Power to the parties: Cohesion and competition in the European parliament, 1979-2001

British Journal of Political Science

Volumn 35, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 209-234

  Hix, Simon ^a   Noury, Abdul ^a   Roland, Gérard ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 16644381679     PISSN: 00071234     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007123405000128     Document Type: Article

References (94)

1. E.g. Robert Michels, Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy (New York: Free Press, 1961 [1911]) ; Max Weber, 'Politics as a Vocation', in Hans H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1946 [1918]); Joseph Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (London: Allen & Unwin, 1943); Angelo Panebianco, Political Parties: Organization and Power (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988 [1982]); Hans-Dieter Klingemann, Richard I. Hofferbert and Ian Budge, Parties, Policies, and Democracy (Boulder, Col.: Westview Press, 1994); and Peter Mair, 'Party Organizations: From Civil Society to the State', in Richard S. Katz and Peter Mair, eds, How Parties Organize: Adaptation and Change in Party Organizations in Western Democracies (London: Sage, 1994). Similar normative claims have been made about the European Union: that democratic accountability via the European Parliament requires cohesive and competitive parties, e.g. Fulvio Attinà, 'Parties, Party Systems and Democracy in the European Union', International Spectator, 27 (1992), 67-86; Rudy Andeweg, 'The Reshaping of National Party Systems', in Jack Hay ward, ed., The Crisis of Representation in Europe (London: Frank Cass, 1995); Cees van der Eijk and Mark Franklin, eds, Choosing Europe? The European Electorate and National Politics in the Face of Union (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996); and Simon Hix and Christopher Lord, Political Parties in the European Union (Basingstoke, Hants.: Macmillan, 1997).
2. E.g. Robert Michels, Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy (New York: Free Press, 1961 [1911]) ; Max Weber, 'Politics as a Vocation', in Hans H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1946 [1918]); Joseph Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (London: Allen & Unwin, 1943); Angelo Panebianco, Political Parties: Organization and Power (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988 [1982]); Hans-Dieter Klingemann, Richard I. Hofferbert and Ian Budge, Parties, Policies, and Democracy (Boulder, Col.: Westview Press, 1994); and Peter Mair, 'Party Organizations: From Civil Society to the State', in Richard S. Katz and Peter Mair, eds, How Parties Organize: Adaptation and Change in Party Organizations in Western Democracies (London: Sage, 1994). Similar normative claims have been made about the European Union: that democratic accountability via the European Parliament requires cohesive and competitive parties, e.g. Fulvio Attinà, 'Parties, Party Systems and Democracy in the European Union', International Spectator, 27 (1992), 67-86; Rudy Andeweg, 'The Reshaping of National Party Systems', in Jack Hay ward, ed., The Crisis of Representation in Europe (London: Frank Cass, 1995); Cees van der Eijk and Mark Franklin, eds, Choosing Europe? The European Electorate and National Politics in the Face of Union (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996); and Simon Hix and Christopher Lord, Political Parties in the European Union (Basingstoke, Hants.: Macmillan, 1997).
3. E.g. Robert Michels, Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy (New York: Free Press, 1961 [1911]) ; Max Weber, 'Politics as a Vocation', in Hans H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1946 [1918]); Joseph Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (London: Allen & Unwin, 1943); Angelo Panebianco, Political Parties: Organization and Power (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988 [1982]); Hans-Dieter Klingemann, Richard I. Hofferbert and Ian Budge, Parties, Policies, and Democracy (Boulder, Col.: Westview Press, 1994); and Peter Mair, 'Party Organizations: From Civil Society to the State', in Richard S. Katz and Peter Mair, eds, How Parties Organize: Adaptation and Change in Party Organizations in Western Democracies (London: Sage, 1994). Similar normative claims have been made about the European Union: that democratic accountability via the European Parliament requires cohesive and competitive parties, e.g. Fulvio Attinà, 'Parties, Party Systems and Democracy in the European Union', International Spectator, 27 (1992), 67-86; Rudy Andeweg, 'The Reshaping of National Party Systems', in Jack Hay ward, ed., The Crisis of Representation in Europe (London: Frank Cass, 1995); Cees van der Eijk and Mark Franklin, eds, Choosing Europe? The European Electorate and National Politics in the Face of Union (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996); and Simon Hix and Christopher Lord, Political Parties in the European Union (Basingstoke, Hants.: Macmillan, 1997).
4. E.g. Robert Michels, Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy (New York: Free Press, 1961 [1911]) ; Max Weber, 'Politics as a Vocation', in Hans H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1946 [1918]); Joseph Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (London: Allen & Unwin, 1943); Angelo Panebianco, Political Parties: Organization and Power (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988 [1982]); Hans-Dieter Klingemann, Richard I. Hofferbert and Ian Budge, Parties, Policies, and Democracy (Boulder, Col.: Westview Press, 1994); and Peter Mair, 'Party Organizations: From Civil Society to the State', in Richard S. Katz and Peter Mair, eds, How Parties Organize: Adaptation and Change in Party Organizations in Western Democracies (London: Sage, 1994). Similar normative claims have been made about the European Union: that democratic accountability via the European Parliament requires cohesive and competitive parties, e.g. Fulvio Attinà, 'Parties, Party Systems and Democracy in the European Union', International Spectator, 27 (1992), 67-86; Rudy Andeweg, 'The Reshaping of National Party Systems', in Jack Hay ward, ed., The Crisis of Representation in Europe (London: Frank Cass, 1995); Cees van der Eijk and Mark Franklin, eds, Choosing Europe? The European Electorate and National Politics in the Face of Union (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996); and Simon Hix and Christopher Lord, Political Parties in the European Union (Basingstoke, Hants.: Macmillan, 1997).
5. E.g. Robert Michels, Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy (New York: Free Press, 1961 [1911]) ; Max Weber, 'Politics as a Vocation', in Hans H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1946 [1918]); Joseph Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (London: Allen & Unwin, 1943); Angelo Panebianco, Political Parties: Organization and Power (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988 [1982]); Hans-Dieter Klingemann, Richard I. Hofferbert and Ian Budge, Parties, Policies, and Democracy (Boulder, Col.: Westview Press, 1994); and Peter Mair, 'Party Organizations: From Civil Society to the State', in Richard S. Katz and Peter Mair, eds, How Parties Organize: Adaptation and Change in Party Organizations in Western Democracies (London: Sage, 1994). Similar normative claims have been made about the European Union: that democratic accountability via the European Parliament requires cohesive and competitive parties, e.g. Fulvio Attinà, 'Parties, Party Systems and Democracy in the European Union', International Spectator, 27 (1992), 67-86; Rudy Andeweg, 'The Reshaping of National Party Systems', in Jack Hay ward, ed., The Crisis of Representation in Europe (London: Frank Cass, 1995); Cees van der Eijk and Mark Franklin, eds, Choosing Europe? The European Electorate and National Politics in the Face of Union (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996); and Simon Hix and Christopher Lord, Political Parties in the European Union (Basingstoke, Hants.: Macmillan, 1997).
6. E.g. Robert Michels, Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy (New York: Free Press, 1961 [1911]) ; Max Weber, 'Politics as a Vocation', in Hans H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1946 [1918]); Joseph Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (London: Allen & Unwin, 1943); Angelo Panebianco, Political Parties: Organization and Power (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988 [1982]); Hans-Dieter Klingemann, Richard I. Hofferbert and Ian Budge, Parties, Policies, and Democracy (Boulder, Col.: Westview Press, 1994); and Peter Mair, 'Party Organizations: From Civil Society to the State', in Richard S. Katz and Peter Mair, eds, How Parties Organize: Adaptation and Change in Party Organizations in Western Democracies (London: Sage, 1994). Similar normative claims have been made about the European Union: that democratic accountability via the European Parliament requires cohesive and competitive parties, e.g. Fulvio Attinà, 'Parties, Party Systems and Democracy in the European Union', International Spectator, 27 (1992), 67-86; Rudy Andeweg, 'The Reshaping of National Party Systems', in Jack Hay ward, ed., The Crisis of Representation in Europe (London: Frank Cass, 1995); Cees van der Eijk and Mark Franklin, eds, Choosing Europe? The European Electorate and National Politics in the Face of Union (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996); and Simon Hix and Christopher Lord, Political Parties in the European Union (Basingstoke, Hants.: Macmillan, 1997).
7. E.g. Robert Michels, Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy (New York: Free Press, 1961 [1911]) ; Max Weber, 'Politics as a Vocation', in Hans H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1946 [1918]); Joseph Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (London: Allen & Unwin, 1943); Angelo Panebianco, Political Parties: Organization and Power (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988 [1982]); Hans-Dieter Klingemann, Richard I. Hofferbert and Ian Budge, Parties, Policies, and Democracy (Boulder, Col.: Westview Press, 1994); and Peter Mair, 'Party Organizations: From Civil Society to the State', in Richard S. Katz and Peter Mair, eds, How Parties Organize: Adaptation and Change in Party Organizations in Western Democracies (London: Sage, 1994). Similar normative claims have been made about the European Union: that democratic accountability via the European Parliament requires cohesive and competitive parties, e.g. Fulvio Attinà, 'Parties, Party Systems and Democracy in the European Union', International Spectator, 27 (1992), 67-86; Rudy Andeweg, 'The Reshaping of National Party Systems', in Jack Hay ward, ed., The Crisis of Representation in Europe (London: Frank Cass, 1995); Cees van der Eijk and Mark Franklin, eds, Choosing Europe? The European Electorate and National Politics in the Face of Union (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996); and Simon Hix and Christopher Lord, Political Parties in the European Union (Basingstoke, Hants.: Macmillan, 1997).
8. E.g. Robert Michels, Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy (New York: Free Press, 1961 [1911]) ; Max Weber, 'Politics as a Vocation', in Hans H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1946 [1918]); Joseph Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (London: Allen & Unwin, 1943); Angelo Panebianco, Political Parties: Organization and Power (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988 [1982]); Hans-Dieter Klingemann, Richard I. Hofferbert and Ian Budge, Parties, Policies, and Democracy (Boulder, Col.: Westview Press, 1994); and Peter Mair, 'Party Organizations: From Civil Society to the State', in Richard S. Katz and Peter Mair, eds, How Parties Organize: Adaptation and Change in Party Organizations in Western Democracies (London: Sage, 1994). Similar normative claims have been made about the European Union: that democratic accountability via the European Parliament requires cohesive and competitive parties, e.g. Fulvio Attinà, 'Parties, Party Systems and Democracy in the European Union', International Spectator, 27 (1992), 67-86; Rudy Andeweg, 'The Reshaping of National Party Systems', in Jack Hay ward, ed., The Crisis of Representation in Europe (London: Frank Cass, 1995); Cees van der Eijk and Mark Franklin, eds, Choosing Europe? The European Electorate and National Politics in the Face of Union (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996); and Simon Hix and Christopher Lord, Political Parties in the European Union (Basingstoke, Hants.: Macmillan, 1997).
9. E.g. Robert Michels, Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy (New York: Free Press, 1961 [1911]) ; Max Weber, 'Politics as a Vocation', in Hans H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1946 [1918]); Joseph Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (London: Allen & Unwin, 1943); Angelo Panebianco, Political Parties: Organization and Power (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988 [1982]); Hans-Dieter Klingemann, Richard I. Hofferbert and Ian Budge, Parties, Policies, and Democracy (Boulder, Col.: Westview Press, 1994); and Peter Mair, 'Party Organizations: From Civil Society to the State', in Richard S. Katz and Peter Mair, eds, How Parties Organize: Adaptation and Change in Party Organizations in Western Democracies (London: Sage, 1994). Similar normative claims have been made about the European Union: that democratic accountability via the European Parliament requires cohesive and competitive parties, e.g. Fulvio Attinà, 'Parties, Party Systems and Democracy in the European Union', International Spectator, 27 (1992), 67-86; Rudy Andeweg, 'The Reshaping of National Party Systems', in Jack Hay ward, ed., The Crisis of Representation in Europe (London: Frank Cass, 1995); Cees van der Eijk and Mark Franklin, eds, Choosing Europe? The European Electorate and National Politics in the Face of Union (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996); and Simon Hix and Christopher Lord, Political Parties in the European Union (Basingstoke, Hants.: Macmillan, 1997).
10. E.g. Robert Michels, Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy (New York: Free Press, 1961 [1911]) ; Max Weber, 'Politics as a Vocation', in Hans H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1946 [1918]); Joseph Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (London: Allen & Unwin, 1943); Angelo Panebianco, Political Parties: Organization and Power (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988 [1982]); Hans-Dieter Klingemann, Richard I. Hofferbert and Ian Budge, Parties, Policies, and Democracy (Boulder, Col.: Westview Press, 1994); and Peter Mair, 'Party Organizations: From Civil Society to the State', in Richard S. Katz and Peter Mair, eds, How Parties Organize: Adaptation and Change in Party Organizations in Western Democracies (London: Sage, 1994). Similar normative claims have been made about the European Union: that democratic accountability via the European Parliament requires cohesive and competitive parties, e.g. Fulvio Attinà, 'Parties, Party Systems and Democracy in the European Union', International Spectator, 27 (1992), 67-86; Rudy Andeweg, 'The Reshaping of National Party Systems', in Jack Hay ward, ed., The Crisis of Representation in Europe (London: Frank Cass, 1995); Cees van der Eijk and Mark Franklin, eds, Choosing Europe? The European Electorate and National Politics in the Face of Union (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996); and Simon Hix and Christopher Lord, Political Parties in the European Union (Basingstoke, Hants.: Macmillan, 1997).
11. Since the Treaty of Rome in 1957 the European Parliament has had the power to censure the Commission. The Single European Act in 1987, the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 and the Amsterdam Treaty in 1999 increased the powers of the European Parliament vis-à-vis the Council and Commission in the adoption of legislation. For more details of the powers of the European Parliament, see, inter alia, Simon Hix, The Political System of the European Union (Basingstoke, Hants.: Macmillan, 1999), pp. 56-98.
12. The data used in this article are available on Simon Hix and Gérard Roland's websites: http://personal.lse.ac.uk/hix, and http://emlab.berkeley.edu/users/groland, respectively.
13. Fulvio Attinà, 'The Voting Behaviour of the European Parliament Members and the Problem of Europarties', European Journal of Political Research, 18 (1990), 557-79; Marcel Quanjel and Menno Wolters, 'Growing Cohesion in the European Parliament' (paper presented at the Joint Sessions of the ECPR, Leiden, 1993); Joanne Bay Brzinski, 'Political Group Cohesion in the European Parliament, 1989-1994', in Carolyn Rhodes and Sonia Mazey, eds, The State of the European Union, Vol. 3 (London: Longman, 1995); Tapio Raunio, The European Perspective: Transnational Party Groups in the 1989-1994 European Parliament (London: Ashgate, 1997); and Hix and Lord, Political Parties in the European Union.
14. Fulvio Attinà, 'The Voting Behaviour of the European Parliament Members and the Problem of Europarties', European Journal of Political Research, 18 (1990), 557-79; Marcel Quanjel and Menno Wolters, 'Growing Cohesion in the European Parliament' (paper presented at the Joint Sessions of the ECPR, Leiden, 1993); Joanne Bay Brzinski, 'Political Group Cohesion in the European Parliament, 1989-1994', in Carolyn Rhodes and Sonia Mazey, eds, The State of the European Union, Vol. 3 (London: Longman, 1995); Tapio Raunio, The European Perspective: Transnational Party Groups in the 1989-1994 European Parliament (London: Ashgate, 1997); and Hix and Lord, Political Parties in the European Union.
15. Fulvio Attinà, 'The Voting Behaviour of the European Parliament Members and the Problem of Europarties', European Journal of Political Research, 18 (1990), 557-79; Marcel Quanjel and Menno Wolters, 'Growing Cohesion in the European Parliament' (paper presented at the Joint Sessions of the ECPR, Leiden, 1993); Joanne Bay Brzinski, 'Political Group Cohesion in the European Parliament, 1989-1994', in Carolyn Rhodes and Sonia Mazey, eds, The State of the European Union, Vol. 3 (London: Longman, 1995); Tapio Raunio, The European Perspective: Transnational Party Groups in the 1989-1994 European Parliament (London: Ashgate, 1997); and Hix and Lord, Political Parties in the European Union.
16. Fulvio Attinà, 'The Voting Behaviour of the European Parliament Members and the Problem of Europarties', European Journal of Political Research, 18 (1990), 557-79; Marcel Quanjel and Menno Wolters, 'Growing Cohesion in the European Parliament' (paper presented at the Joint Sessions of the ECPR, Leiden, 1993); Joanne Bay Brzinski, 'Political Group Cohesion in the European Parliament, 1989-1994', in Carolyn Rhodes and Sonia Mazey, eds, The State of the European Union, Vol. 3 (London: Longman, 1995); Tapio Raunio, The European Perspective: Transnational Party Groups in the 1989-1994 European Parliament (London: Ashgate, 1997); and Hix and Lord, Political Parties in the European Union.
17. Fulvio Attinà, 'The Voting Behaviour of the European Parliament Members and the Problem of Europarties', European Journal of Political Research, 18 (1990), 557-79; Marcel Quanjel and Menno Wolters, 'Growing Cohesion in the European Parliament' (paper presented at the Joint Sessions of the ECPR, Leiden, 1993); Joanne Bay Brzinski, 'Political Group Cohesion in the European Parliament, 1989-1994', in Carolyn Rhodes and Sonia Mazey, eds, The State of the European Union, Vol. 3 (London: Longman, 1995); Tapio Raunio, The European Perspective: Transnational Party Groups in the 1989-1994 European Parliament (London: Ashgate, 1997); and Hix and Lord, Political Parties in the European Union.
18. Luciano Bardi, 'Transnational Party Federations, European Parliamentary Party Groups, and the Building of Europarties', in Richard S. Katz and Peter Mair, eds, How Parties Organize: Change and Adaptation in Party Organizations in Western Democracies (London: Sage, 1994); Hix and Lord, Political Parties in the European Union, pp. 158-66; Raunio, The European Perspective, pp. 101-6; Amie Kreppel and George Tsebelis, 'Coalition Formation in the European Parliament', Comparative Political Studies, 32 (1999), 933-66; Kreppel, The European Parliament and the Supranational Party System; Abdul Noury, 'Ideology, Nationality and Euro-Parliamentarians', European Union Politics, 3 (2002), 33-58; Simon Hix, 'Legislative Behaviour and Party Competition in the European Parliament: An Application of Nominate to the EU', Journal of Common Market Studies, 39 (2001), 663-88; and Abdul Noury and Gérard Roland, 'More Power to the European Parliament?' Economic Policy, 34 (2002), 279-320.
19. Luciano Bardi, 'Transnational Party Federations, European Parliamentary Party Groups, and the Building of Europarties', in Richard S. Katz and Peter Mair, eds, How Parties Organize: Change and Adaptation in Party Organizations in Western Democracies (London: Sage, 1994); Hix and Lord, Political Parties in the European Union, pp. 158-66; Raunio, The European Perspective, pp. 101-6; Amie Kreppel and George Tsebelis, 'Coalition Formation in the European Parliament', Comparative Political Studies, 32 (1999), 933-66; Kreppel, The European Parliament and the Supranational Party System; Abdul Noury, 'Ideology, Nationality and Euro-Parliamentarians', European Union Politics, 3 (2002), 33-58; Simon Hix, 'Legislative Behaviour and Party Competition in the European Parliament: An Application of Nominate to the EU', Journal of Common Market Studies, 39 (2001), 663-88; and Abdul Noury and Gérard Roland, 'More Power to the European Parliament?' Economic Policy, 34 (2002), 279-320.
20. Luciano Bardi, 'Transnational Party Federations, European Parliamentary Party Groups, and the Building of Europarties', in Richard S. Katz and Peter Mair, eds, How Parties Organize: Change and Adaptation in Party Organizations in Western Democracies (London: Sage, 1994); Hix and Lord, Political Parties in the European Union, pp. 158-66; Raunio, The European Perspective, pp. 101-6; Amie Kreppel and George Tsebelis, 'Coalition Formation in the European Parliament', Comparative Political Studies, 32 (1999), 933-66; Kreppel, The European Parliament and the Supranational Party System; Abdul Noury, 'Ideology, Nationality and Euro-Parliamentarians', European Union Politics, 3 (2002), 33-58; Simon Hix, 'Legislative Behaviour and Party Competition in the European Parliament: An Application of Nominate to the EU', Journal of Common Market Studies, 39 (2001), 663-88; and Abdul Noury and Gérard Roland, 'More Power to the European Parliament?' Economic Policy, 34 (2002), 279-320.
21. Luciano Bardi, 'Transnational Party Federations, European Parliamentary Party Groups, and the Building of Europarties', in Richard S. Katz and Peter Mair, eds, How Parties Organize: Change and Adaptation in Party Organizations in Western Democracies (London: Sage, 1994); Hix and Lord, Political Parties in the European Union, pp. 158-66; Raunio, The European Perspective, pp. 101-6; Amie Kreppel and George Tsebelis, 'Coalition Formation in the European Parliament', Comparative Political Studies, 32 (1999), 933-66; Kreppel, The European Parliament and the Supranational Party System; Abdul Noury, 'Ideology, Nationality and Euro-Parliamentarians', European Union Politics, 3 (2002), 33-58; Simon Hix, 'Legislative Behaviour and Party Competition in the European Parliament: An Application of Nominate to the EU', Journal of Common Market Studies, 39 (2001), 663-88; and Abdul Noury and Gérard Roland, 'More Power to the European Parliament?' Economic Policy, 34 (2002), 279-320.
22. Luciano Bardi, 'Transnational Party Federations, European Parliamentary Party Groups, and the Building of Europarties', in Richard S. Katz and Peter Mair, eds, How Parties Organize: Change and Adaptation in Party Organizations in Western Democracies (London: Sage, 1994); Hix and Lord, Political Parties in the European Union, pp. 158-66; Raunio, The European Perspective, pp. 101-6; Amie Kreppel and George Tsebelis, 'Coalition Formation in the European Parliament', Comparative Political Studies, 32 (1999), 933-66; Kreppel, The European Parliament and the Supranational Party System; Abdul Noury, 'Ideology, Nationality and Euro-Parliamentarians', European Union Politics, 3 (2002), 33-58; Simon Hix, 'Legislative Behaviour and Party Competition in the European Parliament: An Application of Nominate to the EU', Journal of Common Market Studies, 39 (2001), 663-88; and Abdul Noury and Gérard Roland, 'More Power to the European Parliament?' Economic Policy, 34 (2002), 279-320.
23. Luciano Bardi, 'Transnational Party Federations, European Parliamentary Party Groups, and the Building of Europarties', in Richard S. Katz and Peter Mair, eds, How Parties Organize: Change and Adaptation in Party Organizations in Western Democracies (London: Sage, 1994); Hix and Lord, Political Parties in the European Union, pp. 158-66; Raunio, The European Perspective, pp. 101-6; Amie Kreppel and George Tsebelis, 'Coalition Formation in the European Parliament', Comparative Political Studies, 32 (1999), 933-66; Kreppel, The European Parliament and the Supranational Party System; Abdul Noury, 'Ideology, Nationality and Euro-Parliamentarians', European Union Politics, 3 (2002), 33-58; Simon Hix, 'Legislative Behaviour and Party Competition in the European Parliament: An Application of Nominate to the EU', Journal of Common Market Studies, 39 (2001), 663-88; and Abdul Noury and Gérard Roland, 'More Power to the European Parliament?' Economic Policy, 34 (2002), 279-320.
24. Luciano Bardi, 'Transnational Party Federations, European Parliamentary Party Groups, and the Building of Europarties', in Richard S. Katz and Peter Mair, eds, How Parties Organize: Change and Adaptation in Party Organizations in Western Democracies (London: Sage, 1994); Hix and Lord, Political Parties in the European Union, pp. 158-66; Raunio, The European Perspective, pp. 101-6; Amie Kreppel and George Tsebelis, 'Coalition Formation in the European Parliament', Comparative Political Studies, 32 (1999), 933-66; Kreppel, The European Parliament and the Supranational Party System; Abdul Noury, 'Ideology, Nationality and Euro-Parliamentarians', European Union Politics, 3 (2002), 33-58; Simon Hix, 'Legislative Behaviour and Party Competition in the European Parliament: An Application of Nominate to the EU', Journal of Common Market Studies, 39 (2001), 663-88; and Abdul Noury and Gérard Roland, 'More Power to the European Parliament?' Economic Policy, 34 (2002), 279-320.
25. Luciano Bardi, 'Transnational Party Federations, European Parliamentary Party Groups, and the Building of Europarties', in Richard S. Katz and Peter Mair, eds, How Parties Organize: Change and Adaptation in Party Organizations in Western Democracies (London: Sage, 1994); Hix and Lord, Political Parties in the European Union, pp. 158-66; Raunio, The European Perspective, pp. 101-6; Amie Kreppel and George Tsebelis, 'Coalition Formation in the European Parliament', Comparative Political Studies, 32 (1999), 933-66; Kreppel, The European Parliament and the Supranational Party System; Abdul Noury, 'Ideology, Nationality and Euro-Parliamentarians', European Union Politics, 3 (2002), 33-58; Simon Hix, 'Legislative Behaviour and Party Competition in the European Parliament: An Application of Nominate to the EU', Journal of Common Market Studies, 39 (2001), 663-88; and Abdul Noury and Gérard Roland, 'More Power to the European Parliament?' Economic Policy, 34 (2002), 279-320.
26. E.g. George Tsebelis Veto Players: How Political Institutions Work (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press/Russell Sage Foundation, 2002), chap. 3; John D. Huber, Rationalizing Parliament: Legislative Institutions and Party Politics in France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Matthew S. Shugart and John M. Carey, Presidents and Assemblies: Constitutional Design and Electoral Systems (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Shaun Bowler, David M. Farrell and Richard S. Katz, eds, Party Discipline and Parliamentary Government (Columbus: Ohio State Press, 1999); and John M. Carey, 'Getting Their Way, or Getting in the Way? Presidents and Party Unity in Legislative Voting' (unpublished paper, Washington University, St. Louis, 2002).
27. E.g. George Tsebelis Veto Players: How Political Institutions Work (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press/Russell Sage Foundation, 2002), chap. 3; John D. Huber, Rationalizing Parliament: Legislative Institutions and Party Politics in France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Matthew S. Shugart and John M. Carey, Presidents and Assemblies: Constitutional Design and Electoral Systems (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Shaun Bowler, David M. Farrell and Richard S. Katz, eds, Party Discipline and Parliamentary Government (Columbus: Ohio State Press, 1999); and John M. Carey, 'Getting Their Way, or Getting in the Way? Presidents and Party Unity in Legislative Voting' (unpublished paper, Washington University, St. Louis, 2002).
28. E.g. George Tsebelis Veto Players: How Political Institutions Work (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press/Russell Sage Foundation, 2002), chap. 3; John D. Huber, Rationalizing Parliament: Legislative Institutions and Party Politics in France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Matthew S. Shugart and John M. Carey, Presidents and Assemblies: Constitutional Design and Electoral Systems (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Shaun Bowler, David M. Farrell and Richard S. Katz, eds, Party Discipline and Parliamentary Government (Columbus: Ohio State Press, 1999); and John M. Carey, 'Getting Their Way, or Getting in the Way? Presidents and Party Unity in Legislative Voting' (unpublished paper, Washington University, St. Louis, 2002).
29. E.g. George Tsebelis Veto Players: How Political Institutions Work (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press/Russell Sage Foundation, 2002), chap. 3; John D. Huber, Rationalizing Parliament: Legislative Institutions and Party Politics in France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Matthew S. Shugart and John M. Carey, Presidents and Assemblies: Constitutional Design and Electoral Systems (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Shaun Bowler, David M. Farrell and Richard S. Katz, eds, Party Discipline and Parliamentary Government (Columbus: Ohio State Press, 1999); and John M. Carey, 'Getting Their Way, or Getting in the Way? Presidents and Party Unity in Legislative Voting' (unpublished paper, Washington University, St. Louis, 2002).
30. E.g. George Tsebelis Veto Players: How Political Institutions Work (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press/Russell Sage Foundation, 2002), chap. 3; John D. Huber, Rationalizing Parliament: Legislative Institutions and Party Politics in France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Matthew S. Shugart and John M. Carey, Presidents and Assemblies: Constitutional Design and Electoral Systems (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Shaun Bowler, David M. Farrell and Richard S. Katz, eds, Party Discipline and Parliamentary Government (Columbus: Ohio State Press, 1999); and John M. Carey, 'Getting Their Way, or Getting in the Way? Presidents and Party Unity in Legislative Voting' (unpublished paper, Washington University, St. Louis, 2002).
31. E.g. Gary W. Cox, The Efficient Secret: The Cabinet and the Development of Political Parties in Victorian England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
32. John Huber, 'The Impact of Confidence Votes on Legislative Politics in Parliamentary Systems', American Political Science Review, 90 (1996), 269-82; Daniel Diermeier and Timothy J. Feddersen, 'Cohesion in Legislatures and the Vote of Confidence Procedure', American Political Science Review, 92 (1998), 611-21; and Torsten Persson, Gérard Roland and Guido Tabellini, 'Comparative Politics and Public Finance', Journal of Political Economy, 108 (2000), 1121-61.
33. John Huber, 'The Impact of Confidence Votes on Legislative Politics in Parliamentary Systems', American Political Science Review, 90 (1996), 269-82; Daniel Diermeier and Timothy J. Feddersen, 'Cohesion in Legislatures and the Vote of Confidence Procedure', American Political Science Review, 92 (1998), 611-21; and Torsten Persson, Gérard Roland and Guido Tabellini, 'Comparative Politics and Public Finance', Journal of Political Economy, 108 (2000), 1121-61.
34. John Huber, 'The Impact of Confidence Votes on Legislative Politics in Parliamentary Systems', American Political Science Review, 90 (1996), 269-82; Daniel Diermeier and Timothy J. Feddersen, 'Cohesion in Legislatures and the Vote of Confidence Procedure', American Political Science Review, 92 (1998), 611-21; and Torsten Persson, Gérard Roland and Guido Tabellini, 'Comparative Politics and Public Finance', Journal of Political Economy, 108 (2000), 1121-61.
35. E.g. David W. Rohde, Parties and Leaders in the Postreform House (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991); Keith Krehbiel, Pivotal Politics: A Theory of U.S. Lawmaking (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998); and Charles M. Cameron, Veto Bargaining: Presidents and the Politics of Negative Power (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
36. E.g. David W. Rohde, Parties and Leaders in the Postreform House (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991); Keith Krehbiel, Pivotal Politics: A Theory of U.S. Lawmaking (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998); and Charles M. Cameron, Veto Bargaining: Presidents and the Politics of Negative Power (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
37. E.g. David W. Rohde, Parties and Leaders in the Postreform House (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991); Keith Krehbiel, Pivotal Politics: A Theory of U.S. Lawmaking (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998); and Charles M. Cameron, Veto Bargaining: Presidents and the Politics of Negative Power (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
38. E.g. Alberto Alesina and Howard Rosenthal, Partisan Politics, Divided Government, and the Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); and Shugart and Carey, Presidents and Assemblies.
39. E.g. Alberto Alesina and Howard Rosenthal, Partisan Politics, Divided Government, and the Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); and Shugart and Carey, Presidents and Assemblies.
40. The Commission can be censured by a 'double-majority': a two-thirds majority vote which must constitute an 'absolute majority' of all MEPs. This high voting threshold means that in practice the censure procedure in the European Parliament is more akin to the power of a parliament in a separated-powers system to 'impeach' the president (for 'high crimes and misdemeanours', as the US Constitution states), than the ability of the legislative majority in a parliamentary system to force a government to resign. Despite numerous attempts since 1979 to censure the Commission, a censure motion has never been passed. Perhaps the only exception to this was in May 1999, when the Sanier Commission resigned on the eve of a prospective censure motion in the parliament, which the Commission expected to lose.
41. Gary W. Cox and Matthew D. McCubbins, Legislative Leviathan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), pp. 83-136. Also see D. Roderick Kiewiet and Matthew D. McCubbins, The Logic of Delegation: Congressional Parties and the Appropriations Process (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991).
42. Gary W. Cox and Matthew D. McCubbins, Legislative Leviathan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), pp. 83-136. Also see D. Roderick Kiewiet and Matthew D. McCubbins, The Logic of Delegation: Congressional Parties and the Appropriations Process (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991).
43. Thomas Piketty, 'Voting as Communicating', Review of Economic Studies, 67 (2000), 169-91; and Micael Castanheira, 'Why Vote for Losers', CEPR Discussion papers No. 3404, 2003.
44. Thomas Piketty, 'Voting as Communicating', Review of Economic Studies, 67 (2000), 169-91; and Micael Castanheira, 'Why Vote for Losers', CEPR Discussion papers No. 3404, 2003.
45. But the reverse may also be true. With more powers, national parties have more incentives to influence how 'their' MEPs vote if their policy preferences diverge from those of their European party group. For example, case studies of particular high-profile votes show that party cohesion can break down when national interests are at stake. See Simon Hix and Christopher Lord, 'The Making of a President: The European Parliament and the Confirmation of Jacques Sanier as President of the Commission', Government and Opposition, 31 (1995), 62-76; and Matthew Gabel and Simon Hix, 'The Ties that Bind: Partisanship and the Investiture Procedure for the EU Commission President', in Madeleine Hosli, Adrian Van Deemen and Mika Widgrén, eds, Institutional Challenges in the European Union (London: Routledge, 2002). Moreover, MEPs from national parties that are in government in the domestic arena might come under particular pressure, as these parties are represented in the other branch of the EU legislature (the Council) and so are likely to have high stakes in votes in the parliament.
46. But the reverse may also be true. With more powers, national parties have more incentives to influence how 'their' MEPs vote if their policy preferences diverge from those of their European party group. For example, case studies of particular high-profile votes show that party cohesion can break down when national interests are at stake. See Simon Hix and Christopher Lord, 'The Making of a President: The European Parliament and the Confirmation of Jacques Sanier as President of the Commission', Government and Opposition, 31 (1995), 62-76; and Matthew Gabel and Simon Hix, 'The Ties that Bind: Partisanship and the Investiture Procedure for the EU Commission President', in Madeleine Hosli, Adrian Van Deemen and Mika Widgrén, eds, Institutional Challenges in the European Union (London: Routledge, 2002). Moreover, MEPs from national parties that are in government in the domestic arena might come under particular pressure, as these parties are represented in the other branch of the EU legislature (the Council) and so are likely to have high stakes in votes in the parliament.
47. In the US context, Poole and Rosenthal's work provides a more ideological view of Congressional voting. See Poole and Rosenthal, Congress.
48. Keith Krehbiel, 'Where's the Party?' British Journal of Political Science, 23 (1993), 235-66: p. 237.
49. William H. Riker, The Theory of Political Coalitions (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1962).
50. David P. Baron and John A. Ferejohn, 'Bargaining in Legislatures', American Journal of Political Science, 83 (1989), 1181-206.
51. E.g. Lloyd S. Shapley and Martin Shubik, 'A Method for Evaluating the Distribution of Power in a Committee System', American Political Science Review, 48 (1954), 787-92; and John F. Banzhaf, 'Weighted Voting Doesn't Work: A Mathematical Analysis', Rutgers Law Review, 19 (1965), 317-43.
52. E.g. Lloyd S. Shapley and Martin Shubik, 'A Method for Evaluating the Distribution of Power in a Committee System', American Political Science Review, 48 (1954), 787-92; and John F. Banzhaf, 'Weighted Voting Doesn't Work: A Mathematical Analysis', Rutgers Law Review, 19 (1965), 317-43.
53. E.g. Richard Corbett, The European Parliament's Role in Closer EU Integration (London: Palgrave, 1988); Richard Corbett, Francis Jacobs and Michael Shackleton, The European Parliament, 4th edn (London: Catermill, 2000), pp. 92-4; Amie Kreppel, 'Rules, Ideology and Coalition Formation in the European Parliament: Past, Present and Future', European Union Politics, 1 (2000), 340-62; Amie Kreppel, The European Parliament and the Supranational Party System (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Amie Kreppel and Simon Hix, 'From "Grand Coalition" to Left-Right Confrontation: Explaining the Shifting Structure of Party Competition in the European Parliament', Comparative Political Studies, 36 (2003), 75-96; and Amie Kreppel, Simon Hix and Abdul Noury, 'The Party System in the European Parliament: Collusive or Competitive?' Journal of Common Market Studies, 41 (2003), 309-31.
54. E.g. Richard Corbett, The European Parliament's Role in Closer EU Integration (London: Palgrave, 1988); Richard Corbett, Francis Jacobs and Michael Shackleton, The European Parliament, 4th edn (London: Catermill, 2000), pp. 92-4; Amie Kreppel, 'Rules, Ideology and Coalition Formation in the European Parliament: Past, Present and Future', European Union Politics, 1 (2000), 340-62; Amie Kreppel, The European Parliament and the Supranational Party System (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Amie Kreppel and Simon Hix, 'From "Grand Coalition" to Left-Right Confrontation: Explaining the Shifting Structure of Party Competition in the European Parliament', Comparative Political Studies, 36 (2003), 75-96; and Amie Kreppel, Simon Hix and Abdul Noury, 'The Party System in the European Parliament: Collusive or Competitive?' Journal of Common Market Studies, 41 (2003), 309-31.
55. E.g. Richard Corbett, The European Parliament's Role in Closer EU Integration (London: Palgrave, 1988); Richard Corbett, Francis Jacobs and Michael Shackleton, The European Parliament, 4th edn (London: Catermill, 2000), pp. 92-4; Amie Kreppel, 'Rules, Ideology and Coalition Formation in the European Parliament: Past, Present and Future', European Union Politics, 1 (2000), 340-62; Amie Kreppel, The European Parliament and the Supranational Party System (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Amie Kreppel and Simon Hix, 'From "Grand Coalition" to Left-Right Confrontation: Explaining the Shifting Structure of Party Competition in the European Parliament', Comparative Political Studies, 36 (2003), 75-96; and Amie Kreppel, Simon Hix and Abdul Noury, 'The Party System in the European Parliament: Collusive or Competitive?' Journal of Common Market Studies, 41 (2003), 309-31.
56. E.g. Richard Corbett, The European Parliament's Role in Closer EU Integration (London: Palgrave, 1988); Richard Corbett, Francis Jacobs and Michael Shackleton, The European Parliament, 4th edn (London: Catermill, 2000), pp. 92-4; Amie Kreppel, 'Rules, Ideology and Coalition Formation in the European Parliament: Past, Present and Future', European Union Politics, 1 (2000), 340-62; Amie Kreppel, The European Parliament and the Supranational Party System (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Amie Kreppel and Simon Hix, 'From "Grand Coalition" to Left-Right Confrontation: Explaining the Shifting Structure of Party Competition in the European Parliament', Comparative Political Studies, 36 (2003), 75-96; and Amie Kreppel, Simon Hix and Abdul Noury, 'The Party System in the European Parliament: Collusive or Competitive?' Journal of Common Market Studies, 41 (2003), 309-31.
57. E.g. Richard Corbett, The European Parliament's Role in Closer EU Integration (London: Palgrave, 1988); Richard Corbett, Francis Jacobs and Michael Shackleton, The European Parliament, 4th edn (London: Catermill, 2000), pp. 92-4; Amie Kreppel, 'Rules, Ideology and Coalition Formation in the European Parliament: Past, Present and Future', European Union Politics, 1 (2000), 340-62; Amie Kreppel, The European Parliament and the Supranational Party System (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Amie Kreppel and Simon Hix, 'From "Grand Coalition" to Left-Right Confrontation: Explaining the Shifting Structure of Party Competition in the European Parliament', Comparative Political Studies, 36 (2003), 75-96; and Amie Kreppel, Simon Hix and Abdul Noury, 'The Party System in the European Parliament: Collusive or Competitive?' Journal of Common Market Studies, 41 (2003), 309-31.
58. E.g. Richard Corbett, The European Parliament's Role in Closer EU Integration (London: Palgrave, 1988); Richard Corbett, Francis Jacobs and Michael Shackleton, The European Parliament, 4th edn (London: Catermill, 2000), pp. 92-4; Amie Kreppel, 'Rules, Ideology and Coalition Formation in the European Parliament: Past, Present and Future', European Union Politics, 1 (2000), 340-62; Amie Kreppel, The European Parliament and the Supranational Party System (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Amie Kreppel and Simon Hix, 'From "Grand Coalition" to Left-Right Confrontation: Explaining the Shifting Structure of Party Competition in the European Parliament', Comparative Political Studies, 36 (2003), 75-96; and Amie Kreppel, Simon Hix and Abdul Noury, 'The Party System in the European Parliament: Collusive or Competitive?' Journal of Common Market Studies, 41 (2003), 309-31.
59. E.g. Jan-Erik Lane, Reinert Maeland and Sven Berg, 'The EU Parliament: Seats, States and Political Parties', Journal of Theoretical Politics, 1 (1995), 395-400; Madeleine O. Hosli, 'Voting Strength in the European Parliament', European Journal of Political Research, 31 (1997), 351-66; and Hannu Nurmi, 'The Representation of Voter Groups in the EP', Electoral Studies, 16 (1997), 317-27.
60. E.g. Jan-Erik Lane, Reinert Maeland and Sven Berg, 'The EU Parliament: Seats, States and Political Parties', Journal of Theoretical Politics, 1 (1995), 395-400; Madeleine O. Hosli, 'Voting Strength in the European Parliament', European Journal of Political Research, 31 (1997), 351-66; and Hannu Nurmi, 'The Representation of Voter Groups in the EP', Electoral Studies, 16 (1997), 317-27.
61. E.g. Jan-Erik Lane, Reinert Maeland and Sven Berg, 'The EU Parliament: Seats, States and Political Parties', Journal of Theoretical Politics, 1 (1995), 395-400; Madeleine O. Hosli, 'Voting Strength in the European Parliament', European Journal of Political Research, 31 (1997), 351-66; and Hannu Nurmi, 'The Representation of Voter Groups in the EP', Electoral Studies, 16 (1997), 317-27.
62. Krehbiel, Pivotal Politics; and Tim Grosclose and James M. Snyder Jr, 'Buying Supermajorities', American Political Science Review, 90 (1996), 303-15.
63. Krehbiel, Pivotal Politics; and Tim Grosclose and James M. Snyder Jr, 'Buying Supermajorities', American Political Science Review, 90 (1996), 303-15.
64. Hix and Lord, Political Ponies in the European Union; and Liesbet Hooghe and Gary Marks, "The Making of a Polity: The Struggle over European Integration', in Herbert Kitschelt, Peter Lange, Gary Marks and John Stephens, eds, The Politics and Political Economy of Advanced Industrial Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
65. Hix and Lord, Political Ponies in the European Union; and Liesbet Hooghe and Gary Marks, "The Making of a Polity: The Struggle over European Integration', in Herbert Kitschelt, Peter Lange, Gary Marks and John Stephens, eds, The Politics and Political Economy of Advanced Industrial Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
66. Simon Hix, 'Dimensions and Alignments in European Union Politics: Cognitive Constraints and Partisan Responses', European Journal of Political Research, 35 (1999), 69-106.
67. E.g. Gary Marks, Carole J. Wilson and Leonard Ray, 'National Political Parties and European Integration', American Political Science Review, 46 (2002), 585-94; Mark Aspinwall, 'Preferring Europe: Ideology and National Preferences on European Integration', European Union Politics, 3 (2002), 81-111; and Matthew J. Gabel and Simon Mix, 'Defining the EU Political Space: An Empirical Study of the European Elections Manifestos, 1979-1999', Comparative Political Studies, 35 (2002), 934-64.
68. E.g. Gary Marks, Carole J. Wilson and Leonard Ray, 'National Political Parties and European Integration', American Political Science Review, 46 (2002), 585-94; Mark Aspinwall, 'Preferring Europe: Ideology and National Preferences on European Integration', European Union Politics, 3 (2002), 81-111; and Matthew J. Gabel and Simon Mix, 'Defining the EU Political Space: An Empirical Study of the European Elections Manifestos, 1979-1999', Comparative Political Studies, 35 (2002), 934-64.
69. E.g. Gary Marks, Carole J. Wilson and Leonard Ray, 'National Political Parties and European Integration', American Political Science Review, 46 (2002), 585-94; Mark Aspinwall, 'Preferring Europe: Ideology and National Preferences on European Integration', European Union Politics, 3 (2002), 81-111; and Matthew J. Gabel and Simon Mix, 'Defining the EU Political Space: An Empirical Study of the European Elections Manifestos, 1979-1999', Comparative Political Studies, 35 (2002), 934-64.
70. Richard Corbett, Francis Jacobs and Michael Shackleton, The European Parliament, 4th edn (London: Catermill, 2000).
71. Smart A. Rice, Quantitative Methods in Politics (New York: Knopf, 1928). To measure the difference between how committee members and other party members vote in the US Congress, Cox and McCubbins develop a variant of Rice's 'index of vote likeness', which they call the 'mean absolute difference' (MAD) index: whereby the absolute difference between the percentage of committee contingents from the same party voting 'yes' and the rest of the party voting 'yes' is averaged across a set of votes. In other words, this is Rice's index applied to the difference between committee contingents and parties rather than between parties.
72. See Cox and McCubbins, Legislative Leviathan, pp. 220-4.
73. Attinà, 'The Voting Behaviour of the European Parliament Members and the Problem of Europarties'.
74. We also report standard deviations in order to give the reader an idea of the precision of our reported mean statistics. However, standard errors, not standard deviations, should be used to examine the significance of these means. Given the large number of observations, most of the differences in means reported in Table 2 are statistically significant.
75. Cf. Corbett, The European Parliament's Role in Closer EU Integration; Corbett, Jacobs and Shackleton, The European Parliament, pp. 92-4; Kreppel, 'Rules, Ideology and Coalition Formation in the European Parliament'; Amie Kreppel, The European Parliament and the Supranational Party System; Kreppel and Hix, 'From "Grand Coalition" to Left-Right Confrontation'; and Kreppel, Hix and Noury, "The Party System in the European Parliament'.
76. Cf. Corbett, The European Parliament's Role in Closer EU Integration; Corbett, Jacobs and Shackleton, The European Parliament, pp. 92-4; Kreppel, 'Rules, Ideology and Coalition Formation in the European Parliament'; Amie Kreppel, The European Parliament and the Supranational Party System; Kreppel and Hix, 'From "Grand Coalition" to Left-Right Confrontation'; and Kreppel, Hix and Noury, "The Party System in the European Parliament'.
77. Cf. Corbett, The European Parliament's Role in Closer EU Integration; Corbett, Jacobs and Shackleton, The European Parliament, pp. 92-4; Kreppel, 'Rules, Ideology and Coalition Formation in the European Parliament'; Amie Kreppel, The European Parliament and the Supranational Party System; Kreppel and Hix, 'From "Grand Coalition" to Left-Right Confrontation'; and Kreppel, Hix and Noury, "The Party System in the European Parliament'.
78. Cf. Corbett, The European Parliament's Role in Closer EU Integration; Corbett, Jacobs and Shackleton, The European Parliament, pp. 92-4; Kreppel, 'Rules, Ideology and Coalition Formation in the European Parliament'; Amie Kreppel, The European Parliament and the Supranational Party System; Kreppel and Hix, 'From "Grand Coalition" to Left-Right Confrontation'; and Kreppel, Hix and Noury, "The Party System in the European Parliament'.
79. Cf. Corbett, The European Parliament's Role in Closer EU Integration; Corbett, Jacobs and Shackleton, The European Parliament, pp. 92-4; Kreppel, 'Rules, Ideology and Coalition Formation in the European Parliament'; Amie Kreppel, The European Parliament and the Supranational Party System; Kreppel and Hix, 'From "Grand Coalition" to Left-Right Confrontation'; and Kreppel, Hix and Noury, "The Party System in the European Parliament'.
80. Number of observations = (44 periods × 5 party groups) + (34 periods × 1 party group) = 254.
81. Number of observations = (10 periods × 10 coalitions) + (34 periods × 15 coalitions) = 610.
82. The variable is divided by 1,000 for normalization reasons, otherwise the estimated coefficients appear too small.
83. Douglas W. Rae, The Political Consequences of Electoral Laws (New Haven, Conh.: Yale University Press, 1967).
84. Ian Budge, Hans-Dieter Klingemann, Andrea Volkens, Judith Bara and Eric Tanenbaum, Mapping Policy Preferences: Estimates for Parties, Electors, and Governments, 1945-1998 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
85. We use the Budge et al. 'integrated' left-right measure, which includes party manifesto statements covering socio-economic and socio-political issues.
86. Wolfgang C. Müller and Kaare Strøm, eds, Coalition Governments in Western Europe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
87. Andrew Levin, Chien-Fu Lin and Chia-Shang James Chu, 'Unit Root Tests in Panel Data: Asymptotic and Finite Sample Proerties', Journal of Econometrics, 108 (2002), 1-24.
88. The substantive elasticities are calculated at the means of dependent and independent variables.
89. More detailed results can be obtained from the authors on request.
90. E.g. Mix, 'Legislative Behaviour and Party Competition in the European Parliament'; Hix, 'Parliamentary Behavior with Two Principals: Preferences, Parties and Voting in the European Parliament'; Noury, 'Ideology, Nationality and Euro-Parliamentarians'; and Noury and Roland, 'More Power to the European Parliament?'
91. E.g. Mix, 'Legislative Behaviour and Party Competition in the European
92. E.g. Mix, 'Legislative Behaviour and Party Competition in the European Parliament'; Hix, 'Parliamentary Behavior with Two Principals: Preferences, Parties and Voting in the European Parliament'; Noury, 'Ideology, Nationality and Euro-Parliamentarians'; and Noury and Roland, 'More Power to the European Parliament?'
93. E.g. Mix, 'Legislative Behaviour and Party Competition in the European Parliament'; Hix, 'Parliamentary Behavior with Two Principals: Preferences, Parties and Voting in the European Parliament'; Noury, 'Ideology, Nationality and Euro-Parliamentarians'; and Noury and Roland, 'More Power to the European Parliament?'
94. E.g. Simon Hix, 'Electoral Systems and Legislative Behaviour: Explaining Voting-Defection in the European Parliament' (unpublished paper, 2002).