Acute asthma in adults: A review

Chest

Volumn 125, Issue 3, 2004, Pages 1081-1102

  Rodrigo, Gustavo J ^a   Rodrigo, Carlos ^b   Hall, Jesse B ^c  

^a HOSPITAL CENTRAL DE LAS FUERZAS ARMADAS   (Uruguay)

^b Unidad de Cuidado Intensivo   (Uruguay)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO   (United States)

Author keywords

Acute asthma; Anticholinergics; Assessment; Corticosteroids; Heliox; Inhalation therapy; Magnesium sulfate; Mechanical ventilation; Oxygen; agonists

Indexed keywords

ADRENALIN; ANESTHETIC AGENT; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; BRONCHODILATING AGENT; CHOLINERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CORTICOSTEROID; FENOTEROL; FUROSEMIDE; HELIOX; KETAMINE; LEUKOTRIENE RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; LEVALBUTEROL; LIDOCAINE; LORAZEPAM; MAGNESIUM SULFATE; MIDAZOLAM; MONTELUKAST; MORPHINE SULFATE; MUCOLYTIC AGENT; NEUROMUSCULAR BLOCKING AGENT; ORCIPRENALINE; PROPOFOL; SALBUTAMOL; SEDATIVE AGENT; TERBUTALINE; THEOPHYLLINE; UNINDEXED DRUG; ZAFIRLUKAST;

AIRWAY OBSTRUCTION; ANAMNESIS; ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION; ASTHMA; ASTHMATIC STATE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; DISEASE EXACERBATION; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG POTENTIATION; EMERGENCY WARD; FORCED EXPIRATORY VOLUME; GAS EXCHANGE; HEALTH CARE COST; HEART DISEASE; HEART RHYTHM; HOSPITALIZATION; HUMAN; HYPOKALEMIA; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; INTUBATION; LUNG MECHANICS; META ANALYSIS; MORTALITY; NEBULIZATION; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PATIENT REFERRAL; PHYSICAL EXAMINATION; PNEUMONIA; POSITIVE END EXPIRATORY PRESSURE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PULSE OXIMETER; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; SINUSITIS; TACHYCARDIA; THORAX RADIOGRAPHY; TREMOR;

EID: 1642284303     PISSN: 00123692     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1378/chest.125.3.1081     Document Type: Review

References (244)

1. Global strategy for asthma management and prevention. NIH Publication 02-3659, 2002. Available at: http://www.ginasthma.com. Accessed February 18, 2004
2. National Asthma Education and Prevention Program. Expert panel report 2: Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health, 1997; publication No. 55-4051
3. Worldwide variations in the prevalence of asthma symptoms: the international study of asthma and allergies in childhood (ISAAC). Eur Respir J 1998; 12:315-335
4. Mannino DM, Homa DM, Pertowski CA, et al. Surveillance for asthma: United States, 1960-1995. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1998; 47:1-27
5. Self-report asthma prevalence among adults-United States 2000. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2001; 50:682-686
6. Antó JM, Sunyer JM. Epidemic asthma. In: Holgate ST, Boushey HA, Fabbri LM, eds. Difficult asthma London, UK: Martin Dunitz Ltd, 1999; 333-340
7. Emerman CL, Cydulka RK, Skobeloff E. Survey of asthma practice among emergency physicians. Chest 1996; 109: 708-712
8. Kolbe J, Vamos M, Fergusson W, et al. Determinants of management errors in acute severe asthma. Thorax 1998; 53:14-20
9. Pinnock H, Johnson A, Young P, et al. Are doctors still failing to asses and treat asthma attacks? An audit of the management of acute attacks in a health district. Respir Med 1999; 93:397-401
10. Salmeron S, Liard R, Elkharrat D, et al. Asthma severity adequacy of management in accident and emergency departments in France: a prospective study. Lancet 2001; 358:629-635
11. Burt CW, Knapp DE. Ambulatory care visits for asthma: United States, 1993-1994. Adv Data 1996; 277:1
12. Singh AK, Cydulka RK, Stahmer SA, et al. Sex differences among adults presenting to the emergency department with acute asthma. Arch Intern Med 1999; 159:1237-1243
13. Trawick DR, Holm C, Wirth J. Influence of gender on rates of hospitalization, hospital course, and hypercapnea in high-risk patients admitted for asthma: a 10-year retrospective study at Yale-New Haven hospital. Chest 2001; 119:115-119
14. Zimmerman JL, Woodruff PG, Clark S, et al. Relation between phase of menstrual cycle and emergency department visits for acute asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 162:512-515
15. Cydulka RK, Emerman CL, Rowe BH, et al. Differences between men and women in reporting of symptoms during an asthma exacerbation. Ann Emerg Med 2001; 38:123-128
16. Mellis CM, Peat JK, Bauman AE, et al. The cost of asthma in New South Wales. Med J Aust 1991; 155:522-528
17. Krahn MD, Berka C, Langlois P, et al. Direct and indirect costs of asthma in Canada, 1990. Can Med Assoc J 1996; 154:821-831
18. Otero Gonzalez I, Blanco Aparicio M, Montera Martinez C, et al. Características epidemiológicas de las exacerbaciones por EPOC y asma en un hospital general. Arch Bronconeumol 2002; 38:256-262
19. Centers for Disease Control. Asthma mortality and hospitalization among children and adults, United States 1980-1993. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1996; 45:350-353
20. Weber EJ, Silverman RA, Callaham ML, et al. A prospective multicenter study of factors associated with hospital admission among adults with acute asthma. Am J Med 2002; 113:371-378
21. Han P, Cole RP. Evolving differences in the presentation of status asthmaticus requiring intensive care unit admission [abstract]. Chest 2002; 122(Suppl):88S
22. Braman SS, Kaemmerlen JT. Intensive care of status asthmaticus: a 10-year experience. JAMA 1990; 264:366-368
23. Weiss KB, Gergen PJ, Hodgson TA. An economic evaluation of asthma in the United States. N Engl J Med 1992; 326:862-866
24. Smith DH, Malone DC, Lawson KA, et al. A national estimate of the economic costs of asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 156:787-793
25. Hoskins G, McCowan C, Neville RG, et al. Risk factors and costs associated with an asthma attack. Thorax 2000; 55:19-24
26. Holgate S. Mediator and cytokine mechanisms in asthma. Thorax 1993; 48:103-109
27. Pepe PE, Marini JP. Occult positive end-expiration pressure in mechanically ventilated patients with airflow obstruction. Am Rev Respir Dis 1982; 126:166-170
28. Rossi A, Ganassini A, Brusasco V. Airflow obstruction and dynamic pulmonary hyperinflation. In: Hall JB, Corbridge T, Rodrigo C, et al, eds. Acute asthma: assessment and management. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2000; 57-82
29. Pinsky MR. Cardiopulmonary interactions associated with airflow obstruction. In: Hall JB, Corbridge T, Rodrigo C, et al, eds. Acute asthma: assessment and management. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2000; 105-123
30. McFadden ER, Lyons H. Arterial blood gas tension in asthma. N Engl J Med 1968; 278:1027-1032
31. Rodriguez-Roisin R. Acute severe asthma: pathophysiology and pathobiology of gas exchange abnormalities. Eur Respir J 1997; 10:1359-1371
32. Rodriguez-Roisin R. Gas exchange in acute asthma. In: Hall JB, Corbridge T, Rodrigo C, et al, eds. Acute asthma: assessment and management. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2000; 83-103
33. Weng TR, Langer HM, Featherby EA, et al. Arterial blood gas tensions and acid-base balance in symptomatic and asymptomatic asthma in childhood. Am Rev Respir Dis 1969; 101:274-282
34. Miyamoto T, Mizuno K, Furuya K. Arterial blood gases in bronchial asthma. J Allergy 1970; 45:248-254
35. Tai E, Read J. Blood-gas tensions in bronchial asthma. Lancet 1967; 1:644-646
36. Rodriguez-Roisin R, Ballester E, Torres A, et al. Mechanisms of abnormal gas exchange in patients with status asthmaticus needing mechanical ventilation. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989; 139:732-739
37. Roca J, Ramis LI, Rodríguez-Roisin R, et al. Serial relationships between ventilation-perfusion inequality and spirometry in acute severe asthma requiring hospitalization. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988; 137:1055-1061
38. Ballester E, Reyes R, Roca J, et al. Ventilation-perfusion mismatching in acute severe asthma: effects of salbutamol and 100% oxygen. Thorax 1989; 44:258-267
39. Félez MA, Roca J, Barbera JA, et al. Inhaled platelet-activating factor worsens gas exchange in mild asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 150:369-373
40. Acuña AA, Gabrijelcic J, Uribe EM, et al. Fluticasone propionate attenuates platelet-activating factor-induced gas exchange defects in mild asthma. Eur Respir J 2002; 19:872-878
41. McFadden ER, Kiser R, deGroot WJ. Acute bronchial asthma: relations between clinical and physiologic manifestations. N Engl J Med 1973; 288:221-225
42. Diamond JP, Palazzo MG. An unconscious man with asthma and a fixed dilated pupil [letter]. Lancet 1997; 349:98
43. Gaussorgues P, Piperno D, Fouqu P, et al. Hypertension intracranienne au cours de l'etat asthmatique. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim 1987; 6:38-41
44. Zender HO, Eggimann P, Bulpa P, et al. Quadriparesia following permissive hypercapnia and inhalational anesthesia in a patient with severe status asthmaticus [letter]. Intensive Care Med 1996; 22:1001
45. Rodrigo C, Rodrigo G. Subarachnoid hemorrhage following permissive hypercapnia in a patient with severe acute asthma. Am J Emerg Med 1999; 17:697-699
46. Rodriguez-Roisin R, Torres A, Agustí AGN, et al. Subconjunctival haemorrhage: a feature of acute severe asthma. Postgrad Med 1985; 61:579-581
47. Sur S, Hunt LW, Crotty TB, et al. Sudden-onset fatal asthma. Mayo Clin Proc 1994; 69:495-496
48. Smith DH, Weiss K, Sullivan SD. Epidemiology and costs of acute asthma. In: Hall JB, Corbridge T, Rodrigo C, et al, eds. Acute asthma: assessment and management. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2000; 1-10
49. Kolbe J, Fergusson W, Garrett J. Rapid onset asthma: a severe but uncommon manifestation. Thorax 1998; 53:241-247
50. Woodruff PG, Edmond SD, Singh AK, et al. Sudden-onset severe acute asthma: clinical features and response to therapy. Acad Emerg Med 1998; 5:695-701
51. Barr RG, Woodruff PG, Clarck S, et al. Sudden-onset asthma exacerbations: clinical features, response to therapy, and 2-week follow-up. Eur Respir J 2000; 15:266-273
52. Rodrigo GJ, Rodrigo C. Rapid-onset asthma attack: a prospective cohort study about characteristics and response to the emergency department treatment. Chest 2000; 118:1547-1552
53. Sur S, Crotty TB, Kephart GM, et al. Sudden-onset fatal asthma: a distinct entity with few eosinophils and relatively more neutrophils in the airway submucosa? Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 148:713-719
54. Nannini LJ. Morbidity and mortality from acute asthma. In: Hall JB, Corbridge T, Rodrigo C, et al, eds. Acute asthma: assessment and management. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2000; 11-27
55. Neffen H, Baena-Cagnani C, Malka S, et al. Asthma mortality in Latin America. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol 1997; 7:249-253
56. Oganov RG, Maslennikova Gya. Asthma mortality in Russia between 1980 and 1989. Eur Respir J 1998; 13:287-289
57. Sly RM. Decreases in asthma mortality in the United States. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2000; 85:121-127
58. Zar HJ, Stickells D, Toerien A, et al. Changes in fatal and near-fatal asthma in an urban area of South Africa from 1980-1997. Eur Respir J 2001; 18:33-37
59. Turner MO, Noertjojo K, Vedal S, et al. Risk factors for near-fatal asthma: a case-control study in hospitalized patients with asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 157:1804-1809
60. Hessel PA, Mitchell I, Tough S, et al. Risk factors for death from asthma. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 1999; 83:362-368
61. Abramson MJ, Bailey MJ, Couper FJ, et al. Are asthma medications and management related to deaths from asthma? Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 163:12-18
62. Plaza V, Serrano J, Picado C, et al. Frequency and clinical characteristics of rapid-onset fatal and near-fatal asthma. Eur Respir J 2002; 19:846-852
63. Moore BB, Wagner R, Weiss KB. A community-based study of near-fatal asthma. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2001; 86:190-195
64. McFadden ER, Warren EL. Observations on asthma mortality. Ann Intern Med 1997; 127:142-147
65. Rodrigo GJ, Rodrigo C, Nannini LJ. Asma casi fatal: ¿entidad clínica o. manejo inadecuado? Arch Bronconeumol 2004; 40:24-33
66. Molfino NA. Near-fatal asthma. In: Hall JB, Corbridge T, Rodrigo C, et al, eds. Acute asthma: assessment and management. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2000; 29-47
67. Mitchell I, Tough SC, Semple LK, et al. Near-fatal asthma: a population-based study of risk factors. Chest 2002; 121:1407-1413
68. Kallenbach JM, Frankel AH, Lapinsky SE, et al. Determinants of near fatality in acute severe asthma. Am J Med 1993; 95:265-272
69. Kikuchi Y, Okabe S, Tamura G, et al. Chemosensitivity and perception of dyspnea in patients with a history of near-fatal asthma. N Engl J Med 1994; 330:1329-1334
70. Magadle R, Berar-Yanay N, Weiner P. The risk of hospitalization and near-fatal and fatal asthma in relation to the perception of dyspnea. Chest 2002; 121:329-333
71. Perna G, Bertani A, Politi E, et al. Asthma and panic attacks. Biol Psychiatry 1997; 42:625-630
72. Levenson T, Greenberger PA, Donoghue ER, et al. Asthma death confounded by substance abuse: an assessment of fatal asthma. Chest 1996; 110:604-610
73. Rome LA, Lippmann ML, Dalsey WC, et al. Prevalence of cocaine use and its impact on asthma exacerbation in an urban population. Chest 2000; 117:1324-1329
74. Krantz AJ, Hershow RC, Prachand N, et al. Heroin insufflation as a trigger for patients with life-threatening asthma. Chest 2003; 123:510-517
75. Dahlén I, Janson C. Anxiety and depression are related to the outcome of emergency treatment in patients with obstructive pulmonary disease. Chest 2002; 122:1633-1637
76. Crane J, Burgess CD, Graham AN, et al. Hypokalaemic and electrocardiographic effects of aminophylline and salbutamol in obstructive airway disease. N Z Med J 1987; 100:309-311
77. Rodrigo C, Rodrigo G. High-dose MDI salbutamol treatment of asthma in the ED. Am J Emerg Med 1995; 13:21-26
78. Rodrigo G, Rodrigo C. Metered dose inhaler salbutamol treatment of asthma in the ED: comparison of two doses with plasma levels. Am J Emerg Med 1996; 14:144-150
79. Molfino NA, Nannini LJ, Martelli AN, et al. Respiratory arrest in near-fatal asthma. N Engl J Med 1991; 324:285-288
80. Read J. The reported increase in mortality from asthma: a clinico-functional analysis. Med J Aust 1968; 1:879-884
81. Bai TR, Cooper J, Koelmeyer T, et al. The effect of age and duration of disease on airway structure in fatal asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 162:663-669
82. Rodrigo G, Rodrigo C. Assessment of the patient with acute asthma in the emergency department: a factor analytic study. Chest 1993; 104:1325-1328
83. Rodrigo GJ, Rodrigo C. Emergency department assessment: severity and outcome prediction. In: Hall JB, Corbridge T, Rodrigo C, et al., eds. Acute asthma: assessment and management. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2000; 125-138
84. Brenner BE, Abraham E, Simmon RR. Position and diaphoresis in acute asthma. Am J Med 1983; 74:1005-1009
85. Fischl MA, Pitchenik A, Gardner LB. An index predicting relapse and need for hospitalization in patients with acute bronchial asthma. N Engl J Med 1981; 310:783-789
86. Rodrigo C, Rodrigo G. Early administration of hydrocortisone in the emergency room treatment of acute asthma: a controlled clinical trial. Respir Med 1994; 88:755-761
87. Rodrigo C, Rodrigo G. Treatment of acute asthma: lack of therapeutic benefit and increase of the toxicity from amiriophylline given in addition to high doses of salbutamol delivered by metered-dose inhaler with spacer. Chest 1994; 106:1071-1076
88. Rodrigo G, Rodrigo C. Effect of age on bronchodilator response in the acute asthma treatment. Chest 1997; 112:19-23
89. Pearson MG, Spence DP, Ryland L, et al. Value of pulsus paradoxus in assessing acute severe asthma. BMJ 1993; 307:659
90. Shim CS, Williams MH. Relationship of wheezing to the severity of obstruction in asthma. Arch Intern Med 1983; 143:890-892
91. Daman HR. Pulmonary function testing: use of the peak expiratory flow rate in an out-patient or office setting. J Asthma 1984; 21:331-337
92. Connolly CK, Chan NS. Relationship between different measurements of respiratory function in asthma. Respiration 1987; 52:22-33
93. 1 in stable asthmatic children. Chest 1989; 96:329-333
94. 1. Eur Respir J 1997; 10(Suppl):39-41
95. 1 admission criteria for acute bronchial asthma. Ann Emerg Med 1982; 11:64-69
96. Rodrigo C, Rodrigo G. Comparación entre el pico de flujo espiratorio y el volumen espiratorio forzado en el primer segundo en pacientes en crisis asmática. Rev Med Uruguay 1994; 10:15-19
97. Fanta CH, Israel E, Séller AI. Managing and preventing severe asthma attacks. J Respir Dis 1993; 13:94-108
98. Rodrigo GJ. Oxygen treatment of acute severe asthma: oxygen saturation may help identify patients in need of intensive management [letter]. BMJ 2001; 323:1069
99. Carruthers DM, Harrison BDW. Arterial blood gas analysis or oxygen saturation in the assessment of acute asthma? Thorax 1995; 50:186-188
100. Kelly AM, McAlpine R, Kyle E. How accurate are pulse oximeters in patients with acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive airways disease? Respir Med 2001; 95:336-340
101. Hardern R. Oxygen saturation in adults with acute asthma. J Accid Emerg Med 1996; 13:28-30
102. Nowak RM, Tomlanovich MC, Sarkar DD, et al. Arterial blood gases and pulmonary function testing in acute bronchial asthma. JAMA 1983; 249:2043-2046
103. Tuxen DV, Anderson MB, Scheinkestel CD. Mechanical ventilation for severe asthma. In: Hall JB, Corbridge T, Rodrigo C, et al, eds. Acute asthma: assessment and management. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2000; 209-228
104. Findley LJ, Sahn SA. The value of chest roentgenograms in acute asthma in adults. Chest 1980; 5:535-536
105. Zieverink SE, Harper AP, Holden RW, et al. Emergency room radiography of asthma: an efficacy study. Radiology 1982; 145:27-29
106. Sherman S, Skoney JA, Ravikrishnan KP. Routine chest radiographs in exacerbations of acute obstructive pulmonary disease. Arch Intern Med 1989; 149:2493-2496
107. White CS, Cole P, Lubetsky HW, et al. Acute asthma: admission chest radiography in hospitalized adult patients. Chest 1991; 100:14-16
108. Lavechia V, Rodrigo C, Maraffi L, et al. Valor de la radiografía de tórax en pacientes asmáticos agudos que consultan en un servicio de emergencia. Pac Crítico 1992; 5:128-132
109. Shim CS, Williams MH. Evaluation of the severity of asthma: patients versus physicians. Am J Med 1980; 68:11-13
110. Banner AS, Shah RS, Addington WW. Rapid prediction of need for hospitalization in acute asthma. JAMA 1976; 235:1337-1338
111. Fanta CH, Rossing TH, McFadden ED. Emergency room treatment of asthma: relationships among therapeutic combinations, severity of obstruction and time course of response. Am J Med 1982; 72:416-422
112. Stein LM, Cole RP. Early administration of corticosteroids in emergency room treatment of acute asthma. Ann Intern Med 1990; 112:822-827
113. McCarren M, Zalenski RJ, McDermott M, et al. Predicting recovery from acute asthma in an emergency diagnostic and treatment unit. Acad Emerg Med 2000; 7:28-35
114. Rodrigo G, Rodrigo C. Tratamiento de la crisis asmática: comparación entre fenoterol y salbutamol en altas dosis administradas con inhalador de dosis medida con inhalocámara (Volumatic) y aminofilina intravenosa. Pac Crítico 1991; 4:194-209
115. Rodrigo G, Rodrigo C. A new index for early prediction of hospitalization in patients with acute asthma. Am J Emerg Med 1997; 15:8-13
116. Rodrigo G, Rodrigo C. Early prediction of poor response acute asthma patients in the emergency department. Chest 1999; 114:1016-1021
117. Birring SS, Heartin E, Williams TJ. Peak expiratory flow sequence in acute exacerbations of asthma. BMJ 2001; 322:1281
118. British Thoracic Society and others. Guidelines for the management of asthma: a summary. Thorax 1993; 48:S1-S24
119. Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (SIGN). Emergency management of acute asthma: a national clinical guideline. Edinburgh, Scotland: SIGN, 1999; Publication No. 38
120. Inwald D, Roland M, Kuitert S, et al. Oxygen treatment for acute severe asthma. BMJ 2001; 325:98-100
121. British Thoracic Society and others. Guidelines on the management of asthma: management of acute asthma. Thorax 2003; 58:i32-i50
122. Chien JW, Ciufo R, Novak R, et al. Uncontrolled oxygen administration and respiratory failure in acute asthma. Chest 2000; 117:728-733
123. Rodrigo GJ, Rodriguez Verde M, Peregalli V, et al. Effects of short-term 28% and 100% oxygen on arterial carbon dioxide tension and peak expiratory flow rate in acute asthma: a randomized trial. Chest 2003; 124:1312-1317
124. Thomson AJ, Webb DJ, Maxwell SR. Oxygen therapy in acute medical care: die potential dangers of hyperoxia need to be recognised. BMJ 2002; 321:1406-1407
125. Moloney E, O'Sullivan S, Hogan T, et al. Airway dehydration: a therapeutic target in asthma? Chest 2002; 121:1806-1811
126. Canadian Asthma Consensus Report. Management of patients with asthma in the emergency department and in hospital. Can Med Assoc J 1999; 161(Suppl):S53-S59
127. Murray TP, Corbridge T. Pharmacotherapy of acute asthma. In: Hall JB, Corbridge T, Rodrigo C, et al, eds. Acute asthma: assessment and management. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2000; 139-160
128. Rodrigo C, Rodrigo GJ. Inhaled therapy in nonintubated patients. In: Hall JB, Corbridge T, Rodrigo C, et al, eds. Acute asthma: assessment and management. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2000; 161-178
129. Rodrigo GJ, Rodrigo C. Aerosol and inhaled therapy in treatment of acute adult airway obstruction in the emergency department. Respir Care Clin N Am 2001; 7:215-231
130. Rodrigo GJ, Rodrigo C. Controversias sobre el uso de los agonistas beta en el tratamiento del asma aguda. Arch Bronconeumol 2002; 38:322-328
131. Rodrigo GJ. Inhaled therapy for acute adult asthma. Curr Opin Allergy Immunol 2003; 3:169-175
132. Nelson H, Bensch G, Pleskow WW, et al. Improved bronchodilatation with levalbuterol compared with racemic albuterol in patients with asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1998; 102:943-952
133. Handley DA, Tinkelman D, Noonan M, et al. Dose-response evaluation of levalbuterol versus racemic albuterol in patients with asthma. J Asthma 2000; 37:319-327
134. Nowak RM, Emerman CL. Levalbuterol is effective in acute asthma [abstract]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 163:A590
135. Travers AH, Rowe BH, Barker S, et al. The effectiveness of IV β-agonists in treating patients with acute asthma in the emergency department: a meta-analysis. Chest 2002; 122: 1200-1207
136. American Respiratory Care Foundation and The American Association for Respiratory Care. Aerosol consensus statement. Chest 1991; 100:1106-1109
137. Innes NJ, Stocking JA, Daynes TJ, et al. Randomised pragmatic comparison of UK and US treatment of acute asthma presenting to hospital. Thorax 2002; 57:1040-1044
138. McFadden ER, Elsanadi N, Dixon L, et al. Protocol therapy for acute asthma: therapeutic benefits and cost savings. Am J Med 1995; 99:651-661
139. Strauss L, Hejal R, Galan G, et al. Observations of the effects of aerosolized albuterol in acute asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 155:545-548
140. Rodrigo C, Rodrigo G. Therapeutic response pattern to high and cumulative doses of salbutamol in acute severe asthma. Chest 1998; 113:593-598
141. Cydulka RK, McFadden ER, Sarver JA, et al. Comparison of single 7.5-mg dose treatment vs sequential multidose 2.5-mg treatments with nebulized albuterol in the treatment of acute asthma. Chest 2002; 122:1982-1987
142. Turner MO, Patel A, Ginsburg S, et al. Bronchodilator delivery in acute airflow obstruction: a meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med 1997; 157:1736-1744
143. Cates CJ, Rowe BH, Bara A. Holding chambers versus nebulisers for β-agonist treatment of acute asthma (Cochrane Review). Cochrane Library, Issue 4. Oxford, UK: Update Software, 2002
144. Newman KB, Milne S, Hamilton C, et al. A comparison of albuterol administered by metered-dose inhaler and spacer with albuterol by nebulizer in adults presenting to an urban emergency department with acute asthma. Chest 2002; 121:1036-1041
145. Rodrigo GJ, Rodrigo C. Continuous vs intermittent β-agonists in the treatment of acute adult asthma: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Chest 2002; 122:160-165
146. Maury E, Ioss V, Lepecq B, et al. A paradoxical effect of bronchodilators. Chest 1997; 111:1766-1767
147. Manthous CA. Lactic acidosis in status asthmaticus: three cases and review of the literature. Chest 2001; 119:1599-1602
148. Prakash S, Mehta S. Lactic acidosis in asthma: report of two cases and review of the literature. Can Respir J 2002; 9:202-208
149. James JH, Luchette FA, McCarrer FD, et al. Lactate is an unreliable indicator of tissue hypoxia in injury or sepsis. Lancet 1999; 354:505-508
150. Lin RY, Smith AJ, Hergenroeder P. High serum albuterol levels and tachycardia in adult asthmatics treated with high-dose continuously aerosolized albuterol. Chest 1993; 103:221-225
151. Stoodley RG, Aaron SD, Dales RE. The role of ipratropium bromide in the emergency management of acute asthma exacerbations: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Ann Emerg Med 1999; 34:8-18
152. Rodrigo GJ, Rodrigo C, Burschtin O. Ipratropium bromide in acute adult severe asthma: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Med 1999; 107:363-370
153. Rodrigo GJ, Rodrigo C. First-line therapy for adult patients with acute asthma receiving a multiple-dose protocol of ipratropium bromide plus albuterol in the emergency department. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 161:1862-1868
154. Rodrigo GJ, Rodrigo C. The role of anticholinergics in acute asthma treatment: an evidence-based evaluation. Chest 2002; 121:1977-1987
155. Rodrigo G, Rodrigo C. Corticosteroids in the emergency department therapy of acute adult asthma: an evidence-based evaluation. Chest 1999; 116:285-295
156. Rowe BH, Spooner C, Ducharme FM, et al. Early emergency department treatment of acute asthma with systemic corticosteroids (Cochrane Review). The Cochrane Library, Issue 4. Oxford, UK: Update Software, 2002
157. Rodrigo G, Rodrigo C. Inhaled flunisolide for acute severe asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 157:698-703
158. McFadden ER. Inhaled glucocorticoids and acute asthma: therapeutic breakthrough or non-specific effect. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 157:677-678
159. Kumar SD, Brieva JL, Danta I, et al. Transient effect of inhaled fluticasone on airway mucosal blood flow in subjects with and without asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 161:918-921
160. Edmonds ML, Camargo CA, Pollack CV, et al. The effectiveness of inhaled corticosteroids in the emergency department treatment of acute asthma: a meta-analysis. Ann Emerg Med 2002; 40:145-154
161. Rodrigo GJ, Rodrigo C. Triple inhaled drug protocol for the treatment of acute severe asthma. Chest 2003; 123:1908-1915
162. Rowe BH, Spooner CH, Ducharme FM, et al. Corticosteroids for preventing relapse following acute exacerbations of asthma (Cochrane Review). The Cochrane Library, Issue 4. Oxford, UK: Update Software, 2002
163. Jones AM, Munavvar M, Vail A, et al. Prospective, placebo-controlled trial of 5 vs 10 days of oral prednisolone in acute adult asthma. Respir Med 2002; 96:950-954
164. Edmonds ML, Camargo CA, Brenner BE, et al. Replacement of oral corticosteroids with inhaled corticosteroids in the treatment of acute asthma following emergency department discharge: a meta-analysis. Chest 2002; 121:1798-1805
165. Rossing TH, Fanta CH, Goldstein DH, et al. Emergency therapy of asthma: comparison of the acute effects of parenteral and inhaled sympathomimetic and infused aminophylline. Am Rev Respir Dis 1980; 122:365-371
166. 2-agonists in adults with acute asthma (Cochrane Review). The Cochrane Library, Issue 4. Oxford, UK: Update Software, 2002
167. Rosello JC, Pla JC. Sulfato de magnesio en la crisis de asma. Prensa Med Argent 1936; 23:1677-1680
168. Spivey WH, Skobeloff EM, Levin RM. Effect of magnesium chloride on rabbit bronchial smooth muscle. Ann Emerg Med 1990; 19:1107-1112
169. Bourdon C, Camargo C, Bretzlaff J, et al. Intravenous magnesium sulfate treatment for acute asthma in the emergency department: a systematic review of the literature. Ann Emerg Med 1999; 36:181-190
170. Koepsell T, Alter H, Hilty W. Intravenous magnesium as an adjuvant in acute bronchospasm: a meta-analysis. Ann Emerg Med 1999; 36:191-197
171. Rodrigo G, Rodrigo C, Burschtin O. Efficacy of magnesium sulfate in acute adult asthma: A meta-analysis of randomized trials. Am J Emerg Med 2000; 18:216-221
172. Mangat HS, D'Souza GA, Jacob MS. Nebulized magnesium sulphate versus nebulized salbutamol in acute bronchial asthma: a clinical trial. Eur Respir J 1998; 12:341-344
173. Nannini LJ, Pendino JC, Corna RA, et al. Magnesium sulphate as a vehicle for nebulized salbutamol in acute asthma. Am J Med 2000; 108:193-197
174. Bessmertny O, DiGregorio RV, Cohen H, et al. A randomized clinical trial of nebulized magnesium sulfate in addition to albuterol in the treatment of acute mild-to-moderate asthma exacerbations in adults. Ann Emerg Med 2002; 39:585-591
175. Silverman RA, Osborn H, Bunge J, et al. IV magnesium sulfate in the treatment of acute severe asthma: a multicenter randomized controlled trial. Chest 2002; 122:489-497
176. Rodrigo GJ, Rodrigo C, Noppen M, et al. IV magnesium in the treatment of acute severe asthma [letter]? Chest 2003; 123:1314-1316
177. Anderson M, Svartengren M, Bylin G, et al. Deposition in asthmatics of particles inhaled in air or in helium-oxygen. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 147:524-528
178. Goode ML, Fink JB, Dhand R, et al. Improvement in aerosol delivery with helium-oxygen mixtures during mechanical ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 163:109-114
179. Hess DR, Acosta FI, Ritz RH, et al. The effect of heliox on nebulizer function using a beta-agonist bronchodilator. Chest 1999; 115:184-189
180. Habib DM, Garner SS, Brandeburg S. Effect of helium-oxygen on delivery of albuterol in pediatric volume cycled lung model. Pharmacotherapy 1999; 19:143-149
181. Manthous CA, Hall JB, Melmed A, et al. Heliox improves pulsus paradoxus and peak expiratory flow in nonintubated patients with severe asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 151:310-314
182. Kress JP, Noth I, Gehlbach BK, et al. The utility of albuterol nebulized with heliox during acute asthma exacerbations. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 165:1317-1321
183. Rodrigo GJ, Rodrigo C, Pollack CV, et al. Use of helium-oxygen mixtures in the treatment of acute asthma: a systematic review. Chest 2003; 123:891-896
184. Dockhorn RJ, Baumgartner RA, Leff JA, et al. Comparison of die effects of intravenous and oral montelukast on airway function: a double blind, placebo controlled, three period, crossover study in asthmatic patients. Thorax 2000; 55:260-265
185. Dempsey OJ, Lipworth BJ. Intravenous montelukast in acute asthma: expensive aminophylline? Thorax 2000; 55:808-809
186. Silverman RA, Chen Y, Bonucelli CM, et al. The Zafirlukast Acute Asthma Study Group: zafirlukast improves emergency department outcomes after an acute asthma episode [abstract]. Ann Emerg Med 2000; 35:810
187. Camargo CA, Smithline HA, Malice MP, et al. A randomized controlled trial of intravenous montelukast in acute asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003; 166:528-533
188. Rodrigo GJ, Rodrigo C. Intravenous montelukast in acute asthma [letter]? Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2004; 169: 130-131
189. Johnston SL. Viruses and asthma. Allergy 1998; 53:922-932
190. Tuggaha A, Gern JE, Lemanske RF. The role of respiratory viruses in acute and chronic asthma. Clin Chest Med 2000; 21:289-309
191. Gem JE, Busse WW. The role of viral infections in the natural history of asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2000; 106:201-212
192. Allegra L, Blasi F, Centannini S, et al. Acute exacerbations of asthma in adults: role of Chlamydia pneumoniae infection. Eur Respir J 1994; 7:2165-2168
193. Nicholson KG, Kent JK, Ireland DC. Respiratory viruses and exacerbations of asthma in adults. BMJ 1993; 307:982
194. Miyashita N, Kubota Y, Nakjima M, et al. Chlamydia pneumoniae and exacerbations of asthma in adults. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 1998; 80:405-409
195. Oehling AK. Bacterial infection as an important triggering factor in bronchial asthma. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol 1999; 9:6-13
196. Graham V, Lasserson T, Rowe BH. Antibiotics for acute asthma (Cochrane Review). The Cochrane Library, Issue 4. Oxford; UK: Update Software, 2002
197. Saulnier FF, Durocher AV, Deturck RA, et al. Respiratory and hemodynamic effects of halothane in status asthmaticus. Intensive Care Med 1990; 16:104-107
198. Echevarría M, Gelb AW, Wexler HR, et al. Enflurane and halothane in status asthmaticus. Chest 1986; 89:153-154
199. Hunt LW, Swedlund HA, Gleich GJ. Effect of nebulized lidocaine on severe glucocorticoid-dependent asthma. Mayo Clin Proc 1996; 71:361-368
200. Pendino JC, Nannini LJ, Chapman KR, et al. Effect of inhaled furosemide in acute asthma. J Asthma 1998; 35:89-93
201. Karpel JP, Dworkin F, Hager D, et al. Inhaled furosemide is not effective in acute asthma. Chest 1994; 106:1396-1400
202. Bernstein IL, Ausdenmoore RW. Iatrogenic bronchospasm occurring during clinical trials of a new mucolytic agent, acetyl cysteine. Dis Chest 1964; 46:469-471
203. FitzGerald JM, Macklem P. Fatal asthma. Annu Rev Med 1996; 47:161-168
204. Joseph KS, Biais L, Ernst P, et al. Increased morbidity and mortality related to asthma among asthmatics patients who use major tranquilizers. BMJ 1996; 312:79-82
205. Brochard L, Noninvasive ventilation for acute respiratory failure. JAMA 2002; 288:932-935
206. Martin JG, Shore S, Engel LA. Effect of continuous positive airway pressure on respiratory mechanics and pattern of breathing in induced asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 1982; 126:812-817
207. Meduri GU. Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation in patients with asthma. In: Hall JB, Corbridge T, Rodrigo C, et al, eds. Acute asthma: assessment and management. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2000; 191-207
208. Meduri GU, Cook TR, Turner RE, et al. Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation in status asthmaticus. Chest 1996; 110:767-774
209. Fernandez MM, Villagral A, Blanchl L, et al. Non-invasive mechanical ventilation in status asthmaticus. Intensive Care Med 2001; 27:486-492
210. Soroksky A, Stav D, Shpirer I. A pilot prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of bilevel positive airway pressure in acute asthmatic attack. Chest 2003; 123:1018-1025
211. British Thoracic Society Standards of Care Committee. Non-invasive ventilation in acute respiratory failure. Thorax 2002; 57:192-211
212. Manthous C, Goulding P. The effect of volume infusion on dead space in mechanically ventilated patients with severe asthma. Chest 1997; 112:843-846
213. Rosengarten P, Tuxen D, Dziukas L, et al. Circulatory arrest induced by intermittent positive pressure ventilation in a patient with severe asthma. Anaesth Intensive Care 1990; 19:118-121
214. Sarma VJ. Use of ketamine in acute severe asthma. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1992; 36:106-107
215. Lau TT, Zed PJ. Does ketamine have a role in managing severe exacerbations of asthma in adults. Pharinacotherapy 2001; 21:1100-1106
216. Griffin D, Faiman N, Coursin D, et al. Acute myopathy during treatment of status asthmaticus with corticosteroids and steroidal muscle relaxants. Chest 1992; 102:510-514
217. Douglass JA, Tuxen D, Home M, et al. Myopathy in severe asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 146:517-520
218. Leatherman JW, Fluegel WL, David WS, et al. Muscle weakness in mechanically ventilated patients with severe asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 153:1686-1690
219. Adnet F, Dhissi G, Borron SW, et al. Complication profiles of adult asthmatics requiring paralysis during mechanical ventilation. Intensive Care Med 2001; 27:1729-1736
220. Kress JP, Pohlman AS, O'Connor MF, et al. The impact of daily discontinuation of continuous sedative infusions in critically ill, mechanically ventilated patients. N Engl J Med 2000; 342:1471-1477
221. Peigang Y, Marini JJ. Ventilation of patients with asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Curr Opinion Crit Care 2002; 8:70-78
222. Tuxen DV, Williams TJ, Scheinkestel CD, et al., Use of a measurement of pulmonary hyperinflation to control the level of mechanical ventilation in patients with acute severe asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 146:1136-1142
223. Tuxen DV, Lane S. The effects of ventilatory pattern on hyperinflation, airway pressures, and circulation in mechanical ventilation of patients with severe air-flow obstruction. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987; 136:872-879
224. Williams TJ, Tuxen DV, Scheinkestel CD, et al. Risk factors for morbidity in mechanically ventilated patients with acute severe asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 146:607-615
225. Leatherman JW, Ravenscraft SA. Low measured auto-positive end-expiratory pressure during mechanical ventilation of patients with severe asthma: hidden auto-positive end-expiratory pressure. Crit Care Med 1996; 24:541-546
226. Corbridge T, Hall JB. State of the art: the assessment and management of adults with status asthmaticus. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 151:1296-1316
227. Feihl F, Perret C. State of the art: permissive hypercapnea; how permissive should we be? Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 150:1722-1732
228. Darioli R, Perret C. Mechanical controlled hypoventilation in status asthmaticus. Am Rev Respir Dis 1984; 129:385-390
229. Tuxen DV. Permissive hypercapnic ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 150:870-875
230. Marini JJ, Capps JS, Culver BH. The inspiratory work of breathing during assisted mechanical ventilation. Chest 1985; 87:612-617
231. Corne S, Gillespie D, Roberts D, et al. Effect of inspiratory flow rate on respiratory rate in intubated patients [abstract]. Am Rev Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 153:A375
232. Tuxen DV, Detrimental effects of positive end-expiratory pressure during controlled mechanical ventilation of patients with severe airflow obstruction. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989; 140:5-10
233. Saulnier FF, Durocher AV, Deturck RA, et al. Respiratory and hemodynamic effects of halothane in status asthmaticus. Intensive Care Med 1990; 16:104-109
234. Gluck EH, Onorato DJ, Castriotta R. Helium-oxygen mixtures in intubated patients with status asthmaticus and respiratory acidosis. Chest 1990; 98:693-698
235. Lang DM, Simon RA, Mathison DA, et al. Safety and possible efficacy of fiberoptic bronchoscopy with lavage in the management of refractory asthma with mucous impaction. Ann Allergy 1991; 67:234-238
236. Dhand R, Tobin MJ. Inhaled bronchodilator therapy in mechanically ventilated patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 156:3-10
237. Duarte A, Fink J, Dhand R. Inhalation therapy during mechanical ventilation. Respir Care Clin N Am 2001; 7:233-260
238. Manthous CA, Hall JB. Administration of therapeutic aerosols to mechanically ventilated patients. Chest 1994; 106:560-571
239. Mansel JK, Stogner SW, Petrini MF, et al. Mechanical ventilation in patients with acute severe asthma. Am J Med 1990; 89:42-48
240. Bramann SS, Kaemmerlen JT. Intensive care of status asthmaticus: a 10 year experience. JAMA 1990; 264:366-368
241. Marquette CH, Saulnier F, Leroy O, et al. Long-term prognosis of near-fatal asthma: a 6-year follow-up study of 145 asthmatic patients who underwent mechanical ventilation for a near-fatal attack of asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 146:76-81
242. Shapiro JM. Intensive care management of status asthmaticus. Chest 2001; 120:1439-1441
243. Afessa B, Morales I, Cury JD. Clinical course and outcome of patients admitted to an ICU for status asthmaticus. Chest 2001; 120:1616-1621
244. Gehlbach B, Kress JP, Kahn J, et al. Correlates of prolonged hospitalization in inner-city ICU patients receiving noninvasive and invasive positive pressure ventilation for status asthmaticus. Chest 2002; 122:1709-1714