The population ecology of interest group death: Gay and lesbian rights interest groups in the United States, 1945-98

British Journal of Political Science

Volumn 35, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 303-319

  Nownes, Anthony J ^a   Lipinski, Daniel ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 16644379552     PISSN: 00071234     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007123405000165     Document Type: Article

References (80)

1. Se especially Virginia Gray and David Lowery, The Demography of Interest Organization Communities: Institutions, Associations, and Membership Groups', American Politics Quarterly, 23 (1995), 3-32; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'A Niche Theory of Interest Representation', Journal of Politics, 58 (1996), 91-111; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, The Population Ecology of Interest Representation: Lobbying Communities in the American States (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996); Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'Life in a Niche: Mortality Anxiety Among Organized Interests in the American States', Political Research Quarterly, 50 (1997), 25-47; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'The Expression of Density Dependence in State Communities of Organized Interests', American Politics Research, 29 (2001), 374-91; David Lowery and Virginia Gray, 'The Density of State Interest Group Systems', Journal of Politics, 55 (1993), 191-206; See also Donald P. Haider-Markel, 'Interest Group Survival: Shared Interests Versus Competition for Resources', Journal of Politics, 59 (1997), 903-12.
2. Se especially Virginia Gray and David Lowery, The Demography of Interest Organization Communities: Institutions, Associations, and Membership Groups', American Politics Quarterly, 23 (1995), 3-32; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'A Niche Theory of Interest Representation', Journal of Politics, 58 (1996), 91-111; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, The Population Ecology of Interest Representation: Lobbying Communities in the American States (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996); Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'Life in a Niche: Mortality Anxiety Among Organized Interests in the American States', Political Research Quarterly, 50 (1997), 25-47; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'The Expression of Density Dependence in State Communities of Organized Interests', American Politics Research, 29 (2001), 374-91; David Lowery and Virginia Gray, 'The Density of State Interest Group Systems', Journal of Politics, 55 (1993), 191-206; See also Donald P. Haider-Markel, 'Interest Group Survival: Shared Interests Versus Competition for Resources', Journal of Politics, 59 (1997), 903-12.
3. Se especially Virginia Gray and David Lowery, The Demography of Interest Organization Communities: Institutions, Associations, and Membership Groups', American Politics Quarterly, 23 (1995), 3-32; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'A Niche Theory of Interest Representation', Journal of Politics, 58 (1996), 91-111; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, The Population Ecology of Interest Representation: Lobbying Communities in the American States (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996); Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'Life in a Niche: Mortality Anxiety Among Organized Interests in the American States', Political Research Quarterly, 50 (1997), 25-47; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'The Expression of Density Dependence in State Communities of Organized Interests', American Politics Research, 29 (2001), 374-91; David Lowery and Virginia Gray, 'The Density of State Interest Group Systems', Journal of Politics, 55 (1993), 191-206; See also Donald P. Haider-Markel, 'Interest Group Survival: Shared Interests Versus Competition for Resources', Journal of Politics, 59 (1997), 903-12.
4. Se especially Virginia Gray and David Lowery, The Demography of Interest Organization Communities: Institutions, Associations, and Membership Groups', American Politics Quarterly, 23 (1995), 3-32; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'A Niche Theory of Interest Representation', Journal of Politics, 58 (1996), 91-111; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, The Population Ecology of Interest Representation: Lobbying Communities in the American States (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996); Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'Life in a Niche: Mortality Anxiety Among Organized Interests in the American States', Political Research Quarterly, 50 (1997), 25-47; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'The Expression of Density Dependence in State Communities of Organized Interests', American Politics Research, 29 (2001), 374-91; David Lowery and Virginia Gray, 'The Density of State Interest Group Systems', Journal of Politics, 55 (1993), 191-206; See also Donald P. Haider-Markel, 'Interest Group Survival: Shared Interests Versus Competition for Resources', Journal of Politics, 59 (1997), 903-12.
5. Se especially Virginia Gray and David Lowery, The Demography of Interest Organization Communities: Institutions, Associations, and Membership Groups', American Politics Quarterly, 23 (1995), 3-32; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'A Niche Theory of Interest Representation', Journal of Politics, 58 (1996), 91-111; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, The Population Ecology of Interest Representation: Lobbying Communities in the American States (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996); Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'Life in a Niche: Mortality Anxiety Among Organized Interests in the American States', Political Research Quarterly, 50 (1997), 25-47; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'The Expression of Density Dependence in State Communities of Organized Interests', American Politics Research, 29 (2001), 374-91; David Lowery and Virginia Gray, 'The Density of State Interest Group Systems', Journal of Politics, 55 (1993), 191-206; See also Donald P. Haider-Markel, 'Interest Group Survival: Shared Interests Versus Competition for Resources', Journal of Politics, 59 (1997), 903-12.
6. Se especially Virginia Gray and David Lowery, The Demography of Interest Organization Communities: Institutions, Associations, and Membership Groups', American Politics Quarterly, 23 (1995), 3-32; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'A Niche Theory of Interest Representation', Journal of Politics, 58 (1996), 91-111; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, The Population Ecology of Interest Representation: Lobbying Communities in the American States (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996); Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'Life in a Niche: Mortality Anxiety Among Organized Interests in the American States', Political Research Quarterly, 50 (1997), 25-47; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'The Expression of Density Dependence in State Communities of Organized Interests', American Politics Research, 29 (2001), 374-91; David Lowery and Virginia Gray, 'The Density of State Interest Group Systems', Journal of Politics, 55 (1993), 191-206; See also Donald P. Haider-Markel, 'Interest Group Survival: Shared Interests Versus Competition for Resources', Journal of Politics, 59 (1997), 903-12.
7. Se especially Virginia Gray and David Lowery, The Demography of Interest Organization Communities: Institutions, Associations, and Membership Groups', American Politics Quarterly, 23 (1995), 3-32; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'A Niche Theory of Interest Representation', Journal of Politics, 58 (1996), 91-111; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, The Population Ecology of Interest Representation: Lobbying Communities in the American States (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996); Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'Life in a Niche: Mortality Anxiety Among Organized Interests in the American States', Political Research Quarterly, 50 (1997), 25-47; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'The Expression of Density Dependence in State Communities of Organized Interests', American Politics Research, 29 (2001), 374-91; David Lowery and Virginia Gray, 'The Density of State Interest Group Systems', Journal of Politics, 55 (1993), 191-206; See also Donald P. Haider-Markel, 'Interest Group Survival: Shared Interests Versus Competition for Resources', Journal of Politics, 59 (1997), 903-12.
8. That previous paper is: Anthony J. Nownes, "The Population Ecology of Interest Group Formation: Mobilizing for Gay and Lesbian Rights in the United States, 1950-98', British Journal of Political Science, 34 (2004), 49-67.
9. Nownes, "The Population Ecology', pp. 52-8.
10. Allan J. Cigler, 'Interest Groups: A Subfield in Search of an Identity', in William Crotty, ed, Political Science: Looking to the Future, vol. 4 (Evanstoh, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1991), pp. 99-135, at p. 110.
11. Cigler, 'Interest Groups', at p. 110.
12. Michael T. Hannan and Glenn R. Carroll, 'An Introduction to Organizational Ecology', in Glenn R. Carroll and Michael T. Hannan, eds, Organizations in Industry: Strategy, Structure, and Selection (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 17-31, at pp. 28-9.
13. Michael T. Hannan and John Freeman, 'Density Dependence in the Growth of Organizational Populations', in Glenn R. Carroll, ed., Ecological Models of Organizations (Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, 1988), pp. 7-31, at p. 9 (italics in the original). This sentence is paraphrased from Nownes, The Population Ecology', p. 52.
14. Michael T. Hannan and John Freeman, 'Density Dependence in the Growth of Organizational Populations', in Glenn R. Carroll, ed., Ecological Models of Organizations (Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, 1988), pp. 7-31, at p. 9 (italics in the original). This sentence is paraphrased from Nownes, The Population Ecology', p. 52.
15. Glenn R. Carroll and Michael T. Hannan, 'Focus on Industry: The Organizational Lens', in Carroll and Hannan, eds, Organizations in Industry, pp. 3-16, at p. 14.
16. Glenn R. Carroll and Michael T. Hannan, 'Density-Dependent Evolution', in Carroll and Hannan, eds, Organizations in Industry, pp. 115-20, at p. 115.
17. Michael T. Hannan, 'Labor Unions', in Carroll and Hannan, eds, Organizations in Industry, pp. 121-36, at p. 127.
18. This subsection is paraphrased from Nownes, "The Population Ecology', pp. 52-3.
19. Hannan and Carroll, 'An Introduction to Organizational Ecology', p. 31.
20. Hannan, 'Labor Unions', p. 127.
21. Carroll and Hannan, 'Density-Dependent Evolution', p. 117.
22. Carroll and Hannan, 'Density-Dependent Evolution', p. 117.
23. Carroll and Hannan, 'Density-Dependent Evolution", p. 117.
24. Carroll and Hannan, 'Density-Dependent Evolution', pp. 117-18.
25. Carroll and Hannan, 'Density-Dependent Evolution', p. 118.
26. Gray and Lowery, 'The Demography of Interest Organization Communities'; Gray and Lowery, "The Expression of Density Dependence in State Communities of Organized Interests'.
27. Gray and Lowery, 'The Demography of Interest Organization Communities'; Gray and Lowery, "The Expression of Density Dependence in State Communities of Organized Interests'.
28. Gray and Lowery, "The Expression of Density Dependence in State Communities of Organized Interests', p. 375.
29. For more discussion of Gray and Lowery's work, see Nownes, "The Population Ecology', pp. 57-8.
30. Due to data limitations, in Nownes, "The Population Ecology', the period 1950-98 was examined. At the time, we did not have reliable information on the foundings of gay and lesbian rights groups for the period 1945-49. We have since overcome these limitations, and in this article we examine the entire post-war period up to 1998. The data used for the previous paper (covering the period 1950-98) and the updated data on foundings (i.e., the data for the entire period 1945-98) and the data used for this article are available on Anthony Nownes's website at http://web.utk.edu/~anownes/default.html.
31. Encyclopedia of Associations (Detroit, Mich.: The Gale Group, various years).
32. We examined the Encyclopedia for the four years after the study period because new groups sometimes do not appear in the publication until a year or two after they are founded.
33. New York Times Index (New York: The New York Times Co., various years).
34. See, for example, Barry D. Adam, The Rise of a Gay and Lesbian Movement (Boston, Mass.: Twayne, 1987); Margaret Cruikshank, The Gay and Lesbian Liberation Movement (New York: Routledge, 1992); Steven Epstein, 'Gay and Lesbian Movements in the United States: Dilemmas of Identity, Diversity, and Political Strategy', in Barry D. Adam, Jan Willem Duyvendak and André Krouwel, eds, The Global Emergence of Gay and Lesbian Politics: National Imprints of a Worldwide Movement (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999), pp. 30-90; Mark Thompson, ed., Long Road to Freedom: The Advocate History of the Gay and Lesbian Movement (New York: St Martin's Press, 1994).
35. See, for example, Barry D. Adam, The Rise of a Gay and Lesbian Movement (Boston, Mass.: Twayne, 1987); Margaret Cruikshank, The Gay and Lesbian Liberation Movement (New York: Routledge, 1992); Steven Epstein, 'Gay and Lesbian Movements in the United States: Dilemmas of Identity, Diversity, and Political Strategy', in Barry D. Adam, Jan Willem Duyvendak and André Krouwel, eds, The Global Emergence of Gay and Lesbian Politics: National Imprints of a Worldwide Movement (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999), pp. 30-90; Mark Thompson, ed., Long Road to Freedom: The Advocate History of the Gay and Lesbian Movement (New York: St Martin's Press, 1994).
36. See, for example, Barry D. Adam, The Rise of a Gay and Lesbian Movement (Boston, Mass.: Twayne, 1987); Margaret Cruikshank, The Gay and Lesbian Liberation Movement (New York: Routledge, 1992); Steven Epstein, 'Gay and Lesbian Movements in the United States: Dilemmas of Identity, Diversity, and Political Strategy', in Barry D. Adam, Jan Willem Duyvendak and André Krouwel, eds, The Global Emergence of Gay and Lesbian Politics: National Imprints of a Worldwide Movement (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999), pp. 30-90; Mark Thompson, ed., Long Road to Freedom: The Advocate History of the Gay and Lesbian Movement (New York: St Martin's Press, 1994).
37. See, for example, Barry D. Adam, The Rise of a Gay and Lesbian Movement (Boston, Mass.: Twayne, 1987); Margaret Cruikshank, The Gay and Lesbian Liberation Movement (New York: Routledge, 1992); Steven Epstein, 'Gay and Lesbian Movements in the United States: Dilemmas of Identity, Diversity, and Political Strategy', in Barry D. Adam, Jan Willem Duyvendak and André Krouwel, eds, The Global Emergence of Gay and Lesbian Politics: National Imprints of a Worldwide Movement (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999), pp. 30-90; Mark Thompson, ed., Long Road to Freedom: The Advocate History of the Gay and Lesbian Movement (New York: St Martin's Press, 1994).
38. We eliminated all groups that did not engage in political activity or that were not active at the national level.
39. Paul D. Allison, 'Discrete-Time Methods for the Analysis of Event Histories', Sociological Methodology, 13 (1982), 61-98.
40. Stephen J. Walters, 'What is a Cox Model?', electronic publication accessed at www.evidence-based-medicine.co.uk/ebmfiles/WhatisCoxModel.pdf, on 31 May 2003.
41. For detailed and technical information on Cox regression, see David Collett, Modeling Survival Data in Medical Research (London: Chapman and Hall, 1994); D. R. Cox, 'Regression Models and Life-Tables', Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series B (Methodological), 34 (1972), 187-220.
42. For detailed and technical information on Cox regression, see David Collett, Modeling Survival Data in Medical Research (London: Chapman and Hall, 1994); D. R. Cox, 'Regression Models and Life-Tables', Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series B (Methodological), 34 (1972), 187-220.
43. For more information on this approach, see Allison, 'Discrete-Time Methods for the Analysis of Event Histories'; Nathaniel Beck, Jonathan N. Katz and Richard Tucker, 'Taking Time Seriously: Time-Series-Cross-Section Analysis with a Binary Dependent Variable', American Journal of Political Science, 42 (1998), 1260-88; Charles J. Finocchiaro and Tse-min Lin, The Hazards of Incumbency: An Event History Analysis of Congressional Tenure' (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago, 2000).
44. For more information on this approach, see Allison, 'Discrete-Time Methods for the Analysis of Event Histories'; Nathaniel Beck, Jonathan N. Katz and Richard Tucker, 'Taking Time Seriously: Time-Series-Cross-Section Analysis with a Binary Dependent Variable', American Journal of Political Science, 42 (1998), 1260-88; Charles J. Finocchiaro and Tse-min Lin, The Hazards of Incumbency: An Event History Analysis of Congressional Tenure' (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago, 2000).
45. For more information on this approach, see Allison, 'Discrete-Time Methods for the Analysis of Event Histories'; Nathaniel Beck, Jonathan N. Katz and Richard Tucker, 'Taking Time Seriously: Time-Series-Cross-Section Analysis with a Binary Dependent Variable', American Journal of Political Science, 42 (1998), 1260-88; Charles J. Finocchiaro and Tse-min Lin, The Hazards of Incumbency: An Event History Analysis of Congressional Tenure' (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago, 2000).
46. Because of the way our data are structured, the risk of death in a group's first year is 0. Thus, we did not include each group's first yearly spell in our statistical analyses.
47. Actually, one of the twenty-five merged with another group. Though there is some evidence that mergers are qualitatively different phenomena from disbandings, in this article we treat all ending events the same (primarily because only one group 'died' by merging).
48. Information on which groups are included in our analyses can be found on Anthony Nownes' s website (see fn. 22).
49. In political science, see Douglas Rowley Imig, 'Resource Mobilization and Survival Tactics of Poverty Advocacy Groups', Western Political Quarterly, 45 (1992), 501-20; David S. Meyer and Douglas R. Imig, 'Political Opportunity and the Rise and Decline of Interest Group Sectors', Social Science Journal, 30 (1993), 253-70. For more details on POS theory, see Nownes, 'The Population Ecology of Interest Group Formation', pp. 61-2.
50. In political science, see Douglas Rowley Imig, 'Resource Mobilization and Survival Tactics of Poverty Advocacy Groups', Western Political Quarterly, 45 (1992), 501-20; David S. Meyer and Douglas R. Imig, 'Political Opportunity and the Rise and Decline of Interest Group Sectors', Social Science Journal, 30 (1993), 253-70. For more details on POS theory, see Nownes, 'The Population Ecology of Interest Group Formation', pp. 61-2.
51. In political science, see Douglas Rowley Imig, 'Resource Mobilization and Survival Tactics of Poverty Advocacy Groups', Western Political Quarterly, 45 (1992), 501-20; David S. Meyer and Douglas R. Imig, 'Political Opportunity and the Rise and Decline of Interest Group Sectors', Social Science Journal, 30 (1993), 253-70. For more details on POS theory, see Nownes, 'The Population Ecology of Interest Group Formation', pp. 61-2.
52. New York Times Index, various years. For accuracy, we consulted Donald P. Haider-Markel, 'Creating Change - Holding the Line: Agenda Setting on Lesbian and Gay Issues at the National Level', in Ellen D. B. Riggle and Barry L. Tadlock, eds, Gays and Lesbians in the Democratic Process: Public Policy, Public Opinion, and Political Representation (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999), pp. 242-68, at p. 257. We would like to thank Donald Haider-Markel for being gracious enough to share his data with us. Angela Lewis and Julie St.-Clair helped with the coding and counting of New York Times articles.
53. Meyer and Imig, 'Political Opportunity and the Rise and Decline of Interest Group Sectors', p. 258.
54. States of the old Confederacy were labelled Southern states for the purpose of this analysis.
55. We obtained data on the number of Democrats in the House at http://clerk.house.gov/histHigh/ Congressional_History/partyDiv.php. For the Senate, we obtained the data at www.senate.gov/learning/ stat_13.html. We also used Norman J. Ornstein, Thomas E. Mann and Michael J. Malbin, Vital Statistics on Congress, 1991-1992 (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Inc., 1992), pp. 7-17, 38 and 40-2; Norman J. Ornstein, Thomas E. Mann and Michael J. Malbin, Vital Statistics on Congress, 1999-2000 (Washington, D.C.: The AEI Press, 2000), pp. 5-15, 36 and 39-41. We also consulted the website of the Congressional Black Caucus of the 107th Congress at http://www.house.gov/ebjohnson/cbchistorymain2.htm.
56. We obtained data on the number of Democrats in the House at http://clerk.house.gov/histHigh/ Congressional_History/partyDiv.php. For the Senate, we obtained the data at www.senate.gov/learning/ stat_13.html. We also used Norman J. Ornstein, Thomas E. Mann and Michael J. Malbin, Vital Statistics on Congress, 1991-1992 (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Inc., 1992), pp. 7-17, 38 and 40-2; Norman J. Ornstein, Thomas E. Mann and Michael J. Malbin, Vital Statistics on Congress, 1999-2000 (Washington, D.C.: The AEI Press, 2000), pp. 5-15, 36 and 39-41. We also consulted the website of the Congressional Black Caucus of the 107th Congress at http://www.house.gov/ebjohnson/cbchistorymain2.htm.
57. We obtained data on the number of Democrats in the House at http://clerk.house.gov/histHigh/ Congressional_History/partyDiv.php. For the Senate, we obtained the data at www.senate.gov/learning/ stat_13.html. We also used Norman J. Ornstein, Thomas E. Mann and Michael J. Malbin, Vital Statistics on Congress, 1991-1992 (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Inc., 1992), pp. 7-17, 38 and 40-2; Norman J. Ornstein, Thomas E. Mann and Michael J. Malbin, Vital Statistics on Congress, 1999-2000 (Washington, D.C.: The AEI Press, 2000), pp. 5-15, 36 and 39-41. We also consulted the website of the Congressional Black Caucus of the 107th Congress at http://www.house.gov/ebjohnson/cbchistorymain2.htm.
58. It is possible that threats to the status quo actually encourage challenger groups, If this is the case, Reagan may be negatively associated with the hazard rate, as his presidency may have served as a rallying cry for gay and lesbian activists seeking to safeguard political gains made during the 1960s and 1970s. For a discussion of how individuals' responses to potential losses differ from responses to potential gains, see Daniel Kahneman, Paul Slovic and Amos Tversky, Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982).
59. Arthur L. Stinchcombe, 'Social Structure and Organizations', in James G. March, ed., Handbook of Organizations (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965), pp. 142-93.
60. See, for example, John Freeman, Glenn R. Carroll and Michael T. Hannan, "The Liability of Newness: Age Dependence in Organizational Death Rates', American Sociological Review, 48 (1983), 692-710; Michael T. Hannan, Glenn R. Carroll, Stanislav D. Dobrev and Joon Han, 'Organizational Mortality in European and American Automobile Industries Part I: Revisiting the Effects of Age and Size', European Sociological Review, 14 (1998), 279-302.
61. See, for example, John Freeman, Glenn R. Carroll and Michael T. Hannan, "The Liability of Newness: Age Dependence in Organizational Death Rates', American Sociological Review, 48 (1983), 692-710; Michael T. Hannan, Glenn R. Carroll, Stanislav D. Dobrev and Joon Han, 'Organizational Mortality in European and American Automobile Industries Part I: Revisiting the Effects of Age and Size', European Sociological Review, 14 (1998), 279-302.
62. Howard E. Aldrich, Catherine R. Zimmer, Udo H. Staber and John J. Beggs, 'Minimalism, Mutualism, and Maturity: The Evolution of the American Trade Association Population in the 20th Century', in Joel A. C. Baum and Jitendra Singh, eds, Evolutionary Dynamics of Organizations (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 223-39; Mark Fichman and Daniel A. Levinthal, 'Honeymoons and the Liability of Adolescence: A Newv Perspective on Duration Dependence in Social and Organizational Relationships', Academy of Management Review, 16 (1991), 442-68; Daniel A. Levinthal and Mark Fichman, 'Dynamics of Intelorganizational Attachments: Auditor-Client Relationships', Administrative Science Quarterly, 33 (1988), 345-69.
63. Howard E. Aldrich, Catherine R. Zimmer, Udo H. Staber and John J. Beggs, 'Minimalism, Mutualism, and Maturity: The Evolution of the American Trade Association Population in the 20th Century', in Joel A. C. Baum and Jitendra Singh, eds, Evolutionary Dynamics of Organizations (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 223-39; Mark Fichman and Daniel A. Levinthal, 'Honeymoons and the Liability of Adolescence: A Newv Perspective on Duration Dependence in Social and Organizational Relationships', Academy of Management Review, 16 (1991), 442-68; Daniel A. Levinthal and Mark Fichman, 'Dynamics of Intelorganizational Attachments: Auditor-Client Relationships', Administrative Science Quarterly, 33 (1988), 345-69.
64. Howard E. Aldrich, Catherine R. Zimmer, Udo H. Staber and John J. Beggs, 'Minimalism, Mutualism, and Maturity: The Evolution of the American Trade Association Population in the 20th Century', in Joel A. C. Baum and Jitendra Singh, eds, Evolutionary Dynamics of Organizations (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 223-39; Mark Fichman and Daniel A. Levinthal, 'Honeymoons and the Liability of Adolescence: A Newv Perspective on Duration Dependence in Social and Organizational Relationships', Academy of Management Review, 16 (1991), 442-68; Daniel A. Levinthal and Mark Fichman, 'Dynamics of Intelorganizational Attachments: Auditor-Client Relationships', Administrative Science Quarterly, 33 (1988), 345-69.
65. Controlling for long-term social, political or economic changes by relying on periodization is common in studies like this, See, for example, William P. Barnett, Aimee Noelle-Swanson and Olav Sorenson, 'Asymmetric Selection Among Organizations', Industrial and Corporate Change, 12 (2003), 673-95; Michael T. Hannan and John Freeman, 'The Ecology of Organizational Mortality: American Labor Unions, 1836-1985', American Journal of Sociology, 94 (1988), 25-52, For a discussion of the pros and cons of this approach, see Glenn R. Carroll and Michael T. Hannan, The Demography of Corporations and Industries (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000), pp. 202-3.
66. Controlling for long-term social, political or economic changes by relying on periodization is common in studies like this, See, for example, William P. Barnett, Aimee Noelle-Swanson and Olav Sorenson, 'Asymmetric Selection Among Organizations', Industrial and Corporate Change, 12 (2003), 673-95; Michael T. Hannan and John Freeman, 'The Ecology of Organizational Mortality: American Labor Unions, 1836-1985', American Journal of Sociology, 94 (1988), 25-52, For a discussion of the pros and cons of this approach, see Glenn R. Carroll and Michael T. Hannan, The Demography of Corporations and Industries (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000), pp. 202-3.
67. Controlling for long-term social, political or economic changes by relying on periodization is common in studies like this, See, for example, William P. Barnett, Aimee Noelle-Swanson and Olav Sorenson, 'Asymmetric Selection Among Organizations', Industrial and Corporate Change, 12 (2003), 673-95; Michael T. Hannan and John Freeman, 'The Ecology of Organizational Mortality: American Labor Unions, 1836-1985', American Journal of Sociology, 94 (1988), 25-52, For a discussion of the pros and cons of this approach, see Glenn R. Carroll and Michael T. Hannan, The Demography of Corporations and Industries (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000), pp. 202-3.
68. See, for example, Haider-Markel, 'Creating Change - Holding the Line', p. 248.
69. This paragraph paraphrases Nownes, 'The Population Ecology', pp. 62-3.
70. All analyses were performed using Stata 7.0. The Breslow method was used for ties.
71. Using stphtest in Stata, we conducted variable-by-variables tests, along with an overall test of the Schoenfeld residuals. For details on these tests, see Patricia M. Grambsch and Terry M. Therneau, 'Proportional Hazards Tests and Diagnostics Based on Weighted Residuals', Biometrika, 81 (1994), 515-26. We also tested the proportional hazards assumption by interacting all the covariates with analysis time. The results of this method also supported the proportional hazards assumption. For details, see Mario A. Cleves, William W. Gould and Roberto G. Gutierrez, An Introduction to Survival Analysis Using Stata (College Station, Tex: Stata Press, 2002).
72. Using stphtest in Stata, we conducted variable-by-variables tests, along with an overall test of the Schoenfeld residuals. For details on these tests, see Patricia M. Grambsch and Terry M. Therneau, 'Proportional Hazards Tests and Diagnostics Based on Weighted Residuals', Biometrika, 81 (1994), 515-26. We also tested the proportional hazards assumption by interacting all the covariates with analysis time. The results of this method also supported the proportional hazards assumption. For details, see Mario A. Cleves, William W. Gould and Roberto G. Gutierrez, An Introduction to Survival Analysis Using Stata (College Station, Tex: Stata Press, 2002).
73. We also ran a number of models without the period variables, mainly to test for the possibility that these variables have a strange relationship with some or all of the POS variables, and thus obscure their true effects. These models performed poorly compared to those that included the period effects. Moreover, they produced little evidence that the period variables obscured the true impact of the POS variables. This suggests to us that the period variables - especially Period 2 (1970-80) - are picking up the effects of secular changes that influenced the disbanding rate.
74. Joanne M. Miller, 'Threat as a Motivator of Political Activism: A Field Experiment' (paper presented at the Second Minnesota Symposium on Political Psychology: New Research on the Political Psychology of Campaigns and Elections, Center for the Study of Political Psychology, University of Minnesota, 2002).
75. We considered including in our statistical analyses a variable that tracked the mobilization of anti-homosexual rights groups. However, many (if not most) anti-homosexual rights advocacy groups are not anti-homosexual rights groups per se, but rather are 'pro-family' or 'traditional values' groups such as the Christian Coalition, the Traditional Values Coalition and Focus on the Family. Moreover, many churches and religious organizations actively oppose homosexual rights organizations. In the end, we felt that accurately identifying and tracking anti-homosexual rights groups would be nearly impossible given their diverse character.
76. See especially Gray and Lowery, The Population Ecology of Interest Representation; Gray and Lowery, 'The Demography of Interest Organization Communities'; and Gray and Lowery, 'The Expression of Density Dependence in State Communities of Organized Interests'.
77. See especially Gray and Lowery, The Population Ecology of Interest Representation; Gray and Lowery, 'The Demography of Interest Organization Communities'; and Gray and Lowery, 'The Expression of Density Dependence in State Communities of Organized Interests'.
78. See especially Gray and Lowery, The Population Ecology of Interest Representation; Gray and Lowery, 'The Demography of Interest Organization Communities'; and Gray and Lowery, 'The Expression of Density Dependence in State Communities of Organized Interests'.
79. Hannan and Freeman, 'The Ecology of Organizational Mortality', p. 50.
80. We are indebted to the two anonymous reviewers whose suggestions led us to include our Reagan and Percentage of non-Southern Democrats variables.