Welfare reform and the subject of the working mother: "Get a job, a better job, then a career"

Theory and Society

Volumn 32, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 445-480

  Korteweg, Anna C ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 1642421009     PISSN: 03042421     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1025525509540     Document Type: Article

References (149)

1. This research is part of a larger project in which I compare the implementation of similar welfare reform policies in the Netherlands and the United States.
2. The Social Security Act of 1935 included what was then called Aid to Dependent Children. The program's name was changed to Aid to Families with Dependent Children in 1962.
3. Welfare state development in the United States and other nations shows the long-term influence of late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century maternalist philosophies, which Koven and Michel define as "...ideologies and discourses which exalted women's capacity to mother and applied to society as a whole the values attached to that role: care, nurturance and morality." These ideologies lay at the foundation of state support for single mothers' stay-at-home motherhood. Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, "Womanly Duties: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States in France, Germany, Great Britain and the United States, 1880-1920," The American Historical Review, October 95/4 (1990): 1076-1108, 1079; Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); Linda Gordon, Pitied but not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935 (New York: Free Press, 1994); Patrick Wilkinson, "The Selfless and the Helpless: Maternalist Origins of the U.S. Welfare State," Feminist Studies, Fall 25/3 (1999): 571-597; Gwendolyn Mink, "The Lady and the Tramp: Gender, Race, and the Origins of the American Welfare State," Women, the State, and Welfare, edited by Linda Gordon (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 92-122.
4. Welfare state development in the United States and other nations shows the long-term influence of late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century maternalist philosophies, which Koven and Michel define as "...ideologies and discourses which exalted women's capacity to mother and applied to society as a whole the values attached to that role: care, nurturance and morality." These ideologies lay at the foundation of state support for single mothers' stay-at-home motherhood. Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, "Womanly Duties: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States in France, Germany, Great Britain and the United States, 1880-1920," The American Historical Review, October 95/4 (1990): 1076-1108, 1079; Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); Linda Gordon, Pitied but not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935 (New York: Free Press, 1994); Patrick Wilkinson, "The Selfless and the Helpless: Maternalist Origins of the U.S. Welfare State," Feminist Studies, Fall 25/3 (1999): 571-597; Gwendolyn Mink, "The Lady and the Tramp: Gender, Race, and the Origins of the American Welfare State," Women, the State, and Welfare, edited by Linda Gordon (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 92-122.
5. Welfare state development in the United States and other nations shows the long-term influence of late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century maternalist philosophies, which Koven and Michel define as "...ideologies and discourses which exalted women's capacity to mother and applied to society as a whole the values attached to that role: care, nurturance and morality." These ideologies lay at the foundation of state support for single mothers' stay-at-home motherhood. Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, "Womanly Duties: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States in France, Germany, Great Britain and the United States, 1880-1920," The American Historical Review, October 95/4 (1990): 1076-1108, 1079; Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); Linda Gordon, Pitied but not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935 (New York: Free Press, 1994); Patrick Wilkinson, "The Selfless and the Helpless: Maternalist Origins of the U.S. Welfare State," Feminist Studies, Fall 25/3 (1999): 571-597; Gwendolyn Mink, "The Lady and the Tramp: Gender, Race, and the Origins of the American Welfare State," Women, the State, and Welfare, edited by Linda Gordon (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 92-122.
6. Welfare state development in the United States and other nations shows the long-term influence of late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century maternalist philosophies, which Koven and Michel define as "...ideologies and discourses which exalted women's capacity to mother and applied to society as a whole the values attached to that role: care, nurturance and morality." These ideologies lay at the foundation of state support for single mothers' stay-at-home motherhood. Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, "Womanly Duties: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States in France, Germany, Great Britain and the United States, 1880-1920," The American Historical Review, October 95/4 (1990): 1076-1108, 1079; Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); Linda Gordon, Pitied but not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935 (New York: Free Press, 1994); Patrick Wilkinson, "The Selfless and the Helpless: Maternalist Origins of the U.S. Welfare State," Feminist Studies, Fall 25/3 (1999): 571-597; Gwendolyn Mink, "The Lady and the Tramp: Gender, Race, and the Origins of the American Welfare State," Women, the State, and Welfare, edited by Linda Gordon (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 92-122.
7. Welfare state development in the United States and other nations shows the long-term influence of late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century maternalist philosophies, which Koven and Michel define as "...ideologies and discourses which exalted women's capacity to mother and applied to society as a whole the values attached to that role: care, nurturance and morality." These ideologies lay at the foundation of state support for single mothers' stay-at-home motherhood. Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, "Womanly Duties: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States in France, Germany, Great Britain and the United States, 1880-1920," The American Historical Review, October 95/4 (1990): 1076-1108, 1079; Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); Linda Gordon, Pitied but not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935 (New York: Free Press, 1994); Patrick Wilkinson, "The Selfless and the Helpless: Maternalist Origins of the U.S. Welfare State," Feminist Studies, Fall 25/3 (1999): 571-597; Gwendolyn Mink, "The Lady and the Tramp: Gender, Race, and the Origins of the American Welfare State," Women, the State, and Welfare, edited by Linda Gordon (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 92-122.
8. Yeheskel Hasenfeld, "Organizational Forms as Moral Practices: The Case of Welfare Departments," Social Service Review, September, 74/3 (2000): 329-351; Thomas J. Kane and Mary Jo Bane, "The Context for Welfare Reform," Welfare Realities: from Rhetoric to Reform, Mary Jo Bane and David T. Ellwood, editors (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994), 1-27; Ida Susser and John Kreniske, "The Welfare Trap: A Public Policy for Deprivation," Cities of the United States: Studies in Urban Ethnography, Leith Mullings, editor (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), 50-68.
9. Yeheskel Hasenfeld, "Organizational Forms as Moral Practices: The Case of Welfare Departments," Social Service Review, September, 74/3 (2000): 329-351; Thomas J. Kane and Mary Jo Bane, "The Context for Welfare Reform," Welfare Realities: from Rhetoric to Reform, Mary Jo Bane and David T. Ellwood, editors (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994), 1-27; Ida Susser and John Kreniske, "The Welfare Trap: A Public Policy for Deprivation," Cities of the United States: Studies in Urban Ethnography, Leith Mullings, editor (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), 50-68.
10. Yeheskel Hasenfeld, "Organizational Forms as Moral Practices: The Case of Welfare Departments," Social Service Review, September, 74/3 (2000): 329-351; Thomas J. Kane and Mary Jo Bane, "The Context for Welfare Reform," Welfare Realities: from Rhetoric to Reform, Mary Jo Bane and David T. Ellwood, editors (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994), 1-27; Ida Susser and John Kreniske, "The Welfare Trap: A Public Policy for Deprivation," Cities of the United States: Studies in Urban Ethnography, Leith Mullings, editor (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), 50-68.
11. Deborah L. Little, "Independent Workers, Dependable Mothers: Discourse, Resistance, and AFDC Workfare Programs," Social Politics, Summer 6/2 (1999): 203-229.
12. Under JOBS, only 13 percent of adult recipients were mandated to participate, though some states exceeded that mandate. Under PRWORA, 50 percent of the caseload is required to participate in a work activity by 2002. See Joel Handler and Yeheskel Hasenfeld, We the Poor People: Work, Poverty & Welfare (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1997), 60-61.
13. Michael Lipsky, Street-level bureaucracy: dilemmas of the individual in public services (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1980). Jeffrey Manditch Prottas, People-Processing (Massachusetts, Lexington Books, 1979).
14. Michael Lipsky, Street-level bureaucracy: dilemmas of the individual in public services (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1980). Jeffrey Manditch Prottas, People-Processing (Massachusetts, Lexington Books, 1979).
15. Devolution started in the early 1990s when the federal government indicated it was willing to approve waiver requests from strict federal guidelines in the content of AFDC and Medicaid by the individual states. See R. Kent Weaver, Ending Welfare as We Know It (Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2000), 130-133.
16. In September 1999, 28.6 percent of all CalWORKs families in Burnett County reported earnings. However, this success is relative as almost nobody who leaves welfare ends up making a living wage, estimated at $15/hr in Burnett County. Twenty-seven percent of these jobs paid the minimum wage of $5.75 /hr at the time, 42% paid less than $7.50/hr and only 7 percent paid more than $10.00/hr (Burnett County CalWORKs Report, April - September 1999).
17. In this article I focus on single welfare-reliant women, who formed about 80 percent of the caseload. In Burnett County, the majority of welfare-reliant men were part of a couple. Many had emigrated from Asia or elsewhere and they attended Job Clubs at organizations that offered services in their native language.
18. Martha Albertson Fineman, "Dependencies," Women and Welfare: Theory and Practice in the United States and Europe, Nancy J. Hirschman and Ulrike Liebert, editors, (New Brunswick: New Jersey, Rutgers University Press, 2001), 23-37.
19. Gwendolyn Mink, Welfare's End (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998): 120-121.
20. Mink, Welfare's End, 121, italics in original.
21. Other scholars have argued that parenting and paid employment practices are not only differentiated by gender, but also by race and class. See Evelyn Nakano Glen, Grace Chang, and Linda Rennie Forcey, editors, Mothering: Ideology, Experience, and Agency (New York: Routledge, 1994), particularly the essays by Patricia Hill Collins, "Shifting the Center: Race, Class, and Feminist Theorizing about Motherhood," 45-65; Denise A. Segura, "Working at Motherhood: Chicana and Mexican Immigrant Mothers and Employment," 211-233.
22. Other scholars have argued that parenting and paid employment practices are not only differentiated by gender, but also by race and class. See Evelyn Nakano Glen, Grace Chang, and Linda Rennie Forcey, editors, Mothering: Ideology, Experience, and Agency (New York: Routledge, 1994), particularly the essays by Patricia Hill Collins, "Shifting the Center: Race, Class, and Feminist Theorizing about Motherhood," 45-65; Denise A. Segura, "Working at Motherhood: Chicana and Mexican Immigrant Mothers and Employment," 211-233.
23. Other scholars have argued that parenting and paid employment practices are not only differentiated by gender, but also by race and class. See Evelyn Nakano Glen, Grace Chang, and Linda Rennie Forcey, editors, Mothering: Ideology, Experience, and Agency (New York: Routledge, 1994), particularly the essays by Patricia Hill Collins, "Shifting the Center: Race, Class, and Feminist Theorizing about Motherhood," 45-65; Denise A. Segura, "Working at Motherhood: Chicana and Mexican Immigrant Mothers and Employment," 211-233.
24. The welfare state's failure to recognize the importance of care work and the inevitability of dependence on others' care has become a major empirical and theoretical concern among feminist welfare state scholars. See for instance, Women and welfare: Theory and practice in the United States and Europe, Nancy J. Hirschman and Ulrike Liebert, editors (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2001); Care Work: Gender, Class, and the Welfare State, Madonna Harrington Meyer, editor (New York and London: Routledge, 2000).
25. The welfare state's failure to recognize the importance of care work and the inevitability of dependence on others' care has become a major empirical and theoretical concern among feminist welfare state scholars. See for instance, Women and welfare: Theory and practice in the United States and Europe, Nancy J. Hirschman and Ulrike Liebert, editors (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2001); Care Work: Gender, Class, and the Welfare State, Madonna Harrington Meyer, editor (New York and London: Routledge, 2000).
26. Denise Urias Levy and Sonya Michel, "More Can Be Less: Child Care and Welfare Reform in the United States," Child Care Policy at the Crossroads: Gender and Welfare State Restructuring, Sonya Michel and Rianne Mahon, editors (New York: Routledge, 2002), 239-263.
27. This recognition takes on real, material forms such as the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC), which in effect supplements the income of the lowest wage earners with a government grant.
28. See also Carole Pateman, "The Patriarchal Welfare State," The Disorder of Women: Democracy, Feminism and Political Theory (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989), 179-209; Wendy Brown, "Finding the Man in the State," States of Injury: Power and Freedom in Late Modernity (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University, 1995), 166-196. Pateman argues that "the dichotomy breadwinner/housewife, and the masculine meaning of independence" arose simultaneously with the development of capitalist industrial production (187). This linkage is particularly pronounced in the liberal ideology that marks the welfare state trajectory of the United States. See Julia S. O'Connor, Ann Shola Orloff, and Sheila Shaver, States, Markets, Families: Gender, Liberalism and Social Policy in Australia, Canada, Great Britain, and the United States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
29. See also Carole Pateman, "The Patriarchal Welfare State," The Disorder of Women: Democracy, Feminism and Political Theory (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989), 179-209; Wendy Brown, "Finding the Man in the State," States of Injury: Power and Freedom in Late Modernity (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University, 1995), 166-196. Pateman argues that "the dichotomy breadwinner/housewife, and the masculine meaning of independence" arose simultaneously with the development of capitalist industrial production (187). This linkage is particularly pronounced in the liberal ideology that marks the welfare state trajectory of the United States. See Julia S. O'Connor, Ann Shola Orloff, and Sheila Shaver, States, Markets, Families: Gender, Liberalism and Social Policy in Australia, Canada, Great Britain, and the United States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
30. See also Carole Pateman, "The Patriarchal Welfare State," The Disorder of Women: Democracy, Feminism and Political Theory (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989), 179-209; Wendy Brown, "Finding the Man in the State," States of Injury: Power and Freedom in Late Modernity (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University, 1995), 166-196. Pateman argues that "the dichotomy breadwinner/housewife, and the masculine meaning of independence" arose simultaneously with the development of capitalist industrial production (187). This linkage is particularly pronounced in the liberal ideology that marks the welfare state trajectory of the United States. See Julia S. O'Connor, Ann Shola Orloff, and Sheila Shaver, States, Markets, Families: Gender, Liberalism and Social Policy in Australia, Canada, Great Britain, and the United States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
31. For useful analyses of gender as socially and historically contingent field of power based on perceived differences between the sexes, see Joan Wallach Scott, "Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis," Gender and the Politics of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 28-50; R.W. Connell, Gender and Power: Society, the Person, and Sexual Politics (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987). For the argument that sex itself is a social and historical construct, see Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1990). Wendy Brown, "Finding the Man in the State," takes the argument that gender is an organizing principle in social policy legislation one step further to argue that state bureaucracies themselves are organized around principles of "domination through regimes of predictability, calculability, and control ... [that appear] to be socially masculine in the West insofar as the ultimate value is control and the uncontrollable as well as that which is to be controlled are typically gendered female in these discourse[s]" (193).
32. For useful analyses of gender as socially and historically contingent field of power based on perceived differences between the sexes, see Joan Wallach Scott, "Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis," Gender and the Politics of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 28-50; R.W. Connell, Gender and Power: Society, the Person, and Sexual Politics (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987). For the argument that sex itself is a social and historical construct, see Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1990). Wendy Brown, "Finding the Man in the State," takes the argument that gender is an organizing principle in social policy legislation one step further to argue that state bureaucracies themselves are organized around principles of "domination through regimes of predictability, calculability, and control ... [that appear] to be socially masculine in the West insofar as the ultimate value is control and the uncontrollable as well as that which is to be controlled are typically gendered female in these discourse[s]" (193).
33. For useful analyses of gender as socially and historically contingent field of power based on perceived differences between the sexes, see Joan Wallach Scott, "Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis," Gender and the Politics of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 28-50; R.W. Connell, Gender and Power: Society, the Person, and Sexual Politics (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987). For the argument that sex itself is a social and historical construct, see Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1990). Wendy Brown, "Finding the Man in the State," takes the argument that gender is an organizing principle in social policy legislation one step further to argue that state bureaucracies themselves are organized around principles of "domination through regimes of predictability, calculability, and control ... [that appear] to be socially masculine in the West insofar as the ultimate value is control and the uncontrollable as well as that which is to be controlled are typically gendered female in these discourse[s]" (193).
34. For useful analyses of gender as socially and historically contingent field of power based on perceived differences between the sexes, see Joan Wallach Scott, "Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis," Gender and the Politics of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 28-50; R.W. Connell, Gender and Power: Society, the Person, and Sexual Politics (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987). For the argument that sex itself is a social and historical construct, see Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1990). Wendy Brown, "Finding the Man in the State," takes the argument that gender is an organizing principle in social policy legislation one step further to argue that state bureaucracies themselves are organized around principles of "domination through regimes of predictability, calculability, and control ... [that appear] to be socially masculine in the West insofar as the ultimate value is control and the uncontrollable as well as that which is to be controlled are typically gendered female in these discourse[s]" (193).
35. Lipsky, Street-Level Bureaucracy; Prottas, People-Processing.
36. Lipsky, Street-Level Bureaucracy; Prottas, People-Processing.
37. Sharon Hays, Flat Broke with Children: Women in the Age of Welfare Reform (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003).
38. Hays, Flat Broke with Children, 33.
39. Louis Althusser, "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses (Notes towards an Investigation)," in Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays (London: NLB, 1971): 123-173.
40. Althusser, "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses," 171.
41. Ibid., 163.
42. See also Judith Butler, Bodies that Matter: On the Discursive Limits of "Sex" (New York and London: Routledge, 1993), 121-122.
43. Leslie Salzinger, Genders in Production: Making Workers in Mexico's Global Factories (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 17.
44. Other sociologists have made similar arguments. See for instance, Candace West and Don H. Zimmerman, "Doing Gender," Gender & Society 2/1 (1987): 125-151; Connell, Gender and Power; R.W. Connell, Masculinities (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). See also Butler, Gender Trouble.
45. Other sociologists have made similar arguments. See for instance, Candace West and Don H. Zimmerman, "Doing Gender," Gender & Society 2/1 (1987): 125-151; Connell, Gender and Power; R.W. Connell, Masculinities (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). See also Butler, Gender Trouble.
46. Other sociologists have made similar arguments. See for instance, Candace West and Don H. Zimmerman, "Doing Gender," Gender & Society 2/1 (1987): 125-151; Connell, Gender and Power; R.W. Connell, Masculinities (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). See also Butler, Gender Trouble.
47. Other sociologists have made similar arguments. See for instance, Candace West and Don H. Zimmerman, "Doing Gender," Gender & Society 2/1 (1987): 125-151; Connell, Gender and Power; R.W. Connell, Masculinities (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). See also Butler, Gender Trouble.
48. Salzinger, Genders in Production, 176, n. 32.
49. Julia Adams and Tasleem Padamsee, "Signs and Regimes: Rereading Feminist Work on Welfare States," in Social Politics, Spring (2001): 1-23.
50. Adams and Padamsee, "Signs and Regimes," 13.
51. T. H. Marshall, "Citizenship and Social Class," Class, Citizenship and Social Development (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1963), 65-122. Marshall defines citizenship as "a status bestowed on those who are full' members of a community. All who posses the status are equal with respect to the rights and duties with which the status is endowed" (84). Marshall has been critiqued for his failure to recognize women's partial status in the community, for his assumption of equality, and for the absence of bodily rights in his paradigm. See, among others, Carole Pateman, "The Patriarchal Welfare State," 187; Ruth Lister, Citizenship: Feminist Perspectives (New York: New York University Press, 1997), 41; Sheila Shaver, "Body rights, social rights and the liberal welfare state," Critical Social Policy 39 (1993/4): 66-93.
52. T. H. Marshall, "Citizenship and Social Class," Class, Citizenship and Social Development (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1963), 65-122. Marshall defines citizenship as "a status bestowed on those who are full' members of a community. All who posses the status are equal with respect to the rights and duties with which the status is endowed" (84). Marshall has been critiqued for his failure to recognize women's partial status in the community, for his assumption of equality, and for the absence of bodily rights in his paradigm. See, among others, Carole Pateman, "The Patriarchal Welfare State," 187; Ruth Lister, Citizenship: Feminist Perspectives (New York: New York University Press, 1997), 41; Sheila Shaver, "Body rights, social rights and the liberal welfare state," Critical Social Policy 39 (1993/4): 66-93.
53. T. H. Marshall, "Citizenship and Social Class," Class, Citizenship and Social Development (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1963), 65-122. Marshall defines citizenship as "a status bestowed on those who are full' members of a community. All who posses the status are equal with respect to the rights and duties with which the status is endowed" (84). Marshall has been critiqued for his failure to recognize women's partial status in the community, for his assumption of equality, and for the absence of bodily rights in his paradigm. See, among others, Carole Pateman, "The Patriarchal Welfare State," 187; Ruth Lister, Citizenship: Feminist Perspectives (New York: New York University Press, 1997), 41; Sheila Shaver, "Body rights, social rights and the liberal welfare state," Critical Social Policy 39 (1993/4): 66-93.
54. T. H. Marshall, "Citizenship and Social Class," Class, Citizenship and Social Development (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1963), 65-122. Marshall defines citizenship as "a status bestowed on those who are full' members of a community. All who posses the status are equal with respect to the rights and duties with which the status is endowed" (84). Marshall has been critiqued for his failure to recognize women's partial status in the community, for his assumption of equality, and for the absence of bodily rights in his paradigm. See, among others, Carole Pateman, "The Patriarchal Welfare State," 187; Ruth Lister, Citizenship: Feminist Perspectives (New York: New York University Press, 1997), 41; Sheila Shaver, "Body rights, social rights and the liberal welfare state," Critical Social Policy 39 (1993/4): 66-93.
55. This approach is also reflected in comparative feminist welfare state theories that build on Gøsta Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). See Jane Lewis, "Gender and the Development of Welfare Regimes" Journal of European Social Policy 3/2 (1992): 159-173; Jane Lewis, "Gender and Welfare Regimes: Further Thoughts," Social Politics, Summer (1997): 160-177; Jane Lewis, "The Decline of the Male Breadwinner Model: Implications for Work and Care," Social Politics, Summer, (2001): 152-169; Julia O'Connor, "Gender, class and citizenship in the comparative analysis of welfare state regimes: theoretical and methodological issues," British Journal of Sociology 44 (1993): 501-518; Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender and the Social Rights of Citizenship: The Comparative Analysis of Gender Relations and Welfare States," American Sociological Review 58, June (1993): 303-328; Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender in the Welfare State," Annual Review of Sociology 22 (1996):51-78; Mary Langan and Ilona Ostner, "Gender and Welfare: toward a comparative framework," Toward a European Welfare State? Graham Room, editor (Bristol: SAUS, 1991), 127-150; Diane Sainsbury, Gender, Equality, and Welfare States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). For a debate on how to incorporate subjectivity into gender regime theory, see Adams and Padamsee, "Signs and Regimes"; Lisa Brush, "Changing the Subject: Gender and Welfare Regime Studies," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 161-186; Tasleem Padamsee and Julia Adams, "Signs and Regimes Revisited," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 187-202, Sheila Shaver, "Gender, Welfare, Regimes, and Agency," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 203-211.
56. This approach is also reflected in comparative feminist welfare state theories that build on Gøsta Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). See Jane Lewis, "Gender and the Development of Welfare Regimes" Journal of European Social Policy 3/2 (1992): 159-173; Jane Lewis, "Gender and Welfare Regimes: Further Thoughts," Social Politics, Summer (1997): 160-177; Jane Lewis, "The Decline of the Male Breadwinner Model: Implications for Work and Care," Social Politics, Summer, (2001): 152-169; Julia O'Connor, "Gender, class and citizenship in the comparative analysis of welfare state regimes: theoretical and methodological issues," British Journal of Sociology 44 (1993): 501-518; Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender and the Social Rights of Citizenship: The Comparative Analysis of Gender Relations and Welfare States," American Sociological Review 58, June (1993): 303-328; Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender in the Welfare State," Annual Review of Sociology 22 (1996):51-78; Mary Langan and Ilona Ostner, "Gender and Welfare: toward a comparative framework," Toward a European Welfare State? Graham Room, editor (Bristol: SAUS, 1991), 127-150; Diane Sainsbury, Gender, Equality, and Welfare States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). For a debate on how to incorporate subjectivity into gender regime theory, see Adams and Padamsee, "Signs and Regimes"; Lisa Brush, "Changing the Subject: Gender and Welfare Regime Studies," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 161-186; Tasleem Padamsee and Julia Adams, "Signs and Regimes Revisited," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 187-202, Sheila Shaver, "Gender, Welfare, Regimes, and Agency," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 203-211.
57. This approach is also reflected in comparative feminist welfare state theories that build on Gøsta Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). See Jane Lewis, "Gender and the Development of Welfare Regimes" Journal of European Social Policy 3/2 (1992): 159-173; Jane Lewis, "Gender and Welfare Regimes: Further Thoughts," Social Politics, Summer (1997): 160-177; Jane Lewis, "The Decline of the Male Breadwinner Model: Implications for Work and Care," Social Politics, Summer, (2001): 152-169; Julia O'Connor, "Gender, class and citizenship in the comparative analysis of welfare state regimes: theoretical and methodological issues," British Journal of Sociology 44 (1993): 501-518; Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender and the Social Rights of Citizenship: The Comparative Analysis of Gender Relations and Welfare States," American Sociological Review 58, June (1993): 303-328; Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender in the Welfare State," Annual Review of Sociology 22 (1996):51-78; Mary Langan and Ilona Ostner, "Gender and Welfare: toward a comparative framework," Toward a European Welfare State? Graham Room, editor (Bristol: SAUS, 1991), 127-150; Diane Sainsbury, Gender, Equality, and Welfare States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). For a debate on how to incorporate subjectivity into gender regime theory, see Adams and Padamsee, "Signs and Regimes"; Lisa Brush, "Changing the Subject: Gender and Welfare Regime Studies," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 161-186; Tasleem Padamsee and Julia Adams, "Signs and Regimes Revisited," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 187-202, Sheila Shaver, "Gender, Welfare, Regimes, and Agency," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 203-211.
58. This approach is also reflected in comparative feminist welfare state theories that build on Gøsta Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). See Jane Lewis, "Gender and the Development of Welfare Regimes" Journal of European Social Policy 3/2 (1992): 159-173; Jane Lewis, "Gender and Welfare Regimes: Further Thoughts," Social Politics, Summer (1997): 160-177; Jane Lewis, "The Decline of the Male Breadwinner Model: Implications for Work and Care," Social Politics, Summer, (2001): 152-169; Julia O'Connor, "Gender, class and citizenship in the comparative analysis of welfare state regimes: theoretical and methodological issues," British Journal of Sociology 44 (1993): 501-518; Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender and the Social Rights of Citizenship: The Comparative Analysis of Gender Relations and Welfare States," American Sociological Review 58, June (1993): 303-328; Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender in the Welfare State," Annual Review of Sociology 22 (1996):51-78; Mary Langan and Ilona Ostner, "Gender and Welfare: toward a comparative framework," Toward a European Welfare State? Graham Room, editor (Bristol: SAUS, 1991), 127-150; Diane Sainsbury, Gender, Equality, and Welfare States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). For a debate on how to incorporate subjectivity into gender regime theory, see Adams and Padamsee, "Signs and Regimes"; Lisa Brush, "Changing the Subject: Gender and Welfare Regime Studies," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 161-186; Tasleem Padamsee and Julia Adams, "Signs and Regimes Revisited," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 187-202, Sheila Shaver, "Gender, Welfare, Regimes, and Agency," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 203-211.
59. This approach is also reflected in comparative feminist welfare state theories that build on Gøsta Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). See Jane Lewis, "Gender and the Development of Welfare Regimes" Journal of European Social Policy 3/2 (1992): 159-173; Jane Lewis, "Gender and Welfare Regimes: Further Thoughts," Social Politics, Summer (1997): 160-177; Jane Lewis, "The Decline of the Male Breadwinner Model: Implications for Work and Care," Social Politics, Summer, (2001): 152-169; Julia O'Connor, "Gender, class and citizenship in the comparative analysis of welfare state regimes: theoretical and methodological issues," British Journal of Sociology 44 (1993): 501-518; Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender and the Social Rights of Citizenship: The Comparative Analysis of Gender Relations and Welfare States," American Sociological Review 58, June (1993): 303-328; Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender in the Welfare State," Annual Review of Sociology 22 (1996):51-78; Mary Langan and Ilona Ostner, "Gender and Welfare: toward a comparative framework," Toward a European Welfare State? Graham Room, editor (Bristol: SAUS, 1991), 127-150; Diane Sainsbury, Gender, Equality, and Welfare States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). For a debate on how to incorporate subjectivity into gender regime theory, see Adams and Padamsee, "Signs and Regimes"; Lisa Brush, "Changing the Subject: Gender and Welfare Regime Studies," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 161-186; Tasleem Padamsee and Julia Adams, "Signs and Regimes Revisited," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 187-202, Sheila Shaver, "Gender, Welfare, Regimes, and Agency," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 203-211.
60. This approach is also reflected in comparative feminist welfare state theories that build on Gøsta Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). See Jane Lewis, "Gender and the Development of Welfare Regimes" Journal of European Social Policy 3/2 (1992): 159-173; Jane Lewis, "Gender and Welfare Regimes: Further Thoughts," Social Politics, Summer (1997): 160-177; Jane Lewis, "The Decline of the Male Breadwinner Model: Implications for Work and Care," Social Politics, Summer, (2001): 152-169; Julia O'Connor, "Gender, class and citizenship in the comparative analysis of welfare state regimes: theoretical and methodological issues," British Journal of Sociology 44 (1993): 501-518; Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender and the Social Rights of Citizenship: The Comparative Analysis of Gender Relations and Welfare States," American Sociological Review 58, June (1993): 303-328; Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender in the Welfare State," Annual Review of Sociology 22 (1996):51-78; Mary Langan and Ilona Ostner, "Gender and Welfare: toward a comparative framework," Toward a European Welfare State? Graham Room, editor (Bristol: SAUS, 1991), 127-150; Diane Sainsbury, Gender, Equality, and Welfare States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). For a debate on how to incorporate subjectivity into gender regime theory, see Adams and Padamsee, "Signs and Regimes"; Lisa Brush, "Changing the Subject: Gender and Welfare Regime Studies," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 161-186; Tasleem Padamsee and Julia Adams, "Signs and Regimes Revisited," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 187-202, Sheila Shaver, "Gender, Welfare, Regimes, and Agency," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 203-211.
61. This approach is also reflected in comparative feminist welfare state theories that build on Gøsta Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). See Jane Lewis, "Gender and the Development of Welfare Regimes" Journal of European Social Policy 3/2 (1992): 159-173; Jane Lewis, "Gender and Welfare Regimes: Further Thoughts," Social Politics, Summer (1997): 160-177; Jane Lewis, "The Decline of the Male Breadwinner Model: Implications for Work and Care," Social Politics, Summer, (2001): 152-169; Julia O'Connor, "Gender, class and citizenship in the comparative analysis of welfare state regimes: theoretical and methodological issues," British Journal of Sociology 44 (1993): 501-518; Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender and the Social Rights of Citizenship: The Comparative Analysis of Gender Relations and Welfare States," American Sociological Review 58, June (1993): 303-328; Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender in the Welfare State," Annual Review of Sociology 22 (1996):51-78; Mary Langan and Ilona Ostner, "Gender and Welfare: toward a comparative framework," Toward a European Welfare State? Graham Room, editor (Bristol: SAUS, 1991), 127-150; Diane Sainsbury, Gender, Equality, and Welfare States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). For a debate on how to incorporate subjectivity into gender regime theory, see Adams and Padamsee, "Signs and Regimes"; Lisa Brush, "Changing the Subject: Gender and Welfare Regime Studies," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 161-186; Tasleem Padamsee and Julia Adams, "Signs and Regimes Revisited," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 187-202, Sheila Shaver, "Gender, Welfare, Regimes, and Agency," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 203-211.
62. This approach is also reflected in comparative feminist welfare state theories that build on Gøsta Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). See Jane Lewis, "Gender and the Development of Welfare Regimes" Journal of European Social Policy 3/2 (1992): 159-173; Jane Lewis, "Gender and Welfare Regimes: Further Thoughts," Social Politics, Summer (1997): 160-177; Jane Lewis, "The Decline of the Male Breadwinner Model: Implications for Work and Care," Social Politics, Summer, (2001): 152-169; Julia O'Connor, "Gender, class and citizenship in the comparative analysis of welfare state regimes: theoretical and methodological issues," British Journal of Sociology 44 (1993): 501-518; Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender and the Social Rights of Citizenship: The Comparative Analysis of Gender Relations and Welfare States," American Sociological Review 58, June (1993): 303-328; Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender in the Welfare State," Annual Review of Sociology 22 (1996):51-78; Mary Langan and Ilona Ostner, "Gender and Welfare: toward a comparative framework," Toward a European Welfare State? Graham Room, editor (Bristol: SAUS, 1991), 127-150; Diane Sainsbury, Gender, Equality, and Welfare States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). For a debate on how to incorporate subjectivity into gender regime theory, see Adams and Padamsee, "Signs and Regimes"; Lisa Brush, "Changing the Subject: Gender and Welfare Regime Studies," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 161-186; Tasleem Padamsee and Julia Adams, "Signs and Regimes Revisited," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 187-202, Sheila Shaver, "Gender, Welfare, Regimes, and Agency," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 203-211.
63. This approach is also reflected in comparative feminist welfare state theories that build on Gøsta Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). See Jane Lewis, "Gender and the Development of Welfare Regimes" Journal of European Social Policy 3/2 (1992): 159-173; Jane Lewis, "Gender and Welfare Regimes: Further Thoughts," Social Politics, Summer (1997): 160-177; Jane Lewis, "The Decline of the Male Breadwinner Model: Implications for Work and Care," Social Politics, Summer, (2001): 152-169; Julia O'Connor, "Gender, class and citizenship in the comparative analysis of welfare state regimes: theoretical and methodological issues," British Journal of Sociology 44 (1993): 501-518; Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender and the Social Rights of Citizenship: The Comparative Analysis of Gender Relations and Welfare States," American Sociological Review 58, June (1993): 303-328; Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender in the Welfare State," Annual Review of Sociology 22 (1996):51-78; Mary Langan and Ilona Ostner, "Gender and Welfare: toward a comparative framework," Toward a European Welfare State? Graham Room, editor (Bristol: SAUS, 1991), 127-150; Diane Sainsbury, Gender, Equality, and Welfare States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). For a debate on how to incorporate subjectivity into gender regime theory, see Adams and Padamsee, "Signs and Regimes"; Lisa Brush, "Changing the Subject: Gender and Welfare Regime Studies," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 161-186; Tasleem Padamsee and Julia Adams, "Signs and Regimes Revisited," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 187-202, Sheila Shaver, "Gender, Welfare, Regimes, and Agency," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 203-211.
64. This approach is also reflected in comparative feminist welfare state theories that build on Gøsta Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). See Jane Lewis, "Gender and the Development of Welfare Regimes" Journal of European Social Policy 3/2 (1992): 159-173; Jane Lewis, "Gender and Welfare Regimes: Further Thoughts," Social Politics, Summer (1997): 160-177; Jane Lewis, "The Decline of the Male Breadwinner Model: Implications for Work and Care," Social Politics, Summer, (2001): 152-169; Julia O'Connor, "Gender, class and citizenship in the comparative analysis of welfare state regimes: theoretical and methodological issues," British Journal of Sociology 44 (1993): 501-518; Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender and the Social Rights of Citizenship: The Comparative Analysis of Gender Relations and Welfare States," American Sociological Review 58, June (1993): 303-328; Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender in the Welfare State," Annual Review of Sociology 22 (1996):51-78; Mary Langan and Ilona Ostner, "Gender and Welfare: toward a comparative framework," Toward a European Welfare State? Graham Room, editor (Bristol: SAUS, 1991), 127-150; Diane Sainsbury, Gender, Equality, and Welfare States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). For a debate on how to incorporate subjectivity into gender regime theory, see Adams and Padamsee, "Signs and Regimes"; Lisa Brush, "Changing the Subject: Gender and Welfare Regime Studies," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 161-186; Tasleem Padamsee and Julia Adams, "Signs and Regimes Revisited," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 187-202, Sheila Shaver, "Gender, Welfare, Regimes, and Agency," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 203-211.
65. This approach is also reflected in comparative feminist welfare state theories that build on Gøsta Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). See Jane Lewis, "Gender and the Development of Welfare Regimes" Journal of European Social Policy 3/2 (1992): 159-173; Jane Lewis, "Gender and Welfare Regimes: Further Thoughts," Social Politics, Summer (1997): 160-177; Jane Lewis, "The Decline of the Male Breadwinner Model: Implications for Work and Care," Social Politics, Summer, (2001): 152-169; Julia O'Connor, "Gender, class and citizenship in the comparative analysis of welfare state regimes: theoretical and methodological issues," British Journal of Sociology 44 (1993): 501-518; Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender and the Social Rights of Citizenship: The Comparative Analysis of Gender Relations and Welfare States," American Sociological Review 58, June (1993): 303-328; Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender in the Welfare State," Annual Review of Sociology 22 (1996):51-78; Mary Langan and Ilona Ostner, "Gender and Welfare: toward a comparative framework," Toward a European Welfare State? Graham Room, editor (Bristol: SAUS, 1991), 127-150; Diane Sainsbury, Gender, Equality, and Welfare States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). For a debate on how to incorporate subjectivity into gender regime theory, see Adams and Padamsee, "Signs and Regimes"; Lisa Brush, "Changing the Subject: Gender and Welfare Regime Studies," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 161-186; Tasleem Padamsee and Julia Adams, "Signs and Regimes Revisited," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 187-202, Sheila Shaver, "Gender, Welfare, Regimes, and Agency," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 203-211.
66. This approach is also reflected in comparative feminist welfare state theories that build on Gøsta Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). See Jane Lewis, "Gender and the Development of Welfare Regimes" Journal of European Social Policy 3/2 (1992): 159-173; Jane Lewis, "Gender and Welfare Regimes: Further Thoughts," Social Politics, Summer (1997): 160-177; Jane Lewis, "The Decline of the Male Breadwinner Model: Implications for Work and Care," Social Politics, Summer, (2001): 152-169; Julia O'Connor, "Gender, class and citizenship in the comparative analysis of welfare state regimes: theoretical and methodological issues," British Journal of Sociology 44 (1993): 501-518; Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender and the Social Rights of Citizenship: The Comparative Analysis of Gender Relations and Welfare States," American Sociological Review 58, June (1993): 303-328; Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender in the Welfare State," Annual Review of Sociology 22 (1996):51-78; Mary Langan and Ilona Ostner, "Gender and Welfare: toward a comparative framework," Toward a European Welfare State? Graham Room, editor (Bristol: SAUS, 1991), 127-150; Diane Sainsbury, Gender, Equality, and Welfare States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). For a debate on how to incorporate subjectivity into gender regime theory, see Adams and Padamsee, "Signs and Regimes"; Lisa Brush, "Changing the Subject: Gender and Welfare Regime Studies," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 161-186; Tasleem Padamsee and Julia Adams, "Signs and Regimes Revisited," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 187-202, Sheila Shaver, "Gender, Welfare, Regimes, and Agency," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 203-211.
67. This approach is also reflected in comparative feminist welfare state theories that build on Gøsta Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). See Jane Lewis, "Gender and the Development of Welfare Regimes" Journal of European Social Policy 3/2 (1992): 159-173; Jane Lewis, "Gender and Welfare Regimes: Further Thoughts," Social Politics, Summer (1997): 160-177; Jane Lewis, "The Decline of the Male Breadwinner Model: Implications for Work and Care," Social Politics, Summer, (2001): 152-169; Julia O'Connor, "Gender, class and citizenship in the comparative analysis of welfare state regimes: theoretical and methodological issues," British Journal of Sociology 44 (1993): 501-518; Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender and the Social Rights of Citizenship: The Comparative Analysis of Gender Relations and Welfare States," American Sociological Review 58, June (1993): 303-328; Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender in the Welfare State," Annual Review of Sociology 22 (1996):51-78; Mary Langan and Ilona Ostner, "Gender and Welfare: toward a comparative framework," Toward a European Welfare State? Graham Room, editor (Bristol: SAUS, 1991), 127-150; Diane Sainsbury, Gender, Equality, and Welfare States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). For a debate on how to incorporate subjectivity into gender regime theory, see Adams and Padamsee, "Signs and Regimes"; Lisa Brush, "Changing the Subject: Gender and Welfare Regime Studies," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 161-186; Tasleem Padamsee and Julia Adams, "Signs and Regimes Revisited," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 187-202, Sheila Shaver, "Gender, Welfare, Regimes, and Agency," Social Politics (Summer 2002): 203-211.
68. For a discussion of the gender bifurcated nature of many welfare states, see also Linda Gordon, "The New Feminist Scholarship on the Welfare State," Women, the State, and Welfare, Linda Gordon, editor, (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 9-35; Nancy Fraser, "Women, Welfare and the Politics of Need Interpretation," in Unruly Practices (University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis, 1989), 144-160; Nancy Fraser, "Struggle over Needs: Outline of a Socialist-Feminist Critical Theory of Late Capitalist Political Culture," in Unruly Practices (University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis, 1989), 161-187; Barbara J. Nelson, "The Origins of the Two-Channel Welfare State: Workmen's Compensation and Mothers' Aid," Women, the State, and Welfare, 123-151; Pateman, "The Patriarchal Welfare State." For a modification of this argument, see Nancy Fraser, "After the Family Wage: A Postindustrial Thought Experiment," Justice Interruptus: Critical Reflections on the "Postsocialist" Condition (New York, Routledge, 1997), 41-66, More recent work by Ann Orloff and Jane Lewis indicates that social policies in different nations are moving towards what Orloff calls "gender sameness." Ann Shola Orloff, "Ending the Entitlements of Poor Single Mothers: Changing Social Policies, Women's Employment, and Caregiving in the Contemporary United States," Women and welfare: Theory and practice in the United States and Europe, Nancy J. Hirschman and Ulrike Liebert, editors (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2001), 133-159; Lewis, "The Decline of the Male Bread-winner Model."
69. For a discussion of the gender bifurcated nature of many welfare states, see also Linda Gordon, "The New Feminist Scholarship on the Welfare State," Women, the State, and Welfare, Linda Gordon, editor, (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 9-35; Nancy Fraser, "Women, Welfare and the Politics of Need Interpretation," in Unruly Practices (University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis, 1989), 144-160; Nancy Fraser, "Struggle over Needs: Outline of a Socialist-Feminist Critical Theory of Late Capitalist Political Culture," in Unruly Practices (University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis, 1989), 161-187; Barbara J. Nelson, "The Origins of the Two-Channel Welfare State: Workmen's Compensation and Mothers' Aid," Women, the State, and Welfare, 123-151; Pateman, "The Patriarchal Welfare State." For a modification of this argument, see Nancy Fraser, "After the Family Wage: A Postindustrial Thought Experiment," Justice Interruptus: Critical Reflections on the "Postsocialist" Condition (New York, Routledge, 1997), 41-66, More recent work by Ann Orloff and Jane Lewis indicates that social policies in different nations are moving towards what Orloff calls "gender sameness." Ann Shola Orloff, "Ending the Entitlements of Poor Single Mothers: Changing Social Policies, Women's Employment, and Caregiving in the Contemporary United States," Women and welfare: Theory and practice in the United States and Europe, Nancy J. Hirschman and Ulrike Liebert, editors (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2001), 133-159; Lewis, "The Decline of the Male Bread-winner Model."
70. For a discussion of the gender bifurcated nature of many welfare states, see also Linda Gordon, "The New Feminist Scholarship on the Welfare State," Women, the State, and Welfare, Linda Gordon, editor, (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 9-35; Nancy Fraser, "Women, Welfare and the Politics of Need Interpretation," in Unruly Practices (University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis, 1989), 144-160; Nancy Fraser, "Struggle over Needs: Outline of a Socialist-Feminist Critical Theory of Late Capitalist Political Culture," in Unruly Practices (University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis, 1989), 161-187; Barbara J. Nelson, "The Origins of the Two-Channel Welfare State: Workmen's Compensation and Mothers' Aid," Women, the State, and Welfare, 123-151; Pateman, "The Patriarchal Welfare State." For a modification of this argument, see Nancy Fraser, "After the Family Wage: A Postindustrial Thought Experiment," Justice Interruptus: Critical Reflections on the "Postsocialist" Condition (New York, Routledge, 1997), 41-66, More recent work by Ann Orloff and Jane Lewis indicates that social policies in different nations are moving towards what Orloff calls "gender sameness." Ann Shola Orloff, "Ending the Entitlements of Poor Single Mothers: Changing Social Policies, Women's Employment, and Caregiving in the Contemporary United States," Women and welfare: Theory and practice in the United States and Europe, Nancy J. Hirschman and Ulrike Liebert, editors (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers
71. For a discussion of the gender bifurcated nature of many welfare states, see also Linda Gordon, "The New Feminist Scholarship on the Welfare State," Women, the State, and Welfare, Linda Gordon, editor, (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 9-35; Nancy Fraser, "Women, Welfare and the Politics of Need Interpretation," in Unruly Practices (University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis, 1989), 144-160; Nancy Fraser, "Struggle over Needs: Outline of a Socialist-Feminist Critical Theory of Late Capitalist Political Culture," in Unruly Practices (University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis, 1989), 161-187; Barbara J. Nelson, "The Origins of the Two-Channel Welfare State: Workmen's Compensation and Mothers' Aid," Women, the State, and Welfare, 123-151; Pateman, "The Patriarchal Welfare State." For a modification of this argument, see Nancy Fraser, "After the Family Wage: A Postindustrial Thought Experiment," Justice Interruptus: Critical Reflections on the "Postsocialist" Condition (New York, Routledge, 1997), 41-66, More recent work by Ann Orloff and Jane Lewis indicates that social policies in different nations are moving towards what Orloff calls "gender sameness." Ann Shola Orloff, "Ending the Entitlements of Poor Single Mothers: Changing Social Policies, Women's Employment, and Caregiving in the Contemporary United States," Women and welfare: Theory and practice in the United States and Europe, Nancy J. Hirschman and Ulrike Liebert, editors (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2001), 133-159; Lewis, "The Decline of the Male Bread-winner Model."
72. For a discussion of the gender bifurcated nature of many welfare states, see also Linda Gordon, "The New Feminist Scholarship on the Welfare State," Women, the State, and Welfare, Linda Gordon, editor, (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 9-35; Nancy Fraser, "Women, Welfare and the Politics of Need Interpretation," in Unruly Practices (University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis, 1989), 144-160; Nancy Fraser, "Struggle over Needs: Outline of a Socialist-Feminist Critical Theory of Late Capitalist Political Culture," in Unruly Practices (University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis, 1989), 161-187; Barbara J. Nelson, "The Origins of the Two-Channel Welfare State: Workmen's Compensation and Mothers' Aid," Women, the State, and Welfare, 123-151; Pateman, "The Patriarchal Welfare State." For a modification of this argument, see Nancy Fraser, "After the Family Wage: A Postindustrial Thought Experiment," Justice Interruptus: Critical Reflections on the "Postsocialist" Condition (New York, Routledge, 1997), 41-66, More recent work by Ann Orloff and Jane Lewis indicates that social policies in different nations are moving towards what Orloff calls "gender sameness." Ann Shola Orloff, "Ending the Entitlements of Poor Single Mothers: Changing Social Policies, Women's Employment, and Caregiving in the Contemporary United States," Women and welfare: Theory and practice in the United States and Europe, Nancy J. Hirschman and Ulrike Liebert, editors (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2001), 133-159; Lewis, "The Decline of the Male Bread-winner Model."
73. For a discussion of the gender bifurcated nature of many welfare states, see also Linda Gordon, "The New Feminist Scholarship on the Welfare State," Women, the State, and Welfare, Linda Gordon, editor, (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 9-35; Nancy Fraser, "Women, Welfare and the Politics of Need Interpretation," in Unruly Practices (University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis, 1989), 144-160; Nancy Fraser, "Struggle over Needs: Outline of a Socialist-Feminist Critical Theory of Late Capitalist Political Culture," in Unruly Practices (University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis, 1989), 161-187; Barbara J. Nelson, "The Origins of the Two-Channel Welfare State: Workmen's Compensation and Mothers' Aid," Women, the State, and Welfare, 123-151; Pateman, "The Patriarchal Welfare State." For a modification of this argument, see Nancy Fraser, "After the Family Wage: A Postindustrial Thought Experiment," Justice Interruptus: Critical Reflections on the "Postsocialist" Condition (New York, Routledge, 1997), 41-66, More recent work by Ann Orloff and Jane Lewis indicates that social policies in different nations are moving towards what Orloff calls "gender sameness." Ann Shola Orloff, "Ending the Entitlements of Poor Single Mothers: Changing Social Policies, Women's Employment, and Caregiving in the Contemporary United States," Women and welfare: Theory and practice in the United States and Europe, Nancy J. Hirschman and Ulrike Liebert, editors (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2001), 133-159; Lewis, "The Decline of the Male Bread-winner Model."
74. For a discussion of the gender bifurcated nature of many welfare states, see also Linda Gordon, "The New Feminist Scholarship on the Welfare State," Women, the State, and Welfare, Linda Gordon, editor, (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 9-35; Nancy Fraser, "Women, Welfare and the Politics of Need Interpretation," in Unruly Practices (University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis, 1989), 144-160; Nancy Fraser, "Struggle over Needs: Outline of a Socialist-Feminist Critical Theory of Late Capitalist Political Culture," in Unruly Practices (University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis, 1989), 161-187; Barbara J. Nelson, "The Origins of the Two-Channel Welfare State: Workmen's Compensation and Mothers' Aid," Women, the State, and Welfare, 123-151; Pateman, "The Patriarchal Welfare State." For a modification of this argument, see Nancy Fraser, "After the Family Wage: A Postindustrial Thought Experiment," Justice Interruptus: Critical Reflections on the "Postsocialist" Condition (New York, Routledge, 1997), 41-66, More recent work by Ann Orloff and Jane Lewis indicates that social policies in different nations are moving towards what Orloff calls "gender sameness." Ann Shola Orloff, "Ending the Entitlements of Poor Single Mothers: Changing Social Policies, Women's Employment, and Caregiving in the Contemporary United States," Women and welfare: Theory and practice in the United States and Europe, Nancy J. Hirschman and Ulrike Liebert, editors (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2001), 133-159; Lewis, "The Decline of the Male Bread-winner Model."
75. For a discussion of the gender bifurcated nature of many welfare states, see also Linda Gordon, "The New Feminist Scholarship on the Welfare State," Women, the State, and Welfare, Linda Gordon, editor, (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 9-35; Nancy Fraser, "Women, Welfare and the Politics of Need Interpretation," in Unruly Practices (University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis, 1989), 144-160; Nancy Fraser, "Struggle over Needs: Outline of a Socialist-Feminist Critical Theory of Late Capitalist Political Culture," in Unruly Practices (University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis, 1989), 161-187; Barbara J. Nelson, "The Origins of the Two-Channel Welfare State: Workmen's Compensation and Mothers' Aid," Women, the State, and Welfare, 123-151; Pateman, "The Patriarchal Welfare State." For a modification of this argument, see Nancy Fraser, "After the Family Wage: A Postindustrial Thought Experiment," Justice Interruptus: Critical Reflections on the "Postsocialist" Condition (New York, Routledge, 1997), 41-66, More recent work by Ann Orloff and Jane Lewis indicates that social policies in different nations are moving towards what Orloff calls "gender sameness." Ann Shola Orloff, "Ending the Entitlements of Poor Single Mothers: Changing Social Policies, Women's Employment, and Caregiving in the Contemporary United States," Women and welfare: Theory and practice in the United States and Europe, Nancy J. Hirschman and Ulrike Liebert, editors (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2001), 133-159; Lewis, "The Decline of the Male Bread-winner Model."
76. For an explicit focus on care work see Barbara Hobson, "Economic Citizenship: Reflections through the European Union Policy Mirror," Gender and Citizenship in Transition, Barbara Hobson, editor (New York: Routledge, 2000), 84-117; Trudie Knijn and Monique Kremer, "Gender and the Caring Dimension of Welfare States: Toward Inclusive Citizenship," Social Politics, Fall (1997): 327-361.
77. For an explicit focus on care work see Barbara Hobson, "Economic Citizenship: Reflections through the European Union Policy Mirror," Gender and Citizenship in Transition, Barbara Hobson, editor (New York: Routledge, 2000), 84-117; Trudie Knijn and Monique Kremer, "Gender and the Caring Dimension of Welfare States: Toward Inclusive Citizenship," Social Politics, Fall (1997): 327-361.
78. Other scholars have taken similar methodological approach to the study of welfare reform though only Little, "Independent Workers, Dependable Mothers," focuses on welfare-reliant women's subjectivity. See also Morgen, "The Agency of Welfare Workers"; Hays, Flat Broke with Children; Catherine Kingfisher and Michael Goldsmith, "Reforming Women in the United States and Aotearoa/New Zealand: A Comparative Ethnography of Welfare Reform in Global Context," American Anthropologist 103/3 (2001): 714-732.
79. Other scholars have taken similar methodological approach to the study of welfare reform though only Little, "Independent Workers, Dependable Mothers," focuses on welfare-reliant women's subjectivity. See also Morgen, "The Agency of Welfare Workers"; Hays, Flat Broke with Children; Catherine Kingfisher and Michael Goldsmith, "Reforming Women in the United States and Aotearoa/New Zealand: A Comparative Ethnography of Welfare Reform in Global Context," American Anthropologist 103/3 (2001): 714-732.
80. Other scholars have taken similar methodological approach to the study of welfare reform though only Little, "Independent Workers, Dependable Mothers," focuses on welfare-reliant women's subjectivity. See also Morgen, "The Agency of Welfare Workers"; Hays, Flat Broke with Children; Catherine Kingfisher and Michael Goldsmith, "Reforming Women in the United States and Aotearoa/New Zealand: A Comparative Ethnography of Welfare Reform in Global Context," American Anthropologist 103/3 (2001): 714-732.
81. Other scholars have taken similar methodological approach to the study of welfare reform though only Little, "Independent Workers, Dependable Mothers," focuses on welfare-reliant women's subjectivity. See also Morgen, "The Agency of Welfare Workers"; Hays, Flat Broke with Children; Catherine Kingfisher and Michael Goldsmith, "Reforming Women in the United States and Aotearoa/New Zealand: A Comparative Ethnography of Welfare Reform in Global Context," American Anthropologist 103/3 (2001): 714-732.
82. Fraser, "Politics of Need Interpretation"; Fraser, "Struggle over Needs." See also Wendy Brown, "Finding the Man in the State."
83. Fraser, "Politics of Need Interpretation"; Fraser, "Struggle over Needs." See also Wendy Brown, "Finding the Man in the State."
84. Fraser, "Politics of Need Interpretation"; Fraser, "Struggle over Needs." See also Wendy Brown, "Finding the Man in the State."
85. Fraser, "Women, Welfare and the Politics of Need Interpretation."
86. I b i d.
87. Fraser, "Struggle over Needs." Althusser, "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses," by contrast, sees the state as bifurcated into repressive or ideological state apparatuses, a bifurcation that is ultimately unitary in its goal. "New institutionalism," the current dominant paradigm in political sociology rightfully disaggregates such unitary conceptualizations of the state. However, this new institutionalist paradigm, in my view, does not adequately address questions of ideology and discourse and rarely examines the constitution of subjectivity in the context of the state. For a review, see Elizabeth S. Clemens and James M. Cook, "Politics and Institutionalism: Explaining Durability and Change," Annual Review of Sociology 25 (1999): 441-466; Peter A. Hall and Rosemary C. R. Taylor, "Political Science and the Three New Institutionalisms," Political Studies 44 (1996): 936-975. For an integration of culture in state theory, see George Steinmetz, editor, State/Culture: State-Formation after the Cultural Turn (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1999).
88. Fraser, "Struggle over Needs." Althusser, "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses," by contrast, sees the state as bifurcated into repressive or ideological state apparatuses, a bifurcation that is ultimately unitary in its goal. "New institutionalism," the current dominant paradigm in political sociology rightfully disaggregates such unitary conceptualizations of the state. However, this new institutionalist paradigm, in my view, does not adequately address questions of ideology and discourse and rarely examines the constitution of subjectivity in the context of the state. For a review, see Elizabeth S. Clemens and James M. Cook, "Politics and Institutionalism: Explaining Durability and Change," Annual Review of Sociology 25 (1999): 441-466; Peter A. Hall and Rosemary C. R. Taylor, "Political Science and the Three New Institutionalisms," Political Studies 44 (1996): 936-975. For an integration of culture in state theory, see George Steinmetz, editor, State/Culture: State-Formation after the Cultural Turn (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1999).
89. Fraser, "Struggle over Needs." Althusser, "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses," by contrast, sees the state as bifurcated into repressive or ideological state apparatuses, a bifurcation that is ultimately unitary in its goal. "New institutionalism," the current dominant paradigm in political sociology rightfully disaggregates such unitary conceptualizations of the state. However, this new institutionalist paradigm, in my view, does not adequately address questions of ideology and discourse and rarely examines the constitution of subjectivity in the context of the state. For a review, see Elizabeth S. Clemens and James M. Cook, "Politics and Institutionalism: Explaining Durability and Change," Annual Review of Sociology 25 (1999): 441-466; Peter A. Hall and Rosemary C. R. Taylor, "Political Science and the Three New Institutionalisms," Political Studies 44 (1996): 936-975. For an integration of culture in state theory, see George Steinmetz, editor, State/Culture: State-Formation after the Cultural Turn (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1999).
90. Fraser, "Struggle over Needs." Althusser, "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses," by contrast, sees the state as bifurcated into repressive or ideological state apparatuses, a bifurcation that is ultimately unitary in its goal. "New institutionalism," the current dominant paradigm in political sociology rightfully disaggregates such unitary conceptualizations of the state. However, this new institutionalist paradigm, in my view, does not adequately address questions of ideology and discourse and rarely examines the constitution of subjectivity in the context of the state. For a review, see Elizabeth S. Clemens and James M. Cook, "Politics and Institutionalism: Explaining Durability and Change," Annual Review of Sociology 25 (1999): 441-466; Peter A. Hall and Rosemary C. R. Taylor, "Political Science and the Three New Institutionalisms," Political Studies 44 (1996): 936-975. For an integration of culture in state theory, see George Steinmetz, editor, State/Culture: State-Formation after the Cultural Turn (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1999).
91. Fraser, "Struggle over Needs." Althusser, "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses," by contrast, sees the state as bifurcated into repressive or ideological state apparatuses, a bifurcation that is ultimately unitary in its goal. "New institutionalism," the current dominant paradigm in political sociology rightfully disaggregates such unitary conceptualizations of the state. However, this new institutionalist paradigm, in my view, does not adequately address questions of ideology and discourse and rarely examines the constitution of subjectivity in the context of the state. For a review, see Elizabeth S. Clemens and James M. Cook, "Politics and Institutionalism: Explaining Durability and Change," Annual Review of Sociology 25 (1999): 441-466; Peter A. Hall and Rosemary C. R. Taylor, "Political Science and the Three New Institutionalisms," Political Studies 44 (1996): 936-975. For an integration of culture in state theory, see George Steinmetz, editor, State/Culture: State-Formation after the Cultural Turn (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1999).
92. This approach was pioneered in Riverside County in California in the early 1990s. Handler and Hasenfeld, We the Poor People, especially chapter 4.
93. Research shows that such upward mobility is unlikely for women with low educational attainment, particularly if they have children and are of African-American descent, all common characteristics of long-term welfare reliant women. See LaDonna Pavetti and Gregory Acs, "Moving Up, Moving Out, or Going Nowhere? A Study of the Employment Patterns of Young Women and the Implications for Welfare Mothers," Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 20/4 (2001): 721-736. Other studies confirm that it only pays to move from welfare to work if there are extensive child care and other subsidies. Sheldon Danziger, Colleen M. Heflin, Mary E. Corcoran, Elizabeth Oltmans, Hui-Chen Wang, "Does It Pay to Move from Work to Welfare?," Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 21/4 (2002): 671-692; Maria Cancian, Robert H. Haveman, Daniel R. Meyer, and Barbara Wolfe, "Before and After TANF: The Economic Well-Being of Women Leaving Welfare," Social Service Review, December (2002): 603-641.
94. Research shows that such upward mobility is unlikely for women with low educational attainment, particularly if they have children and are of African-American descent, all common characteristics of long-term welfare reliant women. See LaDonna Pavetti and Gregory Acs, "Moving Up, Moving Out, or Going Nowhere? A Study of the Employment Patterns of Young Women and the Implications for Welfare Mothers," Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 20/4 (2001): 721-736. Other studies confirm that it only pays to move from welfare to work if there are extensive child care and other subsidies. Sheldon Danziger, Colleen M. Heflin, Mary E. Corcoran, Elizabeth Oltmans, Hui-Chen Wang, "Does It Pay to Move from Work to Welfare?," Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 21/4 (2002): 671-692; Maria Cancian, Robert H. Haveman, Daniel R. Meyer, and Barbara Wolfe, "Before and After TANF: The Economic Well-Being of Women Leaving Welfare," Social Service Review, December (2002): 603-641.
95. Research shows that such upward mobility is unlikely for women with low educational attainment, particularly if they have children and are of African-American descent, all common characteristics of long-term welfare reliant women. See LaDonna Pavetti and Gregory Acs, "Moving Up, Moving Out, or Going Nowhere? A Study of the Employment Patterns of Young Women and the Implications for Welfare Mothers," Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 20/4 (2001): 721-736. Other studies confirm that it only pays to move from welfare to work if there are extensive child care and other subsidies. Sheldon Danziger, Colleen M. Heflin, Mary E. Corcoran, Elizabeth Oltmans, Hui-Chen Wang, "Does It Pay to Move from Work to Welfare?," Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 21/4 (2002): 671-692; Maria Cancian, Robert H. Haveman, Daniel R. Meyer, and Barbara Wolfe, "Before and After TANF: The Economic Well-Being of Women Leaving Welfare," Social Service Review, December (2002): 603-641.
96. For an exploration of the relationship between masculinity and production, see R. W. Connell, Masculinities (Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1995).
97. Arlie Hochschild, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983).
98. Stephen Herzenberg, John Alic, and Howard Wial, New rules for a new economy: Employment and opportunity in postindustrial America (Ithaca, New York: ILR Press, 1998).
99. Kathryn Edin and Laura Lein, Making Ends Meet (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1997).
100. Nancy Fraser and Linda Gordon, "A Genealogy of Dependency: Tracing a Keyword of the U.S. Welfare State," Signs 19/2 (1994): 309-336.
101. Fraser and Gordon, "A Genealogy of Dependency," 324.
102. Lawrence Mead, Beyond Entitlement (New York: The Free Press, 1986).
103. Edin and Lein, Making Ends Meet.
104. See also Pavetti and Acs, "Moving Up, Moving Out, or Going Nowhere?"; Danziger et al., "Does It Pay to Move from Work to Welfare?"; Cancian et al., "Before and After TANF."
105. See also Pavetti and Acs, "Moving Up, Moving Out, or Going Nowhere?"; Danziger et al., "Does It Pay to Move from Work to Welfare?"; Cancian et al., "Before and After TANF."
106. See also Pavetti and Acs, "Moving Up, Moving Out, or Going Nowhere?"; Danziger et al., "Does It Pay to Move from Work to Welfare?"; Cancian et al., "Before and After TANF."
107. Douglas Massey and Nancy Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass (Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard University Press 1993); William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987); William Julius Wilson, When Work Disappears: the World of the New Urban Poor (New York: Knopf, 1996).
108. Douglas Massey and Nancy Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass (Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard University Press 1993); William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987); William Julius Wilson, When Work Disappears: the World of the New Urban Poor (New York: Knopf, 1996).
109. Douglas Massey and Nancy Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass (Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard University Press 1993); William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987); William Julius Wilson, When Work Disappears: the World of the New Urban Poor (New York: Knopf, 1996).
110. See also Levy and Michel, "More Can Be Less."
111. See Barbara Cruikshank, The Will to Empower: Democratic Citizens and Other Subjects (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1999), chapter 4, for a discussion of the ascendancy of the language of self-esteem in social policy.
112. Fraser, "Women, Welfare, and the Politics of Need Interpretation," 155. See also Fraser and Gordon, "Genealogy of Dependency."
113. Fraser, "Women, Welfare, and the Politics of Need Interpretation," 155. See also Fraser and Gordon, "Genealogy of Dependency."
114. Levy and Michel, "More Can Be Less," show that childcare provisions under TANF are far from adequate. For California, see Jacob Alex Klerman, Gail L. Zellman, Tammi Chun, Nicole Humphrey, Elaine Reardon, Donna Farley, Patricicia A. Ebener, Paul Steinberg, "Welfare Reform in California: State and County Implementation of CalWORKs in the Second Year," (RAND, 2000).
115. Levy and Michel, "More Can Be Less," show that childcare provisions under TANF are far from adequate. For California, see Jacob Alex Klerman, Gail L. Zellman, Tammi Chun, Nicole Humphrey, Elaine Reardon, Donna Farley, Patricicia A. Ebener, Paul Steinberg, "Welfare Reform in California: State and County Implementation of CalWORKs in the Second Year," (RAND, 2000).
116. Arlie Hochschild, The Time Bind: When Work Becomes Home and Home Becomes Work (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1997); Arlie Hochschild, The Second Shift: Working Parents and the Revolution at Home (New York: Viking, 1989); Lilian Rubin, Families on the Fault Line: America's Working Class Speaks about the Family, the Economy, Race, and Ethnicity (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1994), Ann Crittenden, The Price of Motherhood: Why the Most Important Job in the World is Still the Least Valued (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2001). For a discussion of the absence of a national child-care policy in the United States, see Sonya Michel, Children's Interests/Mothers' Rights: The Shaping of America's Child Care Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999). For a discussion of the particular difficulties faced by poor single mothers in employment, see Edin and Lein, Making Ends Meet, and Stacey J. Oliker, "Examining Care at Welfare's End," Care Work: Gender, Class, and the Welfare State, Madonna Harrington Meyer, editor (New York and London: Routledge, 2000): 167-185; Hays, Flat Broke with Children.
117. Arlie Hochschild, The Time Bind: When Work Becomes Home and Home Becomes Work (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1997); Arlie Hochschild, The Second Shift: Working Parents and the Revolution at Home (New York: Viking, 1989); Lilian Rubin, Families on the Fault Line: America's Working Class Speaks about the Family, the Economy, Race, and Ethnicity (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1994), Ann Crittenden, The Price of Motherhood: Why the Most Important Job in the World is Still the Least Valued (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2001). For a discussion of the absence of a national child-care policy in the United States, see Sonya Michel, Children's Interests/Mothers' Rights: The Shaping of America's Child Care Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999). For a discussion of the particular difficulties faced by poor single mothers in employment, see Edin and Lein, Making Ends Meet, and Stacey J. Oliker, "Examining Care at Welfare's End," Care Work: Gender, Class, and the Welfare State, Madonna Harrington Meyer, editor (New York and London: Routledge, 2000): 167-185; Hays, Flat Broke with Children.
118. Arlie Hochschild, The Time Bind: When Work Becomes Home and Home Becomes Work (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1997); Arlie Hochschild, The Second Shift: Working Parents and the Revolution at Home (New York: Viking, 1989); Lilian Rubin, Families on the Fault Line: America's Working Class Speaks about the Family, the Economy, Race, and Ethnicity (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1994), Ann Crittenden, The Price of Motherhood: Why the Most Important Job in the World is Still the Least Valued (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2001). For a discussion of the absence of a national child-care policy in the United States, see Sonya Michel, Children's Interests/Mothers' Rights: The Shaping of America's Child Care Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999). For a discussion of the particular difficulties faced by poor single mothers in employment, see Edin and Lein, Making Ends Meet, and Stacey J. Oliker, "Examining Care at Welfare's End," Care Work: Gender, Class, and the Welfare State, Madonna Harrington Meyer, editor (New York and London: Routledge, 2000): 167-185; Hays, Flat Broke with Children.
119. Arlie Hochschild, The Time Bind: When Work Becomes Home and Home Becomes Work (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1997); Arlie Hochschild, The Second Shift: Working Parents and the Revolution at Home (New York: Viking, 1989); Lilian Rubin, Families on the Fault Line: America's Working Class Speaks about the Family, the Economy, Race, and Ethnicity (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1994), Ann Crittenden, The Price of Motherhood: Why the Most Important Job in the World is Still the Least Valued (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2001). For a discussion of the absence of a national child-care policy in the United States, see Sonya Michel, Children's Interests/Mothers' Rights: The Shaping of America's Child Care Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999). For a discussion of the particular difficulties faced by poor single mothers in employment, see Edin and Lein, Making Ends Meet, and Stacey J. Oliker, "Examining Care at Welfare's End," Care Work: Gender, Class, and the Welfare State, Madonna Harrington Meyer, editor (New York and London: Routledge, 2000): 167-185; Hays, Flat Broke with Children.
120. Arlie Hochschild, The Time Bind: When Work Becomes Home and Home Becomes Work (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1997); Arlie Hochschild, The Second Shift: Working Parents and the Revolution at Home (New York: Viking, 1989); Lilian Rubin, Families on the Fault Line: America's Working Class Speaks about the Family, the Economy, Race, and Ethnicity (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1994), Ann Crittenden, The Price of Motherhood: Why the Most Important Job in the World is Still the Least Valued (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2001). For a discussion of the absence of a national child-care policy in the United States, see Sonya Michel, Children's Interests/Mothers' Rights: The Shaping of America's Child Care Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999). For a discussion of the particular difficulties faced by poor single mothers in employment, see Edin and Lein, Making Ends Meet, and Stacey J. Oliker, "Examining Care at Welfare's End," Care Work: Gender, Class, and the Welfare State, Madonna Harrington Meyer, editor (New York and London: Routledge, 2000): 167-185; Hays, Flat Broke with Children.
121. Arlie Hochschild, The Time Bind: When Work Becomes Home and Home Becomes Work (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1997); Arlie Hochschild, The Second Shift: Working Parents and the Revolution at Home (New York: Viking, 1989); Lilian Rubin, Families on the Fault Line: America's Working Class Speaks about the Family, the Economy, Race, and Ethnicity (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1994), Ann Crittenden, The Price of Motherhood: Why the Most Important Job in the World is Still the Least Valued (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2001). For a discussion of the absence of a national child-care policy in the United States, see Sonya Michel, Children's Interests/Mothers' Rights: The Shaping of America's Child Care Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999). For a discussion of the particular difficulties faced by poor single mothers in employment, see Edin and Lein, Making Ends Meet, and Stacey J. Oliker, "Examining Care at Welfare's End," Care Work: Gender, Class, and the Welfare State, Madonna Harrington Meyer, editor (New York and London: Routledge, 2000): 167-185; Hays, Flat Broke with Children.
122. Arlie Hochschild, The Time Bind: When Work Becomes Home and Home Becomes Work (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1997); Arlie Hochschild, The Second Shift: Working Parents and the Revolution at Home (New York: Viking, 1989); Lilian Rubin, Families on the Fault Line: America's Working Class Speaks about the Family, the Economy, Race, and Ethnicity (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1994), Ann Crittenden, The Price of Motherhood: Why the Most Important Job in the World is Still the Least Valued (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2001). For a discussion of the absence of a national child-care policy in the United States, see Sonya Michel, Children's Interests/Mothers' Rights: The Shaping of America's Child Care Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999). For a discussion of the particular difficulties faced by poor single mothers in employment, see Edin and Lein, Making Ends Meet, and Stacey J. Oliker, "Examining Care at Welfare's End," Care Work: Gender, Class, and the Welfare State, Madonna Harrington Meyer, editor (New York and London: Routledge, 2000): 167-185; Hays, Flat Broke with Children.
123. Arlie Hochschild, The Time Bind: When Work Becomes Home and Home Becomes Work (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1997); Arlie Hochschild, The Second Shift: Working Parents and the Revolution at Home (New York: Viking, 1989); Lilian Rubin, Families on the Fault Line: America's Working Class Speaks about the Family, the Economy, Race, and Ethnicity (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1994), Ann Crittenden, The Price of Motherhood: Why the Most Important Job in the World is Still the Least Valued (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2001). For a discussion of the absence of a national child-care policy in the United States, see Sonya Michel, Children's Interests/Mothers' Rights: The Shaping of America's Child Care Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999). For a discussion of the particular difficulties faced by poor single mothers in employment, see Edin and Lein, Making Ends Meet, and Stacey J. Oliker, "Examining Care at Welfare's End," Care Work: Gender, Class, and the Welfare State, Madonna Harrington Meyer, editor (New York and London: Routledge, 2000): 167-185; Hays, Flat Broke with Children.
124. Oscar Lewis, Five Families: Mexican Case Studies in the Culture of Poverty (New York: Basic Books, 1959); Oscar Lewis, La Vida: A Puerto Rican Family in the Culture of Poverty (New York: Random House, 1965); Mead Beyond Entitlement, 1986; Lawrence Mead, editor, The New Paternalism: Supervisory Approaches to Poverty (Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1997).
125. Oscar Lewis, Five Families: Mexican Case Studies in the Culture of Poverty (New York: Basic Books, 1959); Oscar Lewis, La Vida: A Puerto Rican Family in the Culture of Poverty (New York: Random House, 1965); Mead Beyond Entitlement, 1986; Lawrence Mead, editor, The New Paternalism: Supervisory Approaches to Poverty (Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1997).
126. Oscar Lewis, Five Families: Mexican Case Studies in the Culture of Poverty (New York: Basic Books, 1959); Oscar Lewis, La Vida: A Puerto Rican Family in the Culture of Poverty (New York: Random House, 1965); Mead Beyond Entitlement, 1986; Lawrence Mead, editor, The New Paternalism: Supervisory Approaches to Poverty (Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1997).
127. Oscar Lewis, Five Families: Mexican Case Studies in the Culture of Poverty (New York: Basic Books, 1959); Oscar Lewis, La Vida: A Puerto Rican Family in the Culture of Poverty (New York: Random House, 1965); Mead Beyond Entitlement, 1986; Lawrence Mead, editor, The New Paternalism: Supervisory Approaches to Poverty (Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1997).
128. Maria Rosa Dalla Costa and Selma James, The Power of Women and the Subversion of Community (Bristol, England: Falling Wall Press, 1972). For a sampling of the contemporary literature on the value of care work see Hirschman and Liebert, Women & Welfare; Meyer, Care Work; Joan Williams, Unbending Gender: Why Family and Work Conflict and What to Do About It (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000); Symposium on the Structures of Care Work, Chicago-Kent Law Review 3 (76, 2001).
129. Maria Rosa Dalla Costa and Selma James, The Power of Women and the Subversion of Community (Bristol, England: Falling Wall Press, 1972). For a sampling of the contemporary literature on the value of care work see Hirschman and Liebert, Women & Welfare; Meyer, Care Work; Joan Williams, Unbending Gender: Why Family and Work Conflict and What to Do About It (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000); Symposium on the Structures of Care Work, Chicago-Kent Law Review 3 (76, 2001).
130. Maria Rosa Dalla Costa and Selma James, The Power of Women and the Subversion of Community (Bristol, England: Falling Wall Press, 1972). For a sampling of the contemporary literature on the value of care work see Hirschman and Liebert, Women & Welfare; Meyer, Care Work; Joan Williams, Unbending Gender: Why Family and Work Conflict and What to Do About It (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000); Symposium on the Structures of Care Work, Chicago-Kent Law Review 3 (76, 2001).
131. Maria Rosa Dalla Costa and Selma James, The Power of Women and the Subversion of Community (Bristol, England: Falling Wall Press, 1972). For a sampling of the contemporary literature on the value of care work see Hirschman and Liebert, Women & Welfare; Meyer, Care Work; Joan Williams, Unbending Gender: Why Family and Work Conflict and What to Do About It (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000); Symposium on the Structures of Care Work, Chicago-Kent Law Review 3 (76, 2001).
132. Maria Rosa Dalla Costa and Selma James, The Power of Women and the Subversion of Community (Bristol, England: Falling Wall Press, 1972). For a sampling of the contemporary literature on the value of care work see Hirschman and Liebert, Women & Welfare; Meyer, Care Work; Joan Williams, Unbending Gender: Why Family and Work Conflict and What to Do About It (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000); Symposium on the Structures of Care Work, Chicago-Kent Law Review 3 (76, 2001).
133. Knijn and Kremer, "Gender and the Caring Dimension of Welfare States"; Williams, Unbending Gender.
134. Knijn and Kremer, "Gender and the Caring Dimension of Welfare States"; Williams, Unbending Gender.
135. See, for instance, Little, "Independent Workers, Dependable Mothers"; Sandra Morgen, "The Agency of Welfare Workers: Negotiating Devolution, Privatization, and the Meaning of Self-Sufficiency," American Anthropologist 103/3 (2001): 747-761; Hays, Flat Broke with Children.
136. See, for instance, Little, "Independent Workers, Dependable Mothers"; Sandra Morgen, "The Agency of Welfare Workers: Negotiating Devolution, Privatization, and the Meaning of Self-Sufficiency," American Anthropologist 103/3 (2001): 747-761; Hays, Flat Broke with Children.
137. See, for instance, Little, "Independent Workers, Dependable Mothers"; Sandra Morgen, "The Agency of Welfare Workers: Negotiating Devolution, Privatization, and the Meaning of Self-Sufficiency," American Anthropologist 103/3 (2001): 747-761; Hays, Flat Broke with Children.
138. Fraser, "Women, Welfare, and the Politics of Need Interpretation."
139. Adams and Padamsee, "Signs and Regimes."
140. See, for example, Gordon, "The New Feminist Scholarship on the Welfare State"; Little, "Independent Workers, Dependable Mothers"; Nancy Naples, "Toward a Multiracial, Feminist Social-Democratic Praxis: Lessons from Grassroots Warriors in the US War on Poverty," Social Politics, Fall 5/3 (1998): 286-313.
141. See, for example, Gordon, "The New Feminist Scholarship on the Welfare State"; Little, "Independent Workers, Dependable Mothers"; Nancy Naples, "Toward a Multiracial, Feminist Social-Democratic Praxis: Lessons from Grassroots Warriors in the US War on Poverty," Social Politics, Fall 5/3 (1998): 286-313.
142. See, for example, Gordon, "The New Feminist Scholarship on the Welfare State"; Little, "Independent Workers, Dependable Mothers"; Nancy Naples, "Toward a Multiracial, Feminist Social-Democratic Praxis: Lessons from Grassroots Warriors in the US War on Poverty," Social Politics, Fall 5/3 (1998): 286-313.
143. Salzinger, Genders in Production.
144. Little, "Independent Workers, Dependable Mothers."
145. Barbara Hobson and Marika Lindholm, "Collective identities, women's power resources, and the making of welfare states," Theory and Society 26/ 4 (1997): 475-508, 475.
146. Cruikshank, The Will to Empower.
147. Cruikshank, The Will to Empower, 55.
148. Althusser, "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses," 161, italics in original.
149. Ibid., 169.