The Population Ecology of Interest Group Formation: Mobilizing for Gay and Lesbian Rights in the United States, 1950-98

British Journal of Political Science

Volumn 34, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 49-67

  Nownes, Anthony J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0347931985     PISSN: 00071234     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007123403000346     Document Type: Article

References (96)

1. In its brief lifetime, however, the VBA made a name for itself by teaming up with the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and forcing the US armed forces to revisit their policies on dishonourable discharges for black and gay soldiers (Urvashi Vaid, Virtual Equality: The Mainstreaming of Gay and Lesbian Liberation (New York: Anchor Books, 1995), p. 48).
2. Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965).
3. Allan J. Cigler, 'Interest Groups: A Subfield in Search of an Identity', in William Crotty, ed., Political Science: Looking to the Future, Vol. 4 (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1991), pp. 99-135, at p. 110.
4. We have neither the time nor the space to review all of this work. Among the most theoretically important treatments are Patrick Dunleavy, 'Group Identities and Individual Influence: Restructuring the Theory of Interest Groups', British Journal of Political Science, 18 (1988), 21-49; Russell Hardin, Collective Action (Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982); Terry M. Moe, The Organization of Interests: Incentives and the Internal Dynamics of Political Interest Groups (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1980).
5. We have neither the time nor the space to review all of this work. Among the most theoretically important treatments are Patrick Dunleavy, 'Group Identities and Individual Influence: Restructuring the Theory of Interest Groups', British Journal of Political Science, 18 (1988), 21-49; Russell Hardin, Collective Action (Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982); Terry M. Moe, The Organization of Interests: Incentives and the Internal Dynamics of Political Interest Groups (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1980).
6. We have neither the time nor the space to review all of this work. Among the most theoretically important treatments are Patrick Dunleavy, 'Group Identities and Individual Influence: Restructuring the Theory of Interest Groups', British Journal of Political Science, 18 (1988), 21-49; Russell Hardin, Collective Action (Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982); Terry M. Moe, The Organization of Interests: Incentives and the Internal Dynamics of Political Interest Groups (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1980).
7. Robert Salisbury, 'An Exchange Theory of Interest Groups', Midwest Journal of Political Science, 13 (1969), 1-32. See also Anthony J. Nownes and Grant Neeley, 'Public Interest Group Entrepreneurship and Theories of Group Mobilization', Political Research Quarterly, 49 (1996), 119-46.
8. Robert Salisbury, 'An Exchange Theory of Interest Groups', Midwest Journal of Political Science, 13 (1969), 1-32. See also Anthony J. Nownes and Grant Neeley, 'Public Interest Group Entrepreneurship and Theories of Group Mobilization', Political Research Quarterly, 49 (1996), 119-46.
9. See, for example, Hardin, Collective Action; Gerald Marwell and Ruth E. Ames, 'Experiments on the Provision of Public Goods I: Resources, Interest, Group Size, and the Free-Rider Problem', American Journal of Sociology, 84 (1979), 1335-60; Norman Frohlich and Joe Oppenheimer with Pat Bond and Irvin Boschman, 'Beyond Economic Man: Altruism, Egalitarianism, and Difference Maximizing', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 28 (1984), 3-24.
10. See, for example, Hardin, Collective Action; Gerald Marwell and Ruth E. Ames, 'Experiments on the Provision of Public Goods I: Resources, Interest, Group Size, and the Free-Rider Problem', American Journal of Sociology, 84 (1979), 1335-60; Norman Frohlich and Joe Oppenheimer with Pat Bond and Irvin Boschman, 'Beyond Economic Man: Altruism, Egalitarianism, and Difference Maximizing', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 28 (1984), 3-24.
11. See, for example, Hardin, Collective Action; Gerald Marwell and Ruth E. Ames, 'Experiments on the Provision of Public Goods I: Resources, Interest, Group Size, and the Free-Rider Problem', American Journal of Sociology, 84 (1979), 1335-60; Norman Frohlich and Joe Oppenheimer with Pat Bond and Irvin Boschman, 'Beyond Economic Man: Altruism, Egalitarianism, and Difference Maximizing', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 28 (1984), 3-24.
12. Jack L. Walker, 'The Origins and Maintenance of Interest Groups in America', American Political Science Review, 77 (1983), 390-406; Jack L. Walker, Mobilizing Interest Groups in America: Patrons, Professions, and Social Movements (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1991).
13. Jack L. Walker, 'The Origins and Maintenance of Interest Groups in America', American Political Science Review, 77 (1983), 390-406; Jack L. Walker, Mobilizing Interest Groups in America: Patrons, Professions, and Social Movements (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1991).
14. See, for example, Douglas Rowley Imig, 'Resource Mobilization and Survival Tactics of Poverty Advocacy Groups', Western Political Quarterly, 45 (1992), 501-20; David S. Meyer and Douglas R. Imig, 'Political Opportunity and the Rise and Decline of Interest Group Sectors', Social Science Journal, 30 (1993), 253-70.
15. See, for example, Douglas Rowley Imig, 'Resource Mobilization and Survival Tactics of Poverty Advocacy Groups', Western Political Quarterly, 45 (1992), 501-20; David S. Meyer and Douglas R. Imig, 'Political Opportunity and the Rise and Decline of Interest Group Sectors', Social Science Journal, 30 (1993), 253-70.
16. Doug McAdam, '"Initiator" and "Spinoff" Movements: Diffusion Processes in Protest Cycles', in Mark Traugott, ed., Repertoires and Cycles of Collective Action (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995), pp. 217-39, at p. 224 (italics in the original). Sociological studies that utilize a POS framework include Doug McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1982); Anthony Oberschall, Social Movements: Ideologies, Interests, and Identities (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1993); Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action, and Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
17. Doug McAdam, '"Initiator" and "Spinoff" Movements: Diffusion Processes in Protest Cycles', in Mark Traugott, ed., Repertoires and Cycles of Collective Action (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995), pp. 217-39, at p. 224 (italics in the original). Sociological studies that utilize a POS framework include Doug McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1982); Anthony Oberschall, Social Movements: Ideologies, Interests, and Identities (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1993); Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action, and Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
18. Doug McAdam, '"Initiator" and "Spinoff" Movements: Diffusion Processes in Protest Cycles', in Mark Traugott, ed., Repertoires and Cycles of Collective Action (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995), pp. 217-39, at p. 224 (italics in the original). Sociological studies that utilize a POS framework include Doug McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1982); Anthony Oberschall, Social Movements: Ideologies, Interests, and Identities (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1993); Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action, and Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
19. Doug McAdam, '"Initiator" and "Spinoff" Movements: Diffusion Processes in Protest Cycles', in Mark Traugott, ed., Repertoires and Cycles of Collective Action (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995), pp. 217-39, at p. 224 (italics in the original). Sociological studies that utilize a POS framework include Doug McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1982); Anthony Oberschall, Social Movements: Ideologies, Interests, and Identities (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1993); Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action, and Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
20. Meyer and Imig, 'Political Opportunity and the Rise and Decline of Interest Group Sectors', p. 262.
21. Meyer and Imig, 'Political Opportunity and the Rise and Decline of Interest Group Sectors', p. 262.
22. Sidney Tarrow, 'National Politics and Collective Action: Recent Theory and Research in Western Europe and the United States', Annual Review of Sociology, 14 (1988) 421-40, p. 430. It is worth noting that other POS scholars concur with this assessment. Gamson and Meyer, for example, note that because POS is so difficult to define precisely, it 'threatens to become an all-encompassing fudge factor for all the conditions and circumstances that form the context for collective action.' See William A. Gamson and David S. Meyer, 'Framing Political Opportunity', in Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy and Mayer N. Zald, eds, Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 275-90, at p. 275.
23. Sidney Tarrow, 'National Politics and Collective Action: Recent Theory and Research in Western Europe and the United States', Annual Review of Sociology, 14 (1988) 421-40, p. 430. It is worth noting that other POS scholars concur with this assessment. Gamson and Meyer, for example, note that because POS is so difficult to define precisely, it 'threatens to become an all-encompassing fudge factor for all the conditions and circumstances that form the context for collective action.' See William A. Gamson and David S. Meyer, 'Framing Political Opportunity', in Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy and Mayer N. Zald, eds, Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 275-90, at p. 275.
24. Glenn R. Carroll, 'Organizational Ecology in Theoretical Perspective', in Glenn R. Carroll, ed., Ecological Models of Organizations (Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger Publishing Company, 1988), pp. 1-6, at p. 2.
25. Carroll, 'Organizational Ecology in Theoretical Perspective', p. 2.
26. Michael T. Hannan and Glenn R. Carroll, 'An Introduction to Organizational Ecology', in Glenn R. Carroll and Michael T. Hannan, eds, Organizations in Industry: Strategy, Structure, and Selection (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 17-31, at p. 23.
27. Hannan and Carroll, 'An Introduction to Organizational Ecology', p. 23.
28. Hannan and Carroll, 'An Introduction to Organizational Ecology', p. 23.
29. Michael T. Hannan and John Freeman, 'Density Dependence in the Growth of Organizational Populations', in Carroll, ed., Ecological Models of Organizations, pp. 7-31, at p. 9 (italics in the original).
30. Hannan and Freeman, 'Density Dependence in the Growth of Organizational Populations', p. 9.
31. Hannan and Freeman, 'Density Dependence in the Growth of Organizational Populations', p. 9.
32. Michael T. Hannan and Glenn R. Carroll, 'Introduction', in Michael T. Hannan and Glenn R. Carroll, eds, Dynamics of Organizational Populations: Density, Legitimation, and Competition (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), pp. 3-24, at p. 5.
33. Hannan and Carroll, 'Introduction', p. 5.
34. In a separate paper, the question of how density affects organizational mortality is explored (Anthony J. Nownes, 'The Ecology of Interest Group Death: Gay Rights Advocacy Groups in the United States, 1950-1998', unpublished manuscript).
35. Glenn R. Carroll and Michael T. Hannan, 'Density-Dependent Evolution', in Carroll and Hannan, eds, Organizations in Industry, pp. 115-20, at p. 115.
36. Carroll and Hannan, 'Density-Dependent Evolution', p. 115.
37. Michael T. Hannan, 'Labor Unions', in Carroll and Hannan, eds, Organizations in Industry, pp. 121-36, at p. 127.
38. Hannan, 'Labor Unions', pp. 126-8.
39. Michael T. Hannan and John Freeman, Organizational Ecology (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989), p. 132.
40. Carroll and Hannan, 'Density-Dependent Evolution', p. 117.
41. Glenn R. Carroll and Michael T. Hannan, The Demography of Corporations and Industries (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), p. 225.
42. Carroll and Hannan, The Demography of Corporations and Industries, p. 225.
43. Carroll and Hannan, 'Density-Dependent Evolution', p. 116.
44. Carroll and Hannan, 'Density-Dependent Evolution', p. 116.
45. Carroll and Hannan, 'Density-Dependent Evolution', p. 116.
46. Carroll and Hannan, 'Density-Dependent Evolution', p. 117.
47. Carroll and Hannan, 'Density-Dependent Evolution', p. 117.
48. Carroll and Hannan, 'Density-Dependent Evolution', pp. 117-18.
49. Carroll and Hannan, 'Density-Dependent Evolution', p. 118.
50. Carroll and Hannan, The Demography of Corporations and Industries, p. 228.
51. Carroll and Hannan, The Demography of Corporations and Industries, p. 228.
52. Carroll and Hannan, The Demography of Corporations and Industries, p. 228.
53. Hannan, 'Labor Unions', p. 130.
54. Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'The Demography of Interest Organization Communities: Institutions, Associations, and Membership Groups', American Politics Quarterly, 23 (1995), 3-32; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'A Niche Theory of Interest Representation', Journal of Politics, 58 (1996), 91-111; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, The Population Ecology of Interest Representation: Lobbying Communities in the American States (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1996); Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'Life in a Niche: Mortality Anxiety Among Organized Interests in the American States', Political Research Quarterly, 50 (1997), 25-47; David Lowery and Virginia Gray, 'The Density of State Interest Group Systems', Journal of Politics, 55 (1993), 191-206; David Lowery and Virginia Gray, 'The Population Ecology of Gucci Gulch, or the Natural Regulation of Interest Group Numbers in the American States', American Journal of Political Science, 39 (1995), 1-29.
55. Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'The Demography of Interest Organization Communities: Institutions, Associations, and Membership Groups', American Politics Quarterly, 23 (1995), 3-32; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'A Niche Theory of Interest Representation', Journal of Politics, 58 (1996), 91-111; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, The Population Ecology of Interest Representation: Lobbying Communities in the American States (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1996); Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'Life in a Niche: Mortality Anxiety Among Organized Interests in the American States', Political Research Quarterly, 50 (1997), 25-47; David Lowery and Virginia Gray, 'The Density of State Interest Group Systems', Journal of Politics, 55 (1993), 191-206; David Lowery and Virginia Gray, 'The Population Ecology of Gucci Gulch, or the Natural Regulation of Interest Group Numbers in the American States', American Journal of Political Science, 39 (1995), 1-29.
56. Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'The Demography of Interest Organization Communities: Institutions, Associations, and Membership Groups', American Politics Quarterly, 23 (1995), 3-32; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'A Niche Theory of Interest Representation', Journal of Politics, 58 (1996), 91-111; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, The Population Ecology of Interest Representation: Lobbying Communities in the American States (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1996); Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'Life in a Niche: Mortality Anxiety Among Organized Interests in the American States', Political Research Quarterly, 50 (1997), 25-47; David Lowery and Virginia Gray, 'The Density of State Interest Group Systems', Journal of Politics, 55 (1993), 191-206; David Lowery and Virginia Gray, 'The Population Ecology of Gucci Gulch, or the Natural Regulation of Interest Group Numbers in the American States', American Journal of Political Science, 39 (1995), 1-29.
57. Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'The Demography of Interest Organization Communities: Institutions, Associations, and Membership Groups', American Politics Quarterly, 23 (1995), 3-32; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'A Niche Theory of Interest Representation', Journal of Politics, 58 (1996), 91-111; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, The Population Ecology of Interest Representation: Lobbying Communities in the American States (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1996); Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'Life in a Niche: Mortality Anxiety Among Organized Interests in the American States', Political Research Quarterly, 50 (1997), 25-47; David Lowery and Virginia Gray, 'The Density of State Interest Group Systems', Journal of Politics, 55 (1993), 191-206; David Lowery and Virginia Gray, 'The Population Ecology of Gucci Gulch, or the Natural Regulation of Interest Group Numbers in the American States', American Journal of Political Science, 39 (1995), 1-29.
58. Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'The Demography of Interest Organization Communities: Institutions, Associations, and Membership Groups', American Politics Quarterly, 23 (1995), 3-32; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'A Niche Theory of Interest Representation', Journal of Politics, 58 (1996), 91-111; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, The Population Ecology of Interest Representation: Lobbying Communities in the American States (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1996); Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'Life in a Niche: Mortality Anxiety Among Organized Interests in the American States', Political Research Quarterly, 50 (1997), 25-47; David Lowery and Virginia Gray, 'The Density of State Interest Group Systems', Journal of Politics, 55 (1993), 191-206; David Lowery and Virginia Gray, 'The Population Ecology of Gucci Gulch, or the Natural Regulation of Interest Group Numbers in the American States', American Journal of Political Science, 39 (1995), 1-29.
59. Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'The Demography of Interest Organization Communities: Institutions, Associations, and Membership Groups', American Politics Quarterly, 23 (1995), 3-32; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'A Niche Theory of Interest Representation', Journal of Politics, 58 (1996), 91-111; Virginia Gray and David Lowery, The Population Ecology of Interest Representation: Lobbying Communities in the American States (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1996); Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'Life in a Niche: Mortality Anxiety Among Organized Interests in the American States', Political Research Quarterly, 50 (1997), 25-47; David Lowery and Virginia Gray, 'The Density of State Interest Group Systems', Journal of Politics, 55 (1993), 191-206; David Lowery and Virginia Gray, 'The Population Ecology of Gucci Gulch, or the Natural Regulation of Interest Group Numbers in the American States', American Journal of Political Science, 39 (1995), 1-29.
60. Gray and Lowery, 'The Demography of Interest Organization Communities.'
61. Virginia Gray and David Lowery, 'The Expression of Density Dependence in State Communities of Organized Interests', American Politics Research, 29 (2001), 374-91.
62. See, for example, Carroll and Hannan, 'Density-Dependent Evolution', pp. 115-17.
63. Ultimately, a number of 'judgement' calls were made as to which organizations constituted the population. We immediately eliminated active groups that did not engage in political activity. We also eliminated groups that were not active at the national level. Finally, we did not include groups that focused solely or primarily on AIDS.
64. Encyclopedia of Associations (Detroit: The Gale Group, various years).
65. The New York Times Index (New York: The New York Times Co., various years). Unfortunately, it was necessary to supplement the information gathered from the Encyclopedia of Associations. The Encyclopedia relies upon individual organizations to supply information about their activities, and thus is less than complete.
66. We consulted the following: Barry D. Adam, The Rise of a Gay and Lesbian Movement (Boston, Mass.: Twayne Publishers, 1987); Margaret Cruikshank, The Gay and Lesbian Liberation Movement (New York: Routledge, 1992); Steven Epstein, 'Gay and Lesbian Movements in the United States: Dilemmas of Identity, Diversity, and Political Strategy', in Barry D. Adam, Jan Willem Duyvendak and Andre Krouwel, eds. The Global Emergence of Gay and Lesbian Politics: National Imprints of a Worldwide Movement (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999), pp. 30-90; Mark Thompson, ed., Long Road to Freedom: The Advocate History of the Gay and Lesbian Movement (New York: St Martins Press, 1994). We should also note that we contacted a number of gay or lesbian activists directly and asked them to corroborate information found in the Encyclopedia of Associations or the New York Times. Many of them responded, and we are in their debt.
67. We consulted the following: Barry D. Adam, The Rise of a Gay and Lesbian Movement (Boston, Mass.: Twayne Publishers, 1987); Margaret Cruikshank, The Gay and Lesbian Liberation Movement (New York: Routledge, 1992); Steven Epstein, 'Gay and Lesbian Movements in the United States: Dilemmas of Identity, Diversity, and Political Strategy', in Barry D. Adam, Jan Willem Duyvendak and Andre Krouwel, eds. The Global Emergence of Gay and Lesbian Politics: National Imprints of a Worldwide Movement (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999), pp. 30-90; Mark Thompson, ed., Long Road to Freedom: The Advocate History of the Gay and Lesbian Movement (New York: St Martins Press, 1994). We should also note that we contacted a number of gay or lesbian activists directly and asked them to corroborate information found in the Encyclopedia of Associations or the New York Times. Many of them responded, and we are in their debt.
68. We consulted the following: Barry D. Adam, The Rise of a Gay and Lesbian Movement (Boston, Mass.: Twayne Publishers, 1987); Margaret Cruikshank, The Gay and Lesbian Liberation Movement (New York: Routledge, 1992); Steven Epstein, 'Gay and Lesbian Movements in the United States: Dilemmas of Identity, Diversity, and Political Strategy', in Barry D. Adam, Jan Willem Duyvendak and Andre Krouwel, eds. The Global Emergence of Gay and Lesbian Politics: National Imprints of a Worldwide Movement (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999), pp. 30-90; Mark Thompson, ed., Long Road to Freedom: The Advocate History of the Gay and Lesbian Movement (New York: St Martins Press, 1994). We should also note that we contacted a number of gay or lesbian activists directly and asked them to corroborate information found in the Encyclopedia of Associations or the New York Times. Many of them responded, and we are in their debt.
69. We consulted the following: Barry D. Adam, The Rise of a Gay and Lesbian Movement (Boston, Mass.: Twayne Publishers, 1987); Margaret Cruikshank, The Gay and Lesbian Liberation Movement (New York: Routledge, 1992); Steven Epstein, 'Gay and Lesbian Movements in the United States: Dilemmas of Identity, Diversity, and Political Strategy', in Barry D. Adam, Jan Willem Duyvendak and Andre Krouwel, eds. The Global Emergence of Gay and Lesbian Politics: National Imprints of a Worldwide Movement (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999), pp. 30-90; Mark Thompson, ed., Long Road to Freedom: The Advocate History of the Gay and Lesbian Movement (New York: St Martins Press, 1994). We should also note that we contacted a number of gay or lesbian activists directly and asked them to corroborate information found in the Encyclopedia of Associations or the New York Times. Many of them responded, and we are in their debt.
70. For more information on Poisson models, see Colin A. Cameron and Pravin K. Trivedi, 'Econometric Models Based on Count Data: Comparisons and Applications of Some Estimators and Tests', Journal of Applied Econometrics, 1 (1986), 29-53.
71. Debra C. Minkoff, Organizing for Equality: The Evolution of Women's and Racial-Ethnic Organizations in America, 1955-1985 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1995), p. 137.
72. Minkoff, Organizing for Equality, p. 137.
73. Carroll and Hannan, The Demography of Corporations and Industries, p. 143.
74. Steve Simon, 'Dear Denied', accessed at http://www.cmh.edu/stats/model/poiss10.htm on 4 May 2002.
75. Simon, 'Dear Denied'. On the use of Poisson regression for political science data, see Gary King, 'Statistical Models for Political Science Event Counts: Bias in Conventional Procedures and Evidence for the Exponential Poisson Regression Model', American Journal of Political Science, 32 (1988), 838-63.
76. Simon, 'Dear Denied'. On the use of Poisson regression for political science data, see Gary King, 'Statistical Models for Political Science Event Counts: Bias in Conventional Procedures and Evidence for the Exponential Poisson Regression Model', American Journal of Political Science, 32 (1988), 838-63.
77. There were no cases for which this information was missing.
78. One of the anonymous reviewers suggested that we control for public opinion in our statistical analyses. We originally intended to include a public opinion variable as an indicator of POS. However, the public opinion data that are available are woefully incomplete. The General Social Survey (GSS), for example, contains numerous questions on public attitudes about homosexuality. But the GSS did not start asking these questions until the early 1970s and has not asked them every year since.
79. Donald P. Haider-Markel, 'Creating Change - Holding the Line: Agenda Setting on Lesbian and Gay Issues at the National Level', in Ellen D. B. Riggle and Barry L. Tadlock, eds, Gays and Lesbians in the Democratic Process: Public Policy, Public Opinion, and Political Representation (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999), pp. 242-68, at p. 255.
80. CIS Annual Index to Congressional Publications and Public Laws (Bethesda, Md.: Congressional Information Service, Inc., various years). In counting the number of hearings, we used the same methodology as Haider-Markel, 'Creating Change - Holding the Line', p. 264. We also consulted Gerard Sullivan, 'A Bibliographic Guide to Government Hearings and Reports, Legislative Action, and Speeches Made in the House and Senate of the United States Congress on the Subject of Homosexuality', Journal of Homosexuality, 10 (1984), 135-89. Dr Christopher Cooper helped with the coding and counting of congressional hearings.
81. CIS Annual Index to Congressional Publications and Public Laws (Bethesda, Md.: Congressional Information Service, Inc., various years). In counting the number of hearings, we used the same methodology as Haider-Markel, 'Creating Change - Holding the Line', p. 264. We also consulted Gerard Sullivan, 'A Bibliographic Guide to Government Hearings and Reports, Legislative Action, and Speeches Made in the House and Senate of the United States Congress on the Subject of Homosexuality', Journal of Homosexuality, 10 (1984), 135-89. Dr Christopher Cooper helped with the coding and counting of congressional hearings.
82. CIS Annual Index to Congressional Publications and Public Laws (Bethesda, Md.: Congressional Information Service, Inc., various years). In counting the number of hearings, we used the same methodology as Haider-Markel, 'Creating Change - Holding the Line', p. 264. We also consulted Gerard Sullivan, 'A Bibliographic Guide to Government Hearings and Reports, Legislative Action, and Speeches Made in the House and Senate of the United States Congress on the Subject of Homosexuality', Journal of Homosexuality, 10 (1984), 135-89. Dr Christopher Cooper helped with the coding and counting of congressional hearings.
83. For accuracy we verified our data by comparing them to those found in Haider-Markel, 'Creating Change - Holding the Line', p. 257. Dr Haider-Markel's data cover the period 1960-98. I would like to thank Dr Haider-Markel for being gracious enough to share his data with us. Before 1960, stories on homosexuality were often indexed under the headings 'sex crimes ' and 'sexual perversion'. Once we figured this out, getting an accurate count for the period 1950-59 was not difficult. Dr Angela Lewis and Ms Julie St-Clair helped with the coding and counting of New York Times articles.
84. Meyer and Imig, 'Political Opportunity and the Rise and Decline of Interest Group Sectors', p. 258.
85. We obtained information on the number of Democrats in the House of Representatives from the Clerk of the House at http://clerk.house.gov/histHigh/Congressional_History/partyDiv.php. We obtained information on the number of Democrats in the Senate from the Senate's website at www.senate.gov/learning/stat_13 html.
86. We wish to note that we originally intended to include a variable called Per capita disposable income. This variable seemed relevant for a number of reasons. First, one of the basic precepts of disturbance theory is that as society evolves and differentiates, interest groups proliferate. One way - albeit a crude way - to test this notion is to see whether organizational foundings are related to changes in income, which reflect social differentiation and social change. If foundings are related to income, we should expect founding rates to increase as society becomes more affluent. Secondly, a number of sociological studies hold that increased affluence is a 'structural facilitator' of collective participation (see, for example, J. Craig Jenkins and Craig M. Eckert, 'Channeling Black Insurgency: Elite Patronage and Professional Social Movement Organizations in the Development of the Black Movement', American Sociological Review, 51 (1986), 812-29; John D. McCarthy and Mayer Zald, The Trend of Social Movements in America: Professionalization and Resource Mobilization (Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press, 1973)). If this is true, founding rates should increase as society becomes more affluent. Finally, a well-developed political science literature on this subject suggests that interest groups flourish in good times, as people have more time and money to spend on political activity (see, for example, Salisbury, 'An Exchange Theory of Interest Groups'). Again, if this is the case, per capita disposable income should be positively associated with the dependent variable. In the end, however, we had to eliminate this variable from our analyses, as it was highly (almost perfectly) collinear with our other control and POS variables.
87. We wish to note that we originally intended to include a variable called Per capita disposable income. This variable seemed relevant for a number of reasons. First, one of the basic precepts of disturbance theory is that as society evolves and differentiates, interest groups proliferate. One way - albeit a crude way - to test this notion is to see whether organizational foundings are related to changes in income, which reflect social differentiation and social change. If foundings are related to income, we should expect founding rates to increase as society becomes more affluent. Secondly, a number of sociological studies hold that increased affluence is a 'structural facilitator' of collective participation (see, for example, J. Craig Jenkins and Craig M. Eckert, 'Channeling Black Insurgency: Elite Patronage and Professional Social Movement Organizations in the Development of the Black Movement', American Sociological Review, 51 (1986), 812-29; John D. McCarthy and Mayer Zald, The Trend of Social Movements in America: Professionalization and Resource Mobilization (Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press, 1973)). If this is true, founding rates should increase as society becomes more affluent. Finally, a well-developed political science literature on this subject suggests that interest groups flourish in good times, as people have more time and money to spend on political activity (see, for example, Salisbury, 'An Exchange Theory of Interest Groups'). Again, if this is the case, per capita disposable income should be positively associated with the dependent variable. In the end, however, we had to eliminate this variable from our analyses, as it was highly (almost perfectly) collinear with our other control and POS variables.
88. We wish to note that we originally intended to include a variable called Per capita disposable income. This variable seemed relevant for a number of reasons. First, one of the basic precepts of disturbance theory is that as society evolves and differentiates, interest groups proliferate. One way - albeit a crude way - to test this notion is to see whether organizational foundings are related to changes in income, which reflect social differentiation and social change. If foundings are related to income, we should expect founding rates to increase as society becomes more affluent. Secondly, a number of sociological studies hold that increased affluence is a 'structural facilitator' of collective participation (see, for example, J. Craig Jenkins and Craig M. Eckert, 'Channeling Black Insurgency: Elite Patronage and Professional Social Movement Organizations in the Development of the Black Movement', American Sociological Review, 51 (1986), 812-29; John D. McCarthy and Mayer Zald, The Trend of Social Movements in America: Professionalization and Resource Mobilization (Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press, 1973)). If this is true, founding rates should increase as society becomes more affluent. Finally, a well-developed political science literature on this subject suggests that interest groups flourish in good times, as people have more time and money to spend on political activity (see, for example, Salisbury, 'An Exchange Theory of Interest Groups'). Again, if this is the case, per capita disposable income should be positively associated with the dependent variable. In the end, however, we had to eliminate this variable from our analyses, as it was highly (almost perfectly) collinear with our other control and POS variables.
89. Adam, The Rise of a Gay and Lesbian Movement; Cruikshank, The Gay and Lesbian Liberation Movement.
90. Adam, The Rise of a Gay and Lesbian Movement; Cruikshank, The Gay and Lesbian Liberation Movement.
91. We should note that few scholars working within the incentive theory framework - myself included - have ever considered the effects of population-level attributes.
92. Adam, The Rise of a Gay and Lesbian Movement, p. 11.
93. On labour unions see Michael T. Hannan and John Freeman, 'The Ecology of Organizational Mortality: American Labor Unions, 1836-1985', American Journal of Sociology, 94 (1988), 25-52; Michael T. Hannan and John Freeman, 'The Ecology of Organizational Founding: American Labor Unions, 1836-1985', American Journal of Sociology, 92 (1987), 910-43. On HMOs, see David Strang, 'Health Maintenance Organizations', in Carroll and Hannan, eds, Organizations in Industry, pp. 163-82. On newspaper publishers, see Glenn R. Carroll, 'Newspaper Publishers', in Carroll and Hannan, eds, Organizations in Industry, pp. 183-94.
94. On labour unions see Michael T. Hannan and John Freeman, 'The Ecology of Organizational Mortality: American Labor Unions, 1836-1985', American Journal of Sociology, 94 (1988), 25-52; Michael T. Hannan and John Freeman, 'The Ecology of Organizational Founding: American Labor Unions, 1836-1985', American Journal of Sociology, 92 (1987), 910-43. On HMOs, see David Strang, 'Health Maintenance Organizations', in Carroll and Hannan, eds, Organizations in Industry, pp. 163-82. On newspaper publishers, see Glenn R. Carroll, 'Newspaper Publishers', in Carroll and Hannan, eds, Organizations in Industry, pp. 183-94.
95. On labour unions see Michael T. Hannan and John Freeman, 'The Ecology of Organizational Mortality: American Labor Unions, 1836-1985', American Journal of Sociology, 94 (1988), 25-52; Michael T. Hannan and John Freeman, 'The Ecology of Organizational Founding: American Labor Unions, 1836-1985', American Journal of Sociology, 92 (1987), 910-43. On HMOs, see David Strang, 'Health Maintenance Organizations', in Carroll and Hannan, eds, Organizations in Industry, pp. 163-82. On newspaper publishers, see Glenn R. Carroll, 'Newspaper Publishers', in Carroll and Hannan, eds, Organizations in Industry, pp. 183-94.
96. On labour unions see Michael T. Hannan and John Freeman, 'The Ecology of Organizational Mortality: American Labor Unions, 1836-1985', American Journal of Sociology, 94 (1988), 25-52; Michael T. Hannan and John Freeman, 'The Ecology of Organizational Founding: American Labor Unions, 1836-1985', American Journal of Sociology, 92 (1987), 910-43. On HMOs, see David Strang, 'Health Maintenance Organizations', in Carroll and Hannan, eds, Organizations in Industry, pp. 163-82. On newspaper publishers, see Glenn R. Carroll, 'Newspaper Publishers', in Carroll and Hannan, eds, Organizations in Industry, pp. 183-94.