Population disparities in asthma

Annual Review of Public Health

Volumn 26, Issue , 2005, Pages 89-113

  Gold, Diane R ^a   Wright, Rosalind ^a  

^a BRIGHAM AND WOMEN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

Allergens; Children; Hygiene hypothesis; Obesity; Smoking; Traffic pollution

Indexed keywords

AFRICAN AMERICAN; ASTHMA; BREAST FEEDING; CIGARETTE SMOKING; DAY CARE; DIET; DIETARY INTAKE; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; ETHNIC DIFFERENCE; EXHAUST GAS; FAMILY SIZE; HEALTH BEHAVIOR; HOUSING; HUMAN; HYGIENE; LARGE INTESTINE; LOW BIRTH WEIGHT; MICROBIAL COLONIZATION; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; OBESITY; PARASITE; PREMATURITY; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION; REVIEW; SOCIOECONOMICS; STRESS; UNITED STATES; URBAN POPULATION;

AIR POLLUTION, INDOOR; ASTHMA; BIRTH ORDER; CHILD; CHILD DAY CARE CENTERS; CHRONIC DISEASE; COST OF ILLNESS; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES; ETHNIC GROUPS; FAMILY CHARACTERISTICS; HEALTH KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES, PRACTICE; HUMANS; HYGIENE; INFANT; INFANT FOOD; MORBIDITY; POPULATION SURVEILLANCE; PREVALENCE; PUBLIC HEALTH; RISK FACTORS; SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS; UNITED STATES; URBAN HEALTH;

EID: 17444403888     PISSN: 01637525     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.26.021304.144528     Document Type: Review

References (159)

1. Acierno R, Kilpatrick DG, Rsesnick HS, Saund CL. 1996. Violent assault, post-traumatic stress disorder, and depression: risk factors for cigarette use among adult women. Behav. Modif. 20:363-84
2. Adler NE, Boyce T, Chesney MA, Cohen S, Folkman S, et al. 1994. Socioeconomic status and health: the challenge of the gradient. Am. Psychol. 49:15-24
3. Aligne CA, Auinger P, Byrd RS, Weitzman M. 2000. Risk factors for pediatric asthma. Contributions of poverty, race, and urban residence. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 162:873-77
4. Anda RF, Williamson DF, Escobedo LG, Mast EE, Giovino GA, Remington PL. 1990. Depression and the dynamics of smoking: a national perspective. JAMA 264:1541-45
5. Asher MI, Keil U, Anderson HR. 1995. International study of asthma and allergies in childhood (ISAAC): rational and methods. Eur. Respir. J. 8:483-91
6. Attar BK, Guerra NG, Tolan PH. 1994. Neighborhood disadvantage, stressful life events and adjustment in urban elementary-school children. J. Clin. Child Psychol. 23:391-40
7. Baldini M, Lohman IC, Halonen M, Erickson RP, Holt PG, Martinez FD. 1999. A polymorphism in the 5′ flanking region of the CD14 gene is associated with circulating soluble CD14 levels and with total serum immunoglobulin E. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 20:976-83
8. Ball TM, Castro-Rodriguez JA, Griffith KA, Holberg CJ, Martinez F, Wright AL. 2000. Siblings, day-care attendance, and the risk of asthma and wheezing during childhood. N. Engl. J. Med. 343:538-43
9. Beckett WS, Belanger K, Gent JF, Holford TR, Leaderer BP. 1996. Asthma among Puerto Rican Hispanics: a multi-ethnic comparison study of risk factors. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 154:894-99
10. Beckham J, Roodman A, Shipley R, Hetzberg M, Cunha G, et al. 1995. Smoking in Vietnam combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Trauma Stress 8:461-72
11. Benson CB, Doubilet PM. 1998. Fetal measurements: normal and abnormal fetal growth. In Diagnostic Ultrasound, ed. CM Rumack, SR Wilson, JW Charboneau, pp. 1013-31. St. Louis: Mosby-Year Book
12. Benson V, Marano M. 1998. Current estimates from the National Health Interview Survey, 1995. Vital Health Stat. 10 (199). Hyattsville, MD: Natl. Cent. Health Stat.
13. Black PN, Sharpe S. 1997. Dietary fat and asthma: Is there a connection? Eur. Respir. J. 10:6-12
14. Boyce TW, Chesney M, Alkon A, Tschann JM, Adams S, et al. 1995. Psychobiologic reactivity to stress and childhood respiratory illnesses: results of two prospective studies. Psychosom. Med. 57:411-22
15. Braun-Fahrlander C, Riedler J, Herz U, Eder W, Waser M, et al. 2002. Environmental exposure to endotoxin and its relation to asthma in school-age children. N. Engl. J. Med. 347:869-77
16. Breslau N, Davis G, Andreski P, Petersen E. 1991. Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 48:216-22
17. Britton J. 2003. Parasites, allergy, and asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 168:266-67
18. Busse W, Kiecolt-Glaser J, Coe C, Martin R, Weiss S, Parker S. 1994. Stress and asthma: NHLBI Workshop Summary. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 151:249-52
19. Carr W, Zeitel L, Weiss K. 1992. Variations in asthma hospitalizations and deaths in New York City. Am. J. Public Health 82:59-65
20. Castro-Rodriguez JA, Holberg CJ, Morgan WJ, Wright AL, Martinez FD. 2001. Increased incidence of asthmalike symptoms in girls who become overweight or obese during the school years. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 163:1344-49
21. CDC. 1998. Tobacco Use Among U.S. Racial/Ethnic Minority Groups-African American, America Indians and Alaska Natives, Asian American and Pacific Islanders, and Hispanics: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: US Dep. Health Hum. Serv., Natl. Cent. Chronic Dis. Prev. Health Promot. Off. Smok. Health
22. Celedon JC, Litonjua AA, Ryan L, Platts-Mills T, Weiss ST, Gold DR. 2002. Exposure to cat allergen, maternal history of asthma, and wheezing in first 5 years of life. Lancet 360:781-82
23. Celedon JC, Litonjua AA, Ryan L, Weiss ST, Gold DR. 2002. Day care attendance, respiratory tract illnesses, wheezing, asthma, and total serum IgE level in early childhood. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 156:241-45
24. Celedon JC, Palmer LJ, Litonjua AA, Weiss ST, Wang B, et al. 2001. Body mass index and asthma in adults in families of subjects with asthma in Anqing, China. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 164:1835-40
25. Celedon JC, Sredl D, Weiss ST, Pisarski M, Wakefield D, Cloutier M. 2004. Ethnicity and skin test reactivity to aeroallergens among asthmatic children in Connecticut. Chest 125:85-92
26. Celedon JC, Wright RJ, Litonjua AA, Sredl D, Ryan L, et al. 2003. Day care attendance in early life, maternal history of asthma, and asthma at the age of 6 years. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 167:1239-43
27. Chen E, Fisher EB, Bacharier LB, Strunk RC. 2003. Socioeconomic status, stress, and immune markers in adolescents with asthma. Psychosom. Med. 65:984-92
28. Chew GL, Burge HA, Dockery DW, Muilenberg ML, Weiss ST, Gold DR. 1998. Limitations of a home characteristics questionnaire as a predictor of indoor allergen levels. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 157:1536-41
29. Comm. Underst. Elimin. Racial Ethn. Disparities Health Care, Board Health Sci. Policy, Inst. Med. 2002. Unequal Treatment Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care. Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press
30. Curry SJ, Wagner EH, Cheadle A, Diehr P, Koepsell T, et al. 1993. Assessment of community-level influences on individual's attitudes about cigarette smoking, alcohol use, and consumption of dietary fat. Am. J. Prev. Med. 9:78-84
31. Dekker C, Dales R, Bartlett S, Brunekree B, Zwanenburg H. 1991. Childhood asthma and the indoor environment. Chest 100:922-26
32. Diaz-Sanchez D, Dotson AR, Takenaka H, Saxon A. 1994. Diesel exhaust particles induce local IgE production in vivo and alter the pattern of IgE messenger RNA isoforms. J. Clin. Invest. 94:1417-25
33. Diez-Roux AV, Nieto FJ, Muntaner C, Tyroler HA, Comstock GW, et al. 1997. Neighborhood environments and coronary heart disease: a multilevel analyses. Am. J. Epidemiol. 146:48-63
34. Dohrenwend BP, Dohrenwend BS. 1969. Social Status and Psychological Disorder. New York: Wiley
35. Doubilet PM, Benson CB, Callen PW. 2000. Ultrasound evaluation of fetal growth. In Ultrasonography in Obstetrics and Gynecology, ed. PW Callen, pp. 206-20. Philadelphia: Saunders
36. DuRant R, Getts A, Cadenhead C, Emans S, Woods E. 1995. Exposure to violence and victimization and depression, hopelessness, and purpose in life among adolescents living in and around public housing. Dev. Behav. Pediatr. 16:233-37
37. Evans G. 2001. Environmental stress and health. In Handbook of Health Psychology, ed. A Baum, T Revenson, J Singer, pp. 365-85. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
38. Feigelman W, Gorman B. 1989. Toward explaining the higher incidence of cigarette smoking among Black Americans. J. Psychoactive Drugs 21:299-305
39. Ganz ML. 2000. The relationship between external threats and smoking in central Harlem. Am. J. Public Health 90:367-71
40. Gennuso J, Epstein LH, Paluch RA, Cerny F. 1998. The relationship between asthma and obesity in urban minority children and adolescents. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 152:1197-200
41. Gergen PJ, Mullally DI, Evans R. 1988. National survey of prevalence of asthma among children in the United States. Pediatrics 81:1-7
42. Gern JE, Reardon CL, Hoffjan S, Nicolae D, Li Z, et al. 2004. Effects of dog ownership and genotype on immune development and atopy in infancy. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 113:307-14
43. Gold DR, Burge HA, Carey V, Milton DK, Platts-Mills T, Weiss ST. 1999. Predictors of repeated wheeze in the first year of life: the relative roles of cockroach, birth weight, acute lower respiratory illness, and maternal smoking. Am. J. Resp. Crit. Care Med. 160:227-36
44. Deleted in proof
45. Gold DR, Damokosh AI, Dockery DW, Berkey CS. 2003. Body-mass index as a predictor of incident asthma in a prospective cohort of children. Pediatr. Pulmonol. 36:514-21
46. Gold DR, Rotnitzky A, Damokosh AI, Ware JH, Speizer FE, et al. 1993. Race and gender differences in respiratory illness prevalence and their relationship to environmental exposures in children 7 to 14 years of age. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 148:10-18
47. Gottlieb DJ, Beiser AS, O'Connor GT. 1995. Poverty, race, and medication use are correlates of asthma hospitalization rates. A small area analysis in Boston. Chest 108:28-35
48. Graves E, Kozak L. 1998. Detailed diagnoses and procedures. National Hospital Discharge Survey, 1996. Natl. Cent. Health Stat. Vital Health Stat. Ser. 13: Data from the National Health Survey (138):i-iii
49. Green RS, Smorodinsky S, Kim JJ, McLaughlin R, Ostro B. 2003. Proximity of California public schools to busy roads. Environ. Health Perspect. 112:61-66
50. Grischkan J, Storfer-Isser A, Rosen CL, Larkin EK, Kirchner HL, et al. 2004. Variation in childhood asthma among former preterm infants. J. Pediatr. 144:321-26
51. Haan M, Kaplan G, Camacho T. 1987. Poverty and health: prospective evidence from the Alameda County Study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 125:989-98
52. Haan M, Kaplan N, Syme S. 1989. Socioeconomic status and health: old observations and new thoughts. In Pathways in Health, ed. J Bunder, D Gomby, B Kehrer, pp. 76-135. Menlo Park, CA: Henry J. Kaiser Family Found.
53. Hanrahan JP, Tager IB, Segal MR, Tosteson TD, Castile RG, et al. 1992. The effect of maternal smoking during pregnancy on early infant lung function. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 145:1129-35
54. Hodge L, Salome CM, Peat JK, Haby MM, Xuan W, Woolcock AJ. 1996. Consumption of oily fish and childhood asthma risk. Med. J. Aust. 164:137-40
55. Hoek G, Brunekreef B, Goldbohm S, Fischer P, van den Brandt PA. 2002. Association between mortality and indicators of traffic-related air pollution in the Netherlands: a cohort study. Lancet 360:1203-9
56. Holden G. 1991. The relationship of self-efficacy appraisals to subsequent health related outcomes: a meta-analysis. Soc. Work Health Care 16:53-93
57. Holt PG, O'Keeffe P, Holt BJ, Upham JW, Baron-Hay MJ, et al. 1995. T-cell "priming" against environmental allergens in human neonates: sequential deletion of food antigen reactivity during infancy with concomitant expansion of responses to ubiquitous inhalant allergens. Pediatr. Allergy Immunol. 6:85-90
58. Homa DM, Mannino DM, Lara M. 2000. Asthma mortality in U.S. Hispanics of Mexican, Puerto Rican, and Cuban heritage, 1990-1995. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 161:504-9
59. Horrobin DF. 1987. Low prevalences of coronary heart disease (CHD), psoriasis, asthma and rheumatoid arthritis in Eskimos: Are they caused by high dietary intake of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), a genetic variation of essential fatty acid (EFA) metabolism or a combination of both? Med. Hypotheses 22:421-28
60. Howard DE, Cross SI, Li X, Huang W. 1999. Parent-youth concordance regarding violence exposure: relationship to youth psychosocial functioning. J. Adolesc. Health 25:396-406
61. Inst. Med. Comm. Assess. Asthma Indoor Air. 2000. Clearing the Air: Asthma and Indoor Air Exposures. Washington, DC: IOM
62. Int. Study Asthma Allerg. Childhood (ISAAC) Steer. Comm. 1998. World-wide variation in prevalence of symptoms of asthma, allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, and atopic eczema: ISAAC. Lancet 351:1225-32
63. Isaacs M. 1992. Violence: The Impact of Community Violence on African American Children and Families. Arlington, VA: Natl. Cent. Educ. Matern. Child Health
64. Isaacs SL, Schroeder SA. 2004. Class - the ignored determinant of the nation's health. N. Engl. J. Med. 351:1137-42
65. Kalliomaki M, Kirjavainen P, Eerola E, Kero P, Salminen S, Isolauri E. 2001. Distinct patterns of neonatal gut microflora in infants in whom atopy was and was not developing. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 107:129-34
66. Kalliomaki M, Salminen S, Arvilommi H, Kero P, Koskinen P, Isolauri E. 2001. Probiotics in primary prevention of atopic disease: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 357:1076-79
67. Karvaonen S, Rimpela A. 1996. Socioregional context as a determinant of adolescents' health in Finland. Soc. Sci. Med. 43:1467-74
68. Kattan M, Mitchell H, Eggleston P, Gergen P, Crain E, et al. 1997. Characteristics of inner-city children with asthma: the National Cooperative Inner-City Asthma Study. Pediatr. Pulmonol. 24:253-62
69. Kaufman J, Kaufman S. 2001. Assessment of structured socioeconomic effects on health. Epidemiology 12:157-67
70. Kawachi I. 1999. Social capital and community effects on population and individual health. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 896:120-30
71. Kawachi I, Berkman LF, eds. 2003. Neighborhoods and Health. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
72. Kennedy B, Kawachi I, Prothrow-Smith D. 1996. Income distribution and mortality: test of the Robin Hoos Index in the United States. Br. Med. J. 312:1004-7
73. Kennedy B, Kawachi I, Prothrow-Smith D, Lochner K, Gupta V. 1998. Social capital, income inequality, and firearm violent crime. Soc. Sci. Med. 47:7-17
74. Kilpatrick KL, Williams LM. 1998. Potential mediators of post-traumatic stress disorder in child witnesses to domestic violence. Child Abuse Negl. 22:319-30
75. Kitch BT, Chew G, Burge HA, Muilenberg ML, Weiss ST, et al. 2000. Socioeconomic predictors of high allergen levels in homes in the greater Boston area. Environ. Health Perspect. 108:301-7
76. Kleinschmidt I, Hills M, Elliott P. 1997. Smoking behavior can be predicated by neighborhood deprivation measures. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 87:1113-18
77. Krebs NF, Jacobson MS. 2003. Prevention of pediatric overweight and obesity. Pediatrics 112:424-30
78. La Veist T. 1993. Segregation, poverty, and empowerment: health consequence for African Americans. Milbank Q. 71:41-64
79. Leaderer BP, Belanger K, Triche E, Holford T, Gold DR, et al. 2002. Dust mite, cockroach, cat, and dog allergen concentrations in homes of asthmatic children in the northeastern United States: impact of socioeconomic factors and population density. Environ. Health Perspect. 110:419-25
80. Ledogar RJ, Penchaszadeh A, Garden CC, Iglesias G. 2000. Asthma and Latino cultures: different prevalence reported among groups sharing the same environment. Am. J. Public Health 90:929-35
81. Lester LA, Rich SS, Blumenthal MN, Togias A, Murphy S, et al. 2001. Ethnic differences in asthma and associated phenotypes: collaborative study on the genetics of asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 108:357-62
82. Lewis SA, Weiss ST, Platts-Mills TA, Burge H, Gold DR. 2002. The role of indoor allergen sensitization and exposure in causing morbidity in women with asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 165:961-66
83. Lochner K, Kawachi I, Kennedy B. 1999. Social capital: a guide to its measurement. Health Place 5:259-70
84. Luder E, Melnick TA, DiMaio M. 1998. Association of being overweight with greater asthma symptoms in inner city black and Hispanic children. J. Pediatrics 132:699-703
85. Martinez FD, Wright AL, Taussig LM, Holberg CJ, Halonen M, Morgan WJ. 1995. Asthma and wheezing in the first six years of life. The Group Health Medical Associates. N. Engl. J. Med. 332:133-38
86. Matricardi PM, Rosmini F, Rapicetta M, Gasbarrini G, Stroffolini T. 1999. Atopy, hygiene, and anthroposophic lifestyle. San Marino Study Group. Lancet 354:430
87. McKinlay J. 1975. The help-seeking behavior of the poor. In Poverty and Health: A Sociological Analysis, ed. J Kosa, A Antonovsky, I Zoal, pp. 224-73. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
88. McLean D, Hatfield-Timajchy K, Wingo P, Floyd R. 1993. Psychosocial measurement: implications for the study of preterm delivery in black women. Am. J. Prev. Med. 9(Suppl. 6):39-81
89. Michel O, Kips J, Duchateau J, Vertongen F, Robert L, et al. 1996. Severity of asthma is related to endotoxin in house dust. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 154:1641-46
90. Mihrshahi S, Peat JK, Marks GB, Mellis CM, Tovey ER, et al. 2003. Eighteen-month outcomes of house dust mite avoidance and dietary fatty acid modification in the Childhood Asthma Prevention Study (CAPS). J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 111:162-68
91. Morgan WJ, Crain EF, Gruchalla RS, O'Connor GT, Kattan M, et al. 2004. Results of a home-based environmental intervention among urban children with asthma. N. Engl. J. Med. 351:1068-80
92. Murphy S. 1997. Expert Panel Report 2: Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma. Rep. 97-4051. Bethesda, MD: Natl. Inst. Health, Natl. Heart, Lung, Blood Inst.
93. Nelson DA, Johnson CC, Divine GW, Strauchman C, Joseph CL, Ownby DR. 1997. Ethnic differences in the prevalence of asthma in middle class children. Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 78:21-26
94. O'Neill MS, Jerrett M, Kawachi I, Levy JI, Cohen AJ, et al. 2003. Health, wealth, and air pollution: advancing theory and methods. Environ. Health Perspect. 111:1861-70
95. Deleted in proof
96. Ownby DR, Johnson CC, Peterson EL. 2002. Exposure to dogs and cats in the first year of life and risk of allergic sensitization at 6 to 7 years of age. JAMA 288:963-72
97. Park JH, Spiegelman DL, Gold DR, Burge HA, Milton DK. 2001. Predictors of airborne endotoxin in the home. Environ. Health Perspect. 109:859-64
98. Peat JK, Salome CM, Woolcock AJ. 1992. Factors associated with bronchial hyperresponsiveness in Australian adults and children. Eur. Respir. J. 5:921-29
99. Perez-Stable EJ, Ramirez A, Villareal R, Talavera GA, Trapido E, et al. 2001. Cigarette smoking behavior among US Latino men and women from different countries of origin. Am. J. Public Health 91:1424-30
100. Perzanowski MS, Ronmark E, Platts-Mills TA, Lundback B. 2002. Effect of cat and dog ownership on sensitization and development of asthma among pre-teenage children. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 166:696-702
101. Pierson WE, Koenig JQ. 1992. Respiratory effects of air pollution on allergic disease. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 90:557-66
102. Platts-Mills T, Vaughan J, Squillace S, Woodfolk J, Sporik R. 2001. Sensitisation, asthma, and a modified Th2 response in children exposed to cat allergen: a population-based cross-sectional study. Lancet 357:752-56
103. Platts-Mills TA, Ward GW Jr, Sporik R, Gelber LE, Chapman MD, Heymann PW. 1991. Epidemiology of the relationship between exposure to indoor allergens and asthma. Int. Arch. Allergy Appl. Immunol. 94:339-45
104. Platts-Mills TAE, Erwin EA, Allison AB, Blumenthal K, Barr M, et al. 2003. The relevance of maternal immune responses to inhalant allergens to maternal symptoms, passive transfer to the infant, and development of antibodies in the first 2 years of life. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 111:123-30
105. Rabkin J, Struening E. 1976. Life events, stress and illness. Science 194:1013-20
106. Raper NR, Cronin FJ, Exler J. 1992. Omega-3 fatty acid content of the US food supply. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 11:304-8
107. Rappaport S, Boodram B. 1998. Forecasted state-specific estimates of self-reported asthma prevalence-United States, 1998. MMWR 47:1022-25
108. Rauh VA, Chew GR, Garfinkel RS. 2002. Deteriorated housing contributes to high cockroach allergen levels in inner-city households. Environ. Health Perspect. 110(Suppl. 2):323-27
109. Ray NF, Thamer M, Fadillioglu B, Gergen PJ. 1998. Race, income, urbanicity, and asthma hospitalization in California: a small area analysis. Chest 113:1277-84
110. Reed CE, Milton DK. 2001. Endotoxin-stimulated innate immunity: a contributing factor for asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 108:157-66
111. Reijneveld S. 1998. The impact of individual and area characteristics on urban socioeconomic differences in health and smoking. Int. J. Epidemiol. 27:33-40
112. Riedler J, Braun-Fahrlander C, Eder W, Schreuer M, Waser M, et al. 2001. Exposure to farming in early life and development of asthma and allergy: a cross-sectional survey. Lancet 358:1129-33
113. Roberts EM. 1997. Neighborhood social environments and the distribution of low birth weight in Chicago. Am. J. Public Health 87:597-603
114. Roberts EM. 2002. Racial and ethnic disparities in childhood asthma diagnosis: the role of clinical findings. J. Natl. Med. Assoc. 94:215-23
115. Roberts S. 1998. Community-level socioeconomic status effects on adult health. J. Health Soc. Behav. 39:18-37
116. Romano P, Bloom J, Syme S. 1991. Smoking, social support, and hassles in an urban African-American Community. Am. J. Public Health 81:1415-22
117. Rosenstreich DL, Eggleston P, Kattan M, Baker D, Slavin RG, et al. 1997. The role of cockroach allergy and exposure to cockroach allergen in causing morbidity among inner-city children with asthma. N. Engl. J. Med. 336:1356-63
118. Rowley DL. 2001. Closing the gap, opening the process: why study social contributors to preterm delivery among black women. Matern. Child Health J. 5:71-74
119. Salmond C, Crampton P, Hales S, Lewis S, Pearce N. 1999. Asthma prevalence and deprivation: a small area analysis. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 53:476-80
120. Sampson R, Raudenbush S, Earls F. 1997. Neighborhoods and violent crime: a multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science 277:918-24
121. Sandberg S, Paton JY, McCann DC, McGuiness D, Hillary CR, Oja H. 2000. The role of acute and chronic stress in asthma attacks in children. Lancet 356:982-87
122. Schenker M, Samet J, Speizer F. 1983. Risk factors for childhood respiratory disease. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 128:1038-43
123. Schwartz J. 2004. Air pollution and children's health. Pediatrics 113:1037-43
124. Schwartz J, Gold DR, Dockery DW, Weiss ST, Speizer FE. 1990. Predictors of asthma and persistent wheeze in a national sample of children in the United States. Association with social class, perinatal events and race. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 142:555-62
125. Seaton A, Godden DJ, Brown K. 1994. Increase in asthma: a more toxic environment or a more susceptible population? Thorax 49:171-74
126. Shagena M, Sandler H, Perrin E. 1988. Concepts of illness and perception of control in healthy children and in children with chronic illnesses. J. Dev. Behav. Pediatr. 9:252-56
127. Stein M, Wallston K, Nicassio P, Castner N. 1988. Correlates of a clinical classification schema for the Arthritis Helplessness Index. Arthritis Rheum. 31:876-81
128. Strachan DP. 1989. Hay fever, hygiene, and household size. Br. Med. J. 299:1259-60
129. Strachan DP. 2000. Family size, infection and atopy: the first decade of the "hygiene hypothesis." Thorax 55(Suppl. 1):S2-10
130. Strachan DP, Cook DG. 1997. Health effects of passive smoking. 1. Parental smoking and lower respiratory illness in infancy and early childhood. Thorax 52:905-14
131. Strachan DP, Cook DG. 1998. Health effects of passive smoking. 6. Parental smoking and childhood asthma: longitudinal and case-control studies. Thorax 53:204-12
132. Sullivan SD, Weiss KB, Lynn H, Mitchell H, Kattan M, et al. 2002. The cost-effectiveness of an inner-city asthma intervention for children. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 110:576-81
133. Tager IB. 1998. Smoking and childhood asthma - Where do we stand? Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 158:349-51
134. Taylor SE, Repetti RL, Seeman T. 1997. Health psychology: What is an unhealthy environment and how does it get under the skin? Annu. Rev. Psychol. 48:411-47
135. Troisi RJ, Willett WC, Weiss ST, Trichopoulos D, Rosner B, Speizer FE. 1995. A prospective study of diet and adult-onset asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 151:1401-8
136. U.S. Dep. Health Hum. Serv. 1991. Healthy People 2000: National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives. DHHS Publ. No. (PHS) 91-50212. Washington, DC: Off. Assist. Secretary Health
137. Vintzileos AM, Ananth CV, Smulian JC, Scorza WE, Knuppel RA. 2002. The impact of prenatal care in the United States on preterm births in the presence and absence of antenatal high-risk conditions. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 187:1254-57
138. von Mutius E, Illi S, Hirsch T, Leupold W, Keil U, Weiland SK. 1999. Frequency of infections and risk of asthma, atopy and airway hyperresponsiveness in children. Eur. Respir. J. 14:4-11
139. von Mutius E, Martinez FD, Fritzsch C, Nicolai T, Roell G, Thiemann HH. 1994. Prevalence of asthma and atopy in two areas of West and East Germany. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 149:358-64
140. Wagener D, Williams D, Wilson P. 1993. Equity and environmental health: data collection and interpretation issues. Toxicol. Ind. Health 9:775-95
141. Watson J, Cowen P, Lewis R. 1996. The relationship between asthma admission rates, routes of admission, and socioeconomic deprivation. Eur. Respir. J. 9:2087-83
142. Weiss KB, Gergen PJ, Hodgson TA. 1992. An economic evaluation of asthma in the United States. N. Engl. J. Med. 326:862-66
143. Weiss KB, Gergen PJ, Wagener DK. 1993. Breathing better or wheezing worse? The changing epidemiology of asthma morbidity and mortality. Annu. Rev. Public Health 14:491-513
144. Weiss ST. 2002. Eat dirt - the hygiene hypothesis and allergic diseases. N. Engl. J. Med. 347:930-31
145. Weiss ST, Shore S. 2004. Obesity and Asthma: Directions for Research NHLBI Workshop, Bethesda, MD, July 15, 2002. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 169:963-68
146. Weitzman M, Gortmaker S, Sobol A. 1990. Racial, social, and environmental risks for childhood asthma. Am. J. Dis. Child. 144:1189-94
147. Wilkinson R. 1996. Unhealthy Societies. The Afflictions of Inequality. London: Routledge
148. Wilson WJ. 1987. The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner-City, the Underclass, and Public Policy. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
149. Wissow LS, Gittelsohn AM, Szklo M, Starfield B, Mussman M. 1988. Poverty, race, and hospitalization for childhood asthma. Am. J. Public Health 78:777-82
150. Woodcock A, Forster L, Matthews E, Martin J, Letley L, et al. 2003. Control of exposure to mite allergen and allergen-impermeable bed covers for adults with asthma. N. Engl. J. Med. 349:225-36
151. Wright AL, Sherrill D, Holberg CJ, Halonen M, Martinez FD. 1999. Breastfeeding, maternal IgE, and total serum IgE in childhood. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 104:589-94
152. Wright RJ, Cohen S, Carey V, Weiss ST, Gold DR. 2002. Parental stress as a predictor of wheezing in infancy: a prospective birth-cohort study. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 165:358-65
153. Wright RJ, Fisher EB. 2003. Putting asthma into context: influences on risk, behavior, and intervention. In Neighborhoods and Health, ed. I Kawachi, LF Berkman, pp. 233-62. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
154. Wright RJ, Mitchell H, Visness CM, Cohen S, Stout J, et al. 2004. Community violence and asthma morbidity in the Inner-City Asthma Study. Am. J. Public Health 94:625-32
155. Wright RJ, Rodriguez M, Cohen S. 1998. Review of psychosocial stress and asthma: an integrated biopsychosocial approach. Thorax 53:1066-74
156. Wright RJ, Steinbach SF. 2001. Violence: an unrecognized environmental exposure that may contribute to greater asthma morbidity in high risk inner-city populations. Environ. Health Perspect. 109:1085-89
157. Wright RJ, Wright RO, Finn P, Staudenmayer J, Contreras JP, et al. 2004. Chronic caregiver stress and IgE expression, allergen-induced proliferation, and cytokine profiles in a birth cohort predisposed to atopy. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 113:1051-57
158. Wuthrich B. 1989. Epidemiology of the allergic diseases: Are they really on the increase? Int. Arch. Allergy Appl. Immunol. 90(Suppl. 1):3-10
159. Yamada E, Vanna AT, Naspitz CK, Sole D. 2002. International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC): validation of the written questionnaire (eczema component) and prevalence of atopic eczema among Brazilian children. J. Investig. Allergol. Clin. Immunol. 12:34-41