Relief of pain and anxiety in pediatric patients in emergency medical systems

Pediatrics

Volumn 114, Issue 5, 2004, Pages 1348-1356

  Zempsky, William T ^a   Cravero, Joseph P ^a   Knapp, Jane F ^a   Bojko, Thomas ^a   Dolan, Margaret A ^a   Frush, Karen S ^a   Furnival, Ronald A ^a   Krug, Steven E ^a   Isaacman, Daniel J ^a   Sapien, Robert E ^a   Shaw, Kathy N ^a   Sirbaugh, Paul E ^a   Mancuso, Thomas J ^a   Agarwal, Rita ^a   Houck, Constance S ^a   Kain, Zeev ^a   Maxwell, Lynne G ^a   Valley, Robert D ^a   Davidson, Patricia J ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Analgesia; Anxiety; Opiates; Pain; Stress; Topical anesthesia

Indexed keywords

ANALGESIC AGENT; LOCAL ANESTHETIC AGENT; NITROUS OXIDE; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; OPIATE; ADRENALIN; ANESTHETIC AGENT; EMLA; LIDOCAINE; PRILOCAINE; SUCROSE; TETRACAINE;

ANALGESIA; ANXIETY; ARTICLE; CHILD; EMERGENCY HEALTH SERVICE; EMERGENCY WARD; FIRST AID; GASTROINTESTINAL TOXICITY; HUMAN; MEDICAL RESEARCH; NEPHROTOXICITY; PAIN; PEDIATRICS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SEDATION; STRESS; TRANQUILIZING ACTIVITY; CONSCIOUS SEDATION; EDUCATION; EMERGENCY MEDICINE; INFANT; NEWBORN; ORAL DRUG ADMINISTRATION; PAIN ASSESSMENT; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; STANDARD;

ADMINISTRATION, ORAL; ANALGESICS; ANESTHETICS, COMBINED; ANXIETY; CHILD; CONSCIOUS SEDATION; EMERGENCY MEDICAL SERVICES; EMERGENCY MEDICINE; EPINEPHRINE; HUMANS; INFANT; INFANT, NEWBORN; LIDOCAINE; PAIN; PAIN MEASUREMENT; PRILOCAINE; SUCROSE; TETRACAINE;

EID: 16644396338     PISSN: 00314005     EISSN: 00314005     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1542/peds.2004-1752     Document Type: Article

References (143)

1. Selbst SM, Clark M. Analgesic use in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 1990,19:1010-1013
2. Petrack EM, Christopher NC, Kriwinsky J. Pain management in the emergency department: patterns of analgesic utilization. Pediatrics. 1997,99:711-714
3. Alexander J, Manno M. Underuse of analgesia in very young pediatric patients with isolated painful injuries. Ann Emerg Med. 2003,41:617-622
4. Lewis LM, Lasater LC, Brooks CB. Are emergency physicians too stingy with analgesics? South Med J. 1994,87:7-9
5. Krauss B, Zurakowski D. Sedation patterns in pediatric and general community hospital emergency departments. Pediatr Emerg Care. 1998,14:99-103
6. Taddio A, Goldbach M, Ipp M, Stevens B, Koren G. Effect of neonatal circumcision on pain response during vaccination in boys. Lancet. 1995,345:291-292
7. Taddio A, Katz J, Ilersich AL, Koren G. Effect of neonatal circumcision on pain response during subsequent routine vaccination. Lancet. 1997,349:599-603
8. Grunau RE, Whitfield MF, Petrie J. Children's judgments about pain at age 8-10 years: do extremely low birthweight (≤1000 g) children differ from full birthweight peers? J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1998,39:587-594
9. Johnston CC, Stevens BJ. Experience in a neonatal intensive care unit affects pain response. Pediatrics. 1996,98:925-930
10. Grunau RV, Whitfield MF, Petrie JH. Pain sensitivity and temperament in extremely low-birth-weight premature toddlers and preterm and full-term controls. Pain. 1994,58:341-346
11. Weisman SJ, Bernstein B, Shechter NL. Consequences of inadequate analgesia during painful procedures in children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1998,152:147-149
12. Wintgens A, Boileau B, Robaey P. Posttraumatic stress symptoms and medical procedures in children. Can J Psychiatry. 1997,42:611-616
13. Kain ZN, Mayes LC, Wang SM, Hofstadter MB. Postoperative behavioral outcomes in children: effects of sedative premedication. Anesthesiology. 1999,90:758-765
14. Lipton J, Marbach J. Ethnicity and the pain experience. Soc Sci Med. 1984,19:1279-1298
15. Wolff BB. Ethnocultural factors influencing pain and illness behavior. Clin J Pain. 1985,1:23-30
16. Martinelli AM. Pain and ethnicity: how people of different cultures experience pain. AORN J. 1987,46:273-274, 276, 278
17. Bernstein BA, Pachter LM. Cultural considerations in children's pain. In: Schechter NL, Berde CB, Yaster M, eds. Pain in Infants, Children, and Adolescents. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams, and Wilkins; 2003:142-156
18. Todd KH, Deaton C, D'Adamo AP, Goe L. Ethnicity and analgesic practice. Ann Emerg Med. 2000,35:11-16
19. Todd KH, Samaroo N, Hoffman JR. Ethnicity as a risk factor for inadequate emergency department analgesia. JAMA. 1993,269:1537-1539
20. Hoestetler MA, Auinger P, Szilagyi PG. Parenteral analgesic and sedative use among ED patients in the United States: combined results from the national hospital ambulatory medical care survey (NHAMCS) 1992-1997. Am J Emerg Med. 2002,20:139-143
21. Karpman RR, Del Mar N, Bay C. Analgesia for emergency centers' orthopaedic patients: does an ethnic bias exist? Clin Orthop. 1997,334:270-275
22. Fuentes EF, Kohn MA, Neighbor ML. Lack of association between patient ethnicity or race and fracture analgesia. Acad Emerg Med. 2002,9:910-915
23. McGrath PJ, Frager G. Psychological barriers to optimal pain management in infants and children. Clin J Pain. 1996,12:135-141
24. Craig KD, Lilley CM, Gilbert CA. Social barriers to optimal pain management in infants and children. Clin J Pain. 1996,12:232-242
25. Zempsky WT. Developing the painless emergency department: a systematic approach to change. Clin Pediatr Emerg Med. 2000,1:253-259
26. Ducharme J. Acute pain and pain control: state of the art. Ann Emerg Med. 2000,35:592-603
27. Kelly AM. A process approach to improving pain management in the emergency department: development and evaluation. J Accid Emerg Med. 2000,17:185-187
28. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health and American Pain Society, Task Force on Pain in Infants, Children, and Adolescents. The assessment and management of acute pain in infants, children, and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2001,108:793-797
29. Twycross A. Education about pain: a neglected area? Nurse Educ Today. 2000,20:244-253
30. Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations. Comprehensive Accreditation Manual for Hospitals. Oakbrook Terrace, IL: Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations; 2001
31. Ricard-Hibbon A, Chollet C, Saada S, Loridant B, Marty J. A quality control program for acute pain management in out-of-hospital critical care medicine. Ann Emerg Med. 1999,34:738-744
32. Dieckmann R, Brownstein D, Gausche-Hill M, eds. Pediatric Education for Prehospital Professionals. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett; 2000:151-152
33. Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education. Program Requirements for Residency Education in Emergency Medicine. Chicago, IL: Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education; 2001
34. Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education. Program Requirements for Residency Education in Pediatrics. Chicago, IL: Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education; 2001
35. Bennedetti C, Dickerson ED, Nichols LL. Medical education: a barrier to pain therapy and palliative care. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2001,21:360-362
36. Weinstein SM, Laux LF, Thornby JI, et al. Medical students' attitudes toward pain and the use of opioid analgesics: implications for changing medical school curriculum. South Med J. 2000,93:472-478
37. Phillips DM. JCAHO pain management standards are unveiled. Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations. JAMA. 2000,284:428-429
38. Baskett PJ. Acute pain management in the field. Ann Emerg Med. 1999,34:784-785
39. Ward ME, Radburn J, Morant S. Evaluation of intravenous tramadol for use in the prehospital situation by ambulance patients. Prehospital Disaster Med. 1997,12:158-162
40. Vergnion M, Degesves S, Garcet L, Magotteaux V. Tramadol, an alternative to morphine for treating posttraumatic pain in the prehospital situation. Anesth Analg. 2001,92:1543-1546
41. Bruns BM, Dieckmann R, Shagoury C, Dingerson A, Swartzell C. Safety of pre-hospital therapy with morphine sulfate. Am J Emerg Med. 1992,10:53-57
42. Devellis P, Thomas SH, Wedel SK, Stein JP, Vinci RJ. Prehospital fentanyl analgesia in air-transported pediatric trauma patients. Pediatr Emerg Care. 1998,14:321-323
43. National Association of Emergency Medical Services Physicians. Use of nitrous oxide: oxygen mixtures in prehospital emergency medical care. Prehospital Disaster Med. 1990,5:273-274
44. Baskett PJ. Nitrous oxide in pre-hospital care. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1994,38:775-776
45. Burton JH, Auble TE, Fuchs SM. Effectiveness of 50% nitrous oxide/50% oxygen during laceration repair in children. Acad Emerg Med. 1998,5:112-117
46. Luhmann JD, Kennedy RM, Jaffe DM, McAllister JD. Continuous-flow delivery of nitrous oxide and oxygen: a safe and cost-effective technique for inhalation analgesia and sedation of pediatric patients. Pediatr Emerg Care. 1999,15:388-392
47. Luhmann JD, Kennedy RM, Porter FL, Miller JP, Jaffe DM. A randomized clinical trial of continuous-flow nitrous oxide and midazolam for sedation of young children during laceration repair. Ann Emerg Med. 2001,37:20-27
48. French GM, Painter EC, Coury DL. Blowing away shot pain: a technique for pain management during immunization. Pediatrics. 1994,93:384-388
49. Fowler-Kerry S, Lander JR. Management of injection pain in children. Pain. 1987,30:169-175
50. Megel ME, Houser CW, Gleaves LS. Children's responses to immunizations: lullabies as distraction. Issues Compr Pediatr Nurs. 1998,21:129-145
51. Fratianne RB, Prensner JD, Huston MJ, Super DM, Yowler CJ, Standley JM. The effect of music-based imagery and musical alternate engagement on the burn debridement process. J Burn Care Rehabil. 2001,22:47-53
52. Favara-Scacco C, Smirne G, Schiliro G, DiCataldo A. Art therapy as support for children with leukemia during painful procedures. Med Pediatr Oncol. 2001,36:474-480
53. Kutner L. No Fears No Tears: Children With Cancer Coping With Pain [videotape]. Vancouver, BC, Canada: Canadian Cancer Society; 1986
54. Alcock DS, Feldman W, Goodman JT, McGrath PJ, Park JM. Evaluation of child life intervention in emergency department suturing. Pediatr Emerg Care. 1985,1:111-115
55. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Hospital Care. Child life services. Pediatrics. 2000,106:1156-1159
56. Rothenberg MB. The unique role of the child life worker in children's health care settings. Child Health Care. 1982,10:121-124
57. Rae WA, Worchel FF, Upchurch J, Sanner JH, Daniel CA. The psychosocial impact of play on hospitalized children. J Pediatr Psychol. 1989,14:617-627
58. Bauchner H, Waring C, Vinci R. Parental presence during procedures in an emergency room: results from 50 observations. Pediatrics. 1991,87:544-588
59. Wolfram RW, Turner ED, Philput C. Effects of parental presence during young children's venipuncture. Pediatr Emerg Care. 1997,13:325-328
60. Bordreaux ED, Francis JL, Loyacano T. Family presence during invasive procedures and resuscitations in the emergency department: a critical review and suggestions for future research. Ann Emerg Med. 2002,40:193-205
61. Emergency Nurses Association. Emergency Nurses Association position statements: family presence at the bedside during invasive procedures and resuscitation. 2001. Available at: www.ena.org/about/position/familypresence. asp. Accessed April 28, 2004
62. Wong DL, Hockenberry-Eaton M, Winkelstein ML, et al, eds. Pain assessment. In: Whaley and Wong's Nursing Care of Infants and Children. 6th ed. St Louis, MO: Mosby; 1999:1148-1159
63. Beyer JE, Aradine CR. Content validity of an instrument to measure young children's perceptions of the intensity of their pain. J Pediatr Nurs. 1986,1:386-395
64. Scott J, Huskisson EC. Graphic representation of pain. Pain. 1976,2:175-184
65. McGrath PA, Johnson G, Goodman JT, et al. CHEOPS: a behavioral scale for rating postoperative pain in children. Adv Pain Res Ther. 1985,9:395-402
66. Grunau RV, Craig KD. Pain expression in neonates: facial action and cry. Pain. 1987,28:395-410
67. McGrath PJ. Behavioral measures of pain. In: Finley GA, McGrath PJ, eds. Measurement of Pain in Infants and Children. Seattle, WA: IASP Press; 1998:83-102
68. Fry M, Holdgate A. Nurse-initiated intravenous morphine in the emergency department: efficacy, rate of adverse events and impact on time to analgesia. Emerg Med (Fremantle). 2002,14:249-254
69. Michalewski TG, Zempsky WT, Schechter NL. Pain in low-severity emergency department visits: frequency and management [abstract]. Ann Emerg Med. 2001,38:S21
70. Fein JA, Callahan JM, Boardman CR. Intravenous catheterization in the ED: is there a role for topical anesthesia? Am J Emerg Med. 1999,17:624-625
71. Fein JA, Callahan JM, Boardman CR, Gorelick MH. Predicting the need for topical anesthetic in the pediatric emergency department. Pediatrics. 1999,104(2). Available at: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/104/2/e19
72. Kleiber C, Sorenson M, Whiteside K, Gronstal BA, Tannous R. Topical anesthetics for intravenous insertion in children: a randomized equivalency study. Pediatrics. 2002,110:758-761
73. Eichenfield LF, Funk A, Fallon-Friedlander S, Cunnigham BB. A clinical study to evaluate the efficacy of ELA-Max (4% liposomal lidocaine) as compared with eutectic mixture of local anesthetics cream for pain reduction of venipuncture in children. Pediatrics. 2002,109:1093-1099
74. Zempsky WT, Anand KJ, Sullivan KM, Fraser D, Cucina K. Lidocaine iontophoresis for topical anesthesia before intravenous line placement in children. J Pediatr. 1998,132:1061-1063
75. Squire SJ, Kirchhoff KT, Hissong K. Comparing two methods of topical anesthesia used before intravenous cannulation in pediatric patients. J Pediatr Health Care. 2000,14:68-72
76. Cohen Reis E, Holobukov R. Vapocoolant spray is equally effective as EMLA cream in reducing immunization pain in school-aged children. Pediatrics. 1997,100(6). Available at: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/100/6/e5
77. Ramsook CA, Kozinetz C, Moro-Sutherland D. The efficacy of ethyl chloride as a local anesthetic for venipuncture in an emergency room setting. Paper presented at: 39th Annual Meeting of the Ambulatory Pediatric Association; May 3, 1999; San Francisco, CA
78. Schilling CG, Bank DE, Borchert BA, Klatzko MD, Uden DL. Tetracaine, epinephrine and cocaine (TAC) versus lidocaine, epinephrine, and tetracaine (LET) for anesthesia of lacerations in children. Ann Emerg Med. 1995,25:203-208
79. Ernst AA, Marvez E, Nick TG, Chin E, Wood E, Gonzaba WT. Lidocaine adrenaline tetracaine gel versus tetracaine adrenaline cocaine gel for topical anesthesia in linear scalp and facial lacerations in children aged 5 to 17 years. Pediatrics. 1995,95:255-258
80. Zempsky WT, Karasic RB. EMLA versus TAC for topical anesthesia of extremity wounds in children. Ann Emerg Med. 1997,30:163-166
81. Singer AJ, Stark MJ. LET versus EMLA for pretreating lacerations: a randomized trial. Acad Emerg Med. 2001,8:223-230
82. Simon HK, McLario DJ, Bruns TJ, Zempsky WT, Wood RJ, Sullivan KM. Long-term appearance of lacerations repaired using a tissue adhesive. Pediatrics. 1997,99:193-195
83. Quinn J, Wells G, Sutcliffe T, et al. A randomized trial comparing octylcyanoacrylate tissue adhesive and sutures in the management of lacerations. JAMA. 1997,277:1527-1530
84. Zempsky WT, Parrotti D, Grem C, Nichols J. Randomized controlled comparison of cosmetic outcomes of simple facial lacerations closed with SteriStrip Skin Closures or Dermabond tissue adhesive. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2004;20:519-524
85. Holger JS, Wandersee SC, Hale DB. Cosmetic outcomes in facial lacerations closed with rapid absorbing gut, octylcyanoacrylate or nylon [abstract]. Acad Emerg Med. 2002,9:447-448
86. Karounis H, Gouin S, Eisman H, Chalut D, Pelletier H, Williams B. A randomized, controlled trial comparing long-term cosmetic outcomes of traumatic pediatric lacerations repaired with absorbable plain gut versus nonabsorbable nylon sutures. Acad Emerg Med. 2004;11:730-735
87. Klein EJ, Shugerman RP, Leigh-Taylor K, Schneider C, Portscheller D, Koepsell T. Buffered lidocaine: analgesia for intravenous line placement in children. Pediatrics. 1995,95:709-712
88. Bartfield JM, Gennis P, Barbera J, Breuer B, Gallagher EJ. Buffered versus plain lidocaine as a local anesthetic for simple laceration repair. Ann Emerg Med. 1990,19:1387-1390
89. Davidson JA, Boom SJ. Warming lignocaine to reduce pain associated with injection. BMJ. 1992,305:617-618
90. Krause RS, Moscati R, Filice M, Lerner EB, Hughes D. The effect of injection speed on the pain of lidocaine infiltration. Acad Emerg Med. 1997,4:1032-1035
91. Scarfone RJ, Jasani M, Gracely EJ. Pain of local anesthetics: rate of administration and buffering. Ann Emerg Med. 1998,31:36-40
92. Bartfield JM, Sokaris SJ, Raccio-Robak N. Local anesthesia for lacerations: pain of infiltration inside versus outside the wound. Acad Emerg Med. 1998,5:100-104
93. Bartfield JM, Homer PJ, Ford DT, Sternklar P. Buffered lidocaine as a local anesthetic: an investigation of shelf life. Ann Emerg Med. 1992,21:16-19
94. Meyer G, Henneman PL, Fu P. Buffered lidocaine [letter]. Ann Emerg Med. 1991,20:218-219
95. Taddio A, Ohlsson A, Einarson TR, Stevens B, Koren G. A systematic review of lidocaine-prilocaine cream (EMLA) in the treatment of acute pain in neonates. Pediatrics. 1998,101(2). Available at: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/ full/101/2/e1
96. Essink-Tebbes CM, Wuis EW, Liem KD, van Dongen RT, Hekster YA. Safety of lidocaine-prilocaine cream application four times a day in premature neonates: a pilot study. Eur J Pediatr. 1999,158:421-423
97. Brisman M, Ljung BM, Otterbom I, Larsson LE, Andreasson SE. Methaemoglobin formation after the use of EMLA cream in term neonates. Acta Paediatr. 1998,87:1191-1194
98. Blass E, Fitzgerald E, Kehoe P. Interactions between sucrose, pain and isolation distress. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1987,26:483-489
99. Barr RG, Young SN, Wright JH, et al. "Sucrose analgesia" and diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis immunizations at 2 and 4 months. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 1995,16:220-225
100. Lewindon PJ, Harkness L, Lewindon N. Randomised controlled trial of sucrose by mouth for the relief of infant crying after immunisation. Arch Dis Child. 1998,78:453-456
101. Stevens B, Taddio A, Ohlsson A, Einarson T. The efficacy of sucrose for relieving procedural pain in neonates - a systematic review and metaanalysis. Acta Paediatr. 1997,86:837-842
102. Carbajal R, Chauvet X, Couderc S, Olivier-Martin M. Randomised trial of analgesic effects of sucrose, glucose, and pacifiers in term neonates. BMJ. 1999,319:1393-1397
103. Gray L, Watt L, Blass EM. Skin-to-skin contact is analgesic in healthy newborns. Pediatrics. 2000,105(1). Available at: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/ full/105/1/e14
104. Gray L, Miller LW, Philipp BL, Blass EM. Breastfeeding is analgesic in healthy newborns. Pediatrics. 2002,109:590-593
105. Pinheiro JM, Furdon S, Ochoa LF. Role of local anesthesia during lumbar puncture in neonates. Pediatrics. 1993,91:379-382
106. Kaur G, Gupta P, Kumar A. A randomized trial of eutectic mixture of local anesthetics during lumbar puncture in newborns. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003,157:1065-1070
107. Carraccio C, Feinberg P, Hart LS, Quinn M, King J, Lichenstein R. Lidocaine for lumbar punctures. A help not a hindrance. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1996,150:1044-1046
108. Larsson BA, Tannfeldt G, Lagercrantz H, Olsson GL. Venipuncture is more effective and less painful than heel lancing for blood tests in neonates. Pediatrics. 1998,101:882-886
109. Uhari M. A eutectic mixture of lidocaine and prilocaine for alleviating vaccination pain in infants. Pediatrics. 1993,92:719-722
110. Holmes HS. Options for painless local anesthesia. Postgrad Med. 1991,89:71-72
111. Keen MF. Comparison of intramuscular injection techniques to reduce site discomfort and lesions. Nursing Res. 1986,35:207-210
112. Main KM, Jorgensen JT, Hertel NT, Jensen S, Jakobsen L. Automatic needle insertion diminishes pain during growth hormone injection. Acta Pediatr. 1995,84:331-334
113. Ipp MM, Gold R, Goldbach M, et al. Adverse reactions to diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis-polio vaccination at 18 months of age: effect of injection site and needle length. Pediatrics. 1989,83:679-682
114. Schichor A, Bernstein B, Weinerman H, Fitzgerald J, Yordan E, Schechter N. Lidocaine as a diluent for ceftriaxone in the treatment of gonorrhea: does it reduce the pain of injection? Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1994,148:72-75
115. LoVecchio F, Oster N, Sturmann K, Nelson LS, Flashner S, Finger R. The use of analgesics in patients with acute abdominal pain. J Emerg Med. 1997,15:775-779
116. Pace S, Burke TF. Intravenous morphine for early pain relief in patients with acute abdominal pain. Acad Emerg Med. 1996,3:1086-1092
117. Attard AR, Corlett MJ, Kidner NJ, et al. Safety of early pain relief for acute abdominal pain. BMJ. 1992,305:554-556
118. Kim MK, Strait RT, Sato TT, Hennes HM. A randomized clinical trial of analgesia in children with acute abdominal pain. Acad Emerg Med. 2002,9:281-287
119. Hedderich R, Ness TJ. Analgesia for trauma and burns. Crit Care Clin. 1999,15:167-184
120. Joseph MH, Brill J, Zeltzer LK. Pediatric pain relief in trauma. Pediatr Rev. 1999,20:75-83
121. Zohar Z, Eitan A, Halperin P, et al. Pain relief in major trauma patients: an Israeli perspective. J Trauma. 2001,51:767-772
122. Fletcher AK, Rigby AS, Heyes FL. Three-in-one femoral nerve block as analgesia for fractured neck of femur in the emergency department: a randomized, controlled trial. Ann Emerg Med. 2003,41:227-233
123. Blasier RD, White R. Intravenous regional anesthesia for management of children's extremity fractures in the emergency department. Pediatr Emerg Care. 1996,12:404-406
124. Krauss B. Managing acute pain and anxiety in children undergoing procedures in the emergency department. Emerg Med (Fremantle). 2001,13:293-304
125. Kennedy RM, Luhmann JD. The "ouchless emergency department." Getting closer: advances in decreasing distress during painful procedures in the emergency department [review]. Pediatr Clin North Am. 1999,46:1215-1247, vii-viii
126. Yaster M, Nichols DG, Deshpande JK, Wetzel RC. Midazolam-fentanyl intravenous sedation in children: case report of respiratory arrest. Pediatrics. 1990,86:463-466
127. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Drugs. Guidelines for monitoring and management of pediatric patients during and after sedation for diagnostic and therapeutic procedures. Pediatrics. 1992,89:1110-1115
128. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Drugs. Guidelines for monitoring and management of pediatric patients during and after sedation for diagnostic and therapeutic procedures: addendum. Pediatrics. 2002,110:836-838
129. American Society of Anesthesiologists, Task Force on Sedation and Analgesia by Non-Anesthesiologists. Practice guidelines for sedation and analgesia by non-anesthesiologists. Anesthesiology. 2002,96:1004-1017
130. American College of Emergency Physicians. Clinical policy for procedural sedation and analgesia in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 1998,31:663-677
131. Hoffman GM, Nowakowski R, Troshynski TJ, Berens RJ, Weisman SJ. Risk reduction in pediatric procedural sedation by application of an American Academy of Pediatrics/American Society of Anesthesiologists process model. Pediatrics. 2002,109:236-243
132. Cote CJ, Notterman DA, Karl HW, Weinberg JA, McCloskey C. Adverse sedation events in pediatrics: a critical incident analysis of contributing factors. Pediatrics. 2000,105:805-814
133. McDevit DC, Perry H, Tucker J, Zempsky W. Sedation in the pediatric emergency department: a survey of emergency department directors' adherence to sedation guidelines [abstract]. Ann Emerg Med. 2000,36:S28. Abstract 106
134. Roback MG, Wathen J, Bajaj L. Effect of NPO time on adverse events in pediatric procedural sedation and analgesia [abstract]. Pediatr Res. 2003,53:109A. Abstract 620
135. Phrampus ED, Pitetti RD, Singh S. Duration of fasting and occurrence of adverse events during procedural sedation in a pediatric emergency department [abstract]. Pediatr Res. 2003,53:109A. Abstract 621
136. Agrawal D, Manzi SF, Gupta R, Krauss B. Preprocedural fasting state and adverse events in children undergoing procedural sedation and analgesia in a pediatric emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 2003,42:636-646
137. Pena BM, Krauss B. Adverse events of procedural sedation and analgesia in a pediatric emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 1999,34:483-491
138. Green SM, Kupperman N, Rothrock SG, Hummel CB, Ho M. Predictors of adverse events with intramuscular ketamine sedation in children. Ann Emerg Med. 2000,35:35-42
139. Green SM, Krauss B. Pulmonary aspiration risk during emergency department procedural sedation - an examination of the role of fasting and sedation depth. Acad Emerg Med. 2002,9:35-42
140. American Society of Anesthesiologists, Task Force on Preoperative Fasting. Practice guidelines for preoperative fasting and the use of pharmacologic agents to reduce the risk of pulmonary aspiration: application to healthy patients undergoing elective procedures. Anesthesiology. 1999,90:896-905
141. Miaskowski C. Monitoring and improving pain management practices. A quality improvement approach. Crit Care Nurs Clin North Am. 2001,13:311-317
142. Gordon DB, Pellino TA, Miaskowski C, et al. A 10-year review of quality improvement monitoring in pain management: recommendations for standardized outcome measures. Pain Manag Nurs. 2002,3:116-130
143. American Pain Society, Quality of Care Committee. Quality improvement guidelines for the treatment of acute pain and cancer pain. JAMA. 1995,274:1874-1880