with glucocorticoids and methotrexate. Arthritis Rheum 1992; 35: 1322-29.
83. Sneller MC, Hoffman GS, Talar-Williams C, Kerr GS, Hallahan CW, Fauci AS. An analysis of forty-two Wegener's granulomatosis patients treated with methotrexate and prednisone. Arthritis Rheum 1995; 38: 608-13.
84. Wegener's Granulomatosis Etanercept Trail (WGET) Research Group. Etanercept plus standard therapy for Wegener' granulomatosis. N Engl J Med 2005; 352: 351-61.
85. Ohtake T, Kobayashi S, Honjou Y et al. Generalized Wegener's granulomatosis responding to sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim monotherapy. Intern Med 2001; 40: 666-70.
86. Stegeman CA, Tervaert JW, Sluiter WJ, Manson WL, de Jong PE, Kallenberg CG. Association of chronic nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus and higher relapse rates in Wegener granulomatosis. Ann Intern Med 1994; 120: 12-17.
87. Stegeman CA, Tervaert JW, de Jong PE, Kallenberg CGM. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for the prevention of relapses of Wegener's granulomatosis. N Engl J Med 1996; 335: 16-20.
88. Leavitt RY, Hoffman GS, Fauci AS. Response: the role of trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole in the treatment of Wegener's granulomatosis. Arthritis Rheum 1988; 31: 1073-74.
89. Reinhold-Keller E, de Groot K, Rudert H, Nolle B, Heller M, Gross WL. Response to trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole in Wegener's granulomatosis depends on the phase of the disease. Q J Med 1996; 89: 15-23.
90. Gordon M, Luqmani RA, Adu D et al. Relapses in patients with a systemic vasculitis. Q J Med 1993; 86: 779-89.
91. Gayraud M, Guillevin L, le Toumelin P et al. Long-term followup of polyarteritis nodosa, microscopic polyangiitis, and Churg-Strauss syndrome: analysis of four prospective trials including 278 patients. Arthritis Rheum 2001; 44: 666-75.
92. Kerr GS, Fleisher TA, Hallahan CW, Leavitt RY, Fauci AS, Hoffman GS. Limited prognostic value of changes in antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody titers in patients with Wegener's granulomatosis. Adv Exp Med Biol 1993; 336: 411-14.
93. Girard T, Mahr A, Noel LH et al. Are antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies a marker predictive of relapse in Wegener's granulomatosis? A prospective study. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2001; 40: 147-51.
94. Matteson EL, Gold KN, Bloch DA, Hunder GG. Long-term survival of patients with Wegener's granulomatosis from the American College of Rheumatology Wegener's granulomatosis criteria cohort. Am J Med 1996; 101: 129-34.
95. Romas E, Murphy BF, d'Apice AJ, Kennedy JT, Niall JF. Wegener's granulomatosis: clinical features and prognosis in 37 patients. Aust NZ J Med 1993; 23: 168-75.
96. Bradley JD, Brandt KD, Katz BP. Infectious complications of cyclophosphamide treatment for vasculitis. Arthritis Rheum 1989; 32: 45-53.
97. Stuck AE, Minder CE, Frey FJ. Risk of infectious complications in patients taking glucocorticoids. Rev Infect Dis 1989; 11: 954-63.
98. Adu D, Howie AJ, Scott DG, Bacon PA, McGonigle RJ, Micheal J. Polyarteritis and the kidney. Q J Med 1987; 62: 221-37.
99. Guillevin L, Cohen P, Gayraud M, Lhote F, Jarrousse B, Casassus P. Churg-Strauss syndrome. Clinical study and long-term follow-up of 96 patients. Medicine 1999; 78: 26-37.
100. Solans R, Bosch JA, Perez-Bocanegra C et al. Churg-Strauss syndrome: outcome and long-term follow-up of 32 patients. Rheumatology 2001; 40: 763-71.
101. Anderson G, Coles ET, Crane M et al. Wegener's granulomatosis: a series of 265 British cases seen between 1975 and 1985. A report by a sub-committee of the British Thoracic Society Research Committee. Q J Med 1992; 83: 427-38.
102. Guillevin L, Durand-Gasselin B, Cevallos R et al. Microscopic polyangiitis. Arthritis Rheum 1999; 42: 421-30.
103. Lanham J, Elkon K, Pusey C, Hughes G. Systemic vasculitis with asthma and eosinophilia: a clinical approach to the Churg-Strauss syndrome. Medicine 1984; 63: 65-81.
104. Guillevin L, Guittard T, Bletry O, Godeau P, Rosenthal P. Systemic necrotizing angiitis with asthma: causes and precipitating factors in 43 cases. Lung 1987; 165: 165-72.
105. Lhote F, Guillevin L. Polyarteritis nodosa, microscopic polyangiitis and Churg-Strauss syndrome. Semin in Respir and Crit Care Med 1998; 19: 27-45.
106. Savage CO, Winearls CG, Evans DJ, Rees AJ, Lockwood CM. Microscopic polyarteritis: presentation, pathology and prognosis. Q J Med 1985; 56: 467-83.
107. Aasarod K, Bostad L, Hammerstrom J, Jorstad S, Iversen BM. Renal histopathology and clinical course in 94 patients with Wegener's granulomatosis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2001; 16: 953-60.
108. Ara J, Mirapeix E, Rodriguez R, Saurina A, Darnell A. Relationship between ANCA and disease activity in small vessel vasculitis patients with anti-MPO ANCA. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1999; 14: 1667-72.
109. Cohen P, Guillevin L, Baril L, Lhote F, Noel LH, Lesavre P. Persistence of antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA) in asymptomatic patients with systemic polyarteritis nodosa or Churg-Strauss syndrome: follow-up of 53 patients. Clin Exp Rheumatol 1995; 13: 193-98.
110. Cohen Tervaert JW, Goldschmeding R, Elema JD et al. Association of autoantibodies to myeloperoxidase with different forms of vasculitis. Arthritis Rheum 1990; 33: 1264-72.
111. Cohen-Tervaert JW, Goldschmeding R, Elema JD, Von dem Borne AE, Kallenberg CG. Antimyeloperoxidase antibodies in the Churg-Strauss syndrome. Thorax 1991; 46: 70-71.
112. Gaskin G, Savage CO, Ryan JJ et al. Anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies and disease activity during long-term follow-up of 70 patients with systemic vasculitis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1991; 6: 689-94.
113. Gross WL. Antineutrophil cytoplasmic autoantibody testing in vasculitides. Rheum Dis Clin North Am 1995; 21: 987-1011.
114. Guillevin L, Visser H, Noel LH et al. Antineutrophil cytoplasm antibodies in systemic polyarteritis nodosa with and without hepatitis B virus infection and Churg-Strauss syndrome- 62 patients. J Rheumatol 1993; 20: 1345-49.
115. Noille B, Specks U, Ludemann J, Rohrbach MS, DeRemee RA, Gross WL. Anticytoplasmic autoantibodies: their immunodiagnostic value in Wegener granulomatosis. Ann Intern Med 1989; 111: 28-40.
116. Schonermarck U, Lamprecht P, Csernok E, Gross WL. Prevalence and spectrum of rheumatic diseases associated with proteinase-3-anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA) and myeloperoxidase-ANCA. Rhematology 2001; 40: 178-84.
117. Specks U, Homburger HA. Anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies. Mayo Clin Proc 1994; 69: 1197-98.
118. Savige J, Gillis D, Benson E et al. International consensus statement on testing and reporting of antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA). Am J Clin Pathol 1999; 111: 507-13.
119. Tesar V, Rihova Z, Jancova E el al. Current treatment strategies in ANCA-positive renal vaculitis - lessons from European randomized trials. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2003; 18(Suppl 5): v2-4.
120. Schmitt WH, Hagen EC, Neumann I et al. Treatment of refractory Wegener's granulomatosis with antithymocyte globulin (ATG): an open study in 15 patients. Kidney Int 2004; 65: 1440-48.
121. Langford CA, Sneller MC. Biologic therapies in the vasculitides. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2003; 15: 3-10.