From Lake Nyassa to Philadelphia: A geography of the Zambesi Expedition, 1858-64

British Journal for the History of Science

Volumn 38, Issue 1, 2005, Pages 35-52

  Dritsas, Lawrence ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 16344370391     PISSN: 00070874     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007087404006454     Document Type: Article

References (114)

1. S. Harris, 'Long-distance corporations, big sciences, and the geography of knowledge', Configurations (1998), 6, 269-304.
2. I use the spelling ' Zambesi ' when referring to the Expedition proper, following contemporary usage; otherwise I use the now more common 'Zambezi'. Lake Nyassa is today referred to as Lake Malawi, though I retain the former name for historical consistency. In all quotations I retain the authors' spelling.
3. Harris, op. cit. (1), 300.
4. J. Golinski, Making Natural Knowledge: Constructivism and the History of Science, Cambridge, 1998; S. Shapin, 'Placing the view from nowhere: historical and sociological problems in the location of science', Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers (1998), 23, 5-12; C. Smith and J. Agar (eds.), Making Space for Science: Territorial Themes in the Shaping of Knowledge, Basingstoke, 1998.
5. J. Golinski, Making Natural Knowledge: Constructivism and the History of Science, Cambridge, 1998; S. Shapin, 'Placing the view from nowhere: historical and sociological problems in the location of science', Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers (1998), 23, 5-12; C. Smith and J. Agar (eds.), Making Space for Science: Territorial Themes in the Shaping of Knowledge, Basingstoke, 1998.
6. J. Golinski, Making Natural Knowledge: Constructivism and the History of Science, Cambridge, 1998; S. Shapin, 'Placing the view from nowhere: historical and sociological problems in the location of science', Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers (1998), 23, 5-12; C. Smith and J. Agar (eds.), Making Space for Science: Territorial Themes in the Shaping of Knowledge, Basingstoke, 1998.
7. D. N. Livingstone, 'Making space for science', Erdkunde (2000), 54, 285-96; D. N. Livingstone, Science, Space, and Hermeneutics, Heidelberg, 2002.
8. D. N. Livingstone, 'Making space for science', Erdkunde (2000), 54, 285-96; D. N. Livingstone, Science, Space, and Hermeneutics, Heidelberg, 2002.
9. E. Spary, Utopia's Garden: French Natural History from Old Regime to Revolution, Chicago and London, 2000, 97.
10. Her chapter also discusses the importance of the Royal Navy as a means of maintaining those relationships. J. Camerini, 'Remains of the day: early Victorians in the field', in Victorian Science in Context (ed. B. Lightman), Chicago and London, 1997, 354-77.
11. The methods of fieldwork were prescribed in manuals designed for those who would already have some general knowledge of natural history: J. Herschel and R. Main (eds.), A Manual of Scientific Enquiry, 3rd edn, London, 1859; A. Adams, C. Barron and W. B. Baikie, A Manual of Natural History, for the Use of Travellers, London, 1854; R. Fitzroy and H. Raper, 'Subcommittee report: hints to travellers ',Journal of the Royal Geographical Society (1854). The Royal Geographical Society's role in advising travellers is discussed in F. Driver, Geography Militant: Cultures of Exploration and Empire, Oxford, 2001, 49-67.
12. The methods of fieldwork were prescribed in manuals designed for those who would already have some general knowledge of natural history: J. Herschel and R. Main (eds.), A Manual of Scientific Enquiry, 3rd edn, London, 1859; A. Adams, C. Barron and W. B. Baikie, A Manual of Natural History, for the Use of Travellers, London, 1854; R. Fitzroy and H. Raper, 'Subcommittee report: hints to travellers ',Journal of the Royal Geographical Society (1854). The Royal Geographical Society's role in advising travellers is discussed in F. Driver, Geography Militant: Cultures of Exploration and Empire, Oxford, 2001, 49-67.
13. The methods of fieldwork were prescribed in manuals designed for those who would already have some general knowledge of natural history: J. Herschel and R. Main (eds.), A Manual of Scientific Enquiry, 3rd edn, London, 1859; A. Adams, C. Barron and W. B. Baikie, A Manual of Natural History, for the Use of Travellers, London, 1854; R. Fitzroy and H. Raper, 'Subcommittee report: hints to travellers ',Journal of the Royal Geographical Society (1854). The Royal Geographical Society's role in advising travellers is discussed in F. Driver, Geography Militant: Cultures of Exploration and Empire, Oxford, 2001, 49-67.
14. The methods of fieldwork were prescribed in manuals designed for those who would already have some general knowledge of natural history: J. Herschel and R. Main (eds.), A Manual of Scientific Enquiry, 3rd edn, London, 1859; A. Adams, C. Barron and W. B. Baikie, A Manual of Natural History, for the Use of Travellers, London, 1854; R. Fitzroy and H. Raper, 'Subcommittee report: hints to travellers ',Journal of the Royal Geographical Society (1854). The Royal Geographical Society's role in advising travellers is discussed in F. Driver, Geography Militant: Cultures of Exploration and Empire, Oxford, 2001, 49-67.
15. B. Latour, 'Circulating reference; sampling the soil in the Amazon forest', in idem, Pandora's Hope: Essays on the Reality of Science Studies, Cambridge, MA, 1999, 24-79. See also, more generally, B. Latour, Science in Action, Cambridge, 1987.
16. B. Latour, 'Circulating reference; sampling the soil in the Amazon forest', in idem, Pandora's Hope: Essays on the Reality of Science Studies, Cambridge, MA, 1999, 24-79. See also, more generally, B. Latour, Science in Action, Cambridge, 1987.
17. Examples of work that deal specifically with the construction of natural history collections include S. Alberti, 'Placing nature: natural history collections and their owners in nineteenth-century provincial England', BJHS (2002), 35, 291-311; C. Stelzig and K. Adler, 'On the preconditions, circumstances, and consequences of collecting: Jan Czekanowski and the Duke of Mecklenburg's expedition to Central Africa, 1907-8', Journal of the History of Collections (2000), 12, 161-76; M. Rodrigues De Areia and M. Pereira Miranda, 'A philosophical journey to the Amazon, 1883-92: the story of the gathering and dispersal of a collection', Journal of the History of Collections (1995), 7, 59-71; S. Sheets-Pyenson, 'How to "grow" a natural history museum: the building of colonial collections, 1850-1900', Archives of Natural History (1988), 15, 121-47.
18. Examples of work that deal specifically with the construction of natural history collections include S. Alberti, 'Placing nature: natural history collections and their owners in nineteenth-century provincial England', BJHS (2002), 35, 291-311; C. Stelzig and K. Adler, 'On the preconditions, circumstances, and consequences of collecting: Jan Czekanowski and the Duke of Mecklenburg's expedition to Central Africa, 1907-8', Journal of the History of Collections (2000), 12, 161-76; M. Rodrigues De Areia and M. Pereira Miranda, 'A philosophical journey to the Amazon, 1883-92: the story of the gathering and dispersal of a collection', Journal of the History of Collections (1995), 7, 59-71; S. Sheets-Pyenson, 'How to "grow" a natural history museum: the building of colonial collections, 1850-1900', Archives of Natural History (1988), 15, 121-47.
19. Examples of work that deal specifically with the construction of natural history collections include S. Alberti, 'Placing nature: natural history collections and their owners in nineteenth-century provincial England', BJHS (2002), 35, 291-311; C. Stelzig and K. Adler, 'On the preconditions, circumstances, and consequences of collecting: Jan Czekanowski and the Duke of Mecklenburg's expedition to Central Africa, 1907-8', Journal of the History of Collections (2000), 12, 161-76; M. Rodrigues De Areia and M. Pereira Miranda, 'A philosophical journey to the Amazon, 1883-92: the story of the gathering and dispersal of a collection', Journal of the History of Collections (1995), 7, 59-71; S. Sheets-Pyenson, 'How to "grow" a natural history museum: the building of colonial collections, 1850-1900', Archives of Natural History (1988), 15, 121-47.
20. Examples of work that deal specifically with the construction of natural history collections include S. Alberti, 'Placing nature: natural history collections and their owners in nineteenth-century provincial England', BJHS (2002), 35, 291-311; C. Stelzig and K. Adler, 'On the preconditions, circumstances, and consequences of collecting: Jan Czekanowski and the Duke of Mecklenburg's expedition to Central Africa, 1907-8', Journal of the History of Collections (2000), 12, 161-76; M. Rodrigues De Areia and M. Pereira Miranda, 'A philosophical journey to the Amazon, 1883-92: the story of the gathering and dispersal of a collection', Journal of the History of Collections (1995), 7, 59-71; S. Sheets-Pyenson, 'How to "grow" a natural history museum: the building of colonial collections, 1850-1900', Archives of Natural History (1988), 15, 121-47.
21. S. L. Star and J. Griesemer, 'Institutional ecology, " transitions" and boundary objects: amateurs and professionals in Berkeley's Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, 1907-39 ', Social Studies of Science (1989), 19, 387-420.
22. D. Turnbull, 'Travelling knowledge: narratives, assemblage and encounters', in Instruments, Travel and Science: Itineraries of Precision from the Seventeenth to the Twentieth Century (ed. M.-N. Bourguet, C. Licoppe and H. O. Sibum), London and New York, 2002.
23. C. Withers, 'Reporting, mapping, trusting: making geographical knowledge in the late seventeenth century', Isis (1999), 90, 497-521; Shapin, op. cit. (4).
24. C. Withers, 'Reporting, mapping, trusting: making geographical knowledge in the late seventeenth century', Isis (1999), 90, 497-521; Shapin, op. cit. (4).
25. D. N. Livingstone, 'The spaces of knowledge: contributions towards a historical geography of science', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space (1995), 13, 5-34.
26. S. Shapin and S. Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air-Pump; Hobbes, Boyle and the Experimental Life, Princeton, 1985.
27. D. Livingstone, Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa, London, 1857.
28. G. Seaver, David Livingstone: His Life and Letters, London, 1957, 308.
29. Driver, op. cit. (8). P. Raby, Bright Paradise: Victorian Scientific Travellers, Princeton, 1996 discusses the links between free trade and civilization. D. G. Burnett, Masters of All They Surveyed: Exploration, Geography and a British El Dorado, Chicago and London, 2000 discusses the close relationships between science and colonial administration on expeditions to the interior of British Guiana in the early nineteenth century.
30. Driver, op. cit. (8). P. Raby, Bright Paradise: Victorian Scientific Travellers, Princeton, 1996 discusses the links between free trade and civilization. D. G. Burnett, Masters of All They Surveyed: Exploration, Geography and a British El Dorado, Chicago and London, 2000 discusses the close relationships between science and colonial administration on expeditions to the interior of British Guiana in the early nineteenth century.
31. Driver, op. cit. (8). P. Raby, Bright Paradise: Victorian Scientific Travellers, Princeton, 1996 discusses the links between free trade and civilization. D. G. Burnett, Masters of All They Surveyed: Exploration, Geography and a British El Dorado, Chicago and London, 2000 discusses the close relationships between science and colonial administration on expeditions to the interior of British Guiana in the early nineteenth century.
32. So called by Livingstone in his letters of instruction to the members of the expedition. See appendices for J. P. R. Wallis (ed.), The Zambezi Expedition of David Livingstone, 1858-1863, 2 vols., London, 1956.
33. John Washington (1800-63) was promoted to rear admiral in 1862. His papers relating to this expedition reveal in great detail the bureaucracy of managing the 'home' side of a government expedition; Royal Naval Museum Library, Portsmouth (hereafter RNML) (MSS 120).
34. Kew's position at the centre of a worldwide network of gardens and collectors during the mid-nineteenth century is detailed in R. Drayton, Nature's Government: Science, Imperial Britain, and the 'Improvement' of the World, New Haven and London, 2000; and D. P. McCracken, Gardens of Empire: Botanical Institutions of the Victorian British Empire, London and Washington, 1997.
35. Kew's position at the centre of a worldwide network of gardens and collectors during the mid-nineteenth century is detailed in R. Drayton, Nature's Government: Science, Imperial Britain, and the 'Improvement' of the World, New Haven and London, 2000; and D. P. McCracken, Gardens of Empire: Botanical Institutions of the Victorian British Empire, London and Washington, 1997.
36. For Livingstone's letter of instruction see Foreign Office to David Livingstone, 25 February 1858, Appendices, RNML (MSS 120). Instructions for the other members are published in Wallis, op. cit. (19).
37. The expedition's first paddle steamer, Ma Robert, spectacularly failed to live up to expectations, due largely to Livingstone's exaggerations of the navigability of the Zambezi River complicated by use by the builder, Macgregor Laird, of a novel but rust-prone type of steel hull in its construction. See J. G. Parr, 'The sinking of the Ma Robert: an excursion into mid-nineteenth-century steelmaking', Technology & Culture (1972), 13, 209-25.
38. For the history of the region, see S. L. Ishemo, The Lower Zambezi Basin in Mozambique: A Study in Economy and Society, 1850-1920, Aldershot, 1995; and M. D. D. Newitt, Portuguese Settlement on the Zambesi: Exploration, Land Tenure and Colonial Rule in East Africa, Harlow, 1973.
39. For the history of the region, see S. L. Ishemo, The Lower Zambezi Basin in Mozambique: A Study in Economy and Society, 1850-1920, Aldershot, 1995; and M. D. D. Newitt, Portuguese Settlement on the Zambesi: Exploration, Land Tenure and Colonial Rule in East Africa, Harlow, 1973.
40. Camerini, op. cit. (7), 373.
41. This plate appears in I. Lea, 'New Unionidae, Melanidae, etc., chiefly of the United States', Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia (1866), NS, 6, Plate 12.
42. Malacology includes both the soft and hard parts of molluscs while conchology is only concerned with the shells. Recent discussion of the history of the discipline includes S. P. Dance, A History of Shell Collecting, Leiden, 1986. On aspects of the decorative in malacology and its tension with objectivity, see E. Spary, 'Scientific symmetries', History of Science (2004), 42, 1-46.
43. Malacology includes both the soft and hard parts of molluscs while conchology is only concerned with the shells. Recent discussion of the history of the discipline includes S. P. Dance, A History of Shell Collecting, Leiden, 1986. On aspects of the decorative in malacology and its tension with objectivity, see E. Spary, 'Scientific symmetries', History of Science (2004), 42, 1-46.
44. J. E. Morton, Molluscs, 5th edn, London, 1979, 209.
45. Thanks are due to Dr Christiane Groeben, archivist at the Stazione Zoologica 'Anton Dohrn' in Naples, Italy (founded by Anton in 1874), for her assistance over this 'forgotten' naturalist of the Dohrn family. C. Groeben (ed.), Correspondence: Karl Ernst Von Baer, Anton Dohrn, Philadelphia, 1993, 32.
46. The importance of Heinrich's collections is discussed in Dance, op. cit. (27), 158. Peters published his Zambezi specimens as a series of volumes: W. C. H. Peters, Naturwissenschaftliche Reise nach Mossambique, 5 vols., Berlin, 1852-82. For further information on Peters see A. Bauer, R. Günther and M. Klipfei, The Herpetological Contributions of Wilhelm C. H. Peters, Ithaca, 1995.
47. The importance of Heinrich's collections is discussed in Dance, op. cit. (27), 158. Peters published his Zambezi specimens as a series of volumes: W. C. H. Peters, Naturwissenschaftliche Reise nach Mossambique, 5 vols., Berlin, 1852-82. For further information on Peters see A. Bauer, R. Günther and M. Klipfei, The Herpetological Contributions of Wilhelm C. H. Peters, Ithaca, 1995.
48. The importance of Heinrich's collections is discussed in Dance, op. cit. (27), 158. Peters published his Zambezi specimens as a series of volumes: W. C. H. Peters, Naturwissenschaftliche Reise nach Mossambique, 5 vols., Berlin, 1852-82. For further information on Peters see A. Bauer, R. Günther and M. Klipfei, The Herpetological Contributions of Wilhelm C. H. Peters, Ithaca, 1995.
49. H. Dohrn, 'List of the land and freshwater shells from the Zambezi and Lake Nyassa, Eastern Tropical Africa, collected by John Kirk, M.D', Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (1865), 231.
50. Dohrn, op. cit. (31), 234.
51. My discussion of Lea's life is based upon the introductory biography in The Published Writings of Isaac Lea (ed. N. P. Scudder), United States National Museum Bulletin (1885), 23; and A. E. Bogan and C. M. Bogan, 'The development and evolution of Isaac Lea's publications on the Unionida', in Collectanea Malacologica: Festschrift für Gerhard Falkner (ed. M. Falkner, K. Groh and M. C. D. Speight), Hackenheim, 2002, 363-75. Copies of his journals are found in the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia (hereafter ANSP) (Coll. 452: correspondence and papers of Isaac Lea) and the American Philosophical Society (hereafter APS) (L462: Lea, Isaac, Notes of Travel, European Journal 1852-53). More of Lea's papers are found in the Smithsonian Institution Archives, Washington, DC (Record Unit 7065: Isaac Lea Papers). See also DSB.
52. My discussion of Lea's life is based upon the introductory biography in The Published Writings of Isaac Lea (ed. N. P. Scudder), United States National Museum Bulletin (1885), 23; and A. E. Bogan and C. M. Bogan, 'The development and evolution of Isaac Lea's publications on the Unionida', in Collectanea Malacologica: Festschrift für Gerhard Falkner (ed. M. Falkner, K. Groh and M. C. D. Speight), Hackenheim, 2002, 363-75. Copies of his journals are found in the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia (hereafter ANSP) (Coll. 452: correspondence and papers of Isaac Lea) and the American Philosophical Society (hereafter APS) (L462: Lea, Isaac, Notes of Travel, European Journal 1852-53). More of Lea's papers are found in the Smithsonian Institution Archives, Washington, DC (Record Unit 7065: Isaac Lea Papers). See also DSB.
53. Lea served as the Academy's president from 1853 to 1858. His first article appeared in the 1817 volume of its Journal under the title ' An account of the minerals known to exist in the vicinity of Philadelphia '. Lea's early fieldwork occurred very close to home, in the style of many eighteenth-century European collectors. See A. Cooper, 'From the Alps to Egypt (and back again): Dolomieu, scientific voyaging, and the construction of the field in eighteenth-century natural history', in Smith and Agar, op. cit. (4), 39-63.
54. Lea served as the Academy's president from 1853 to 1858. His first article appeared in the 1817 volume of its Journal under the title ' An account of the minerals known to exist in the vicinity of Philadelphia '. Lea's early fieldwork occurred very close to home, in the style of many eighteenth-century European collectors. See A. Cooper, 'From the Alps to Egypt (and back again): Dolomieu, scientific voyaging, and the construction of the field in eighteenth-century natural history', in Smith and Agar, op. cit. (4), 39-63.
55. D S B.
56. Lea published almost exclusively in these publications; see his complete bibliography in Published Writings, op. cit. (33).
57. On this point, see D. Outram, 'On being Perseus: new knowledge, dislocation, and enlightenment exploration', in Geography and Enlightenment (ed. D. N. Livingstone and C. Withers), Chicago and London, 1999, 281-94.
58. Children (1777-1852) worked at the Zoological Department from 1823 to 1840. Gray (1800-75) worked with Children from 1824 and succeeded him as keeper until retiring in 1863.
59. It appears strange that Lea was unaware of his paper being read and equally strange that the Royal Society did not know of the author's presence. It is possible that his arrival was truly unannounced. Certainly it is likely that Lea had little direct knowledge of London's scientific society, if we may judge by the almost daily mentions of introductions to members of that community in Lea's journals.
60. Murchison (1792-1871) was currently serving as the society's president.
61. 'At the request of Mr. [John Edward] Gray I named all the Unionidae, some of which had erroneous names', Isaac Lea, diary entry, 21 May 1832, ANSP (Coll:452).
62. Presenting specimens as a socially bonding act is described in Cooper, op. cit. (34), 46.
63. Published Writings, op. cit. (33), 29.
64. Lea, diary entry, 27 October 1853, APS (L462). Carpenter (1813-85) was the Fullerian Professor of Physiology at the Royal Institution and Professor of Forensic Medicine at University College.
65. Two biographical treatments of Kirk exist: R. Coupland, Kirk on the Zambesi: A Chapter of African History, Oxford, 1928; and D. Liebowitz, The Physician and the Slave Trade: John Kirk, the Livingstone Expeditions, and the Crusade against Slavery in East Africa, New York, 1999.
66. Two biographical treatments of Kirk exist: R. Coupland, Kirk on the Zambesi: A Chapter of African History, Oxford, 1928; and D. Liebowitz, The Physician and the Slave Trade: John Kirk, the Livingstone Expeditions, and the Crusade against Slavery in East Africa, New York, 1999.
67. Balfour (1808-84) graduated in medicine from Edinburgh in 1831 and was dean of its Medical Faculty from 1849 to 1879. DSB.
68. Coupland, op. cit. (45), 57.
69. Coupland, op. cit. (45), 62.
70. 23 November 1857, National Library of Scotland (hereafter NLS) (ACC 9942/49).
71. Livingstone had wanted Joseph Hooker to serve in this position. The younger Hooker opted to stay home due to family concerns and his increased responsibilities at Kew. His refusal to join the expedition bothered Livingstone for some years. See D. Livingstone to J. Hooker, 26 October 1857, 28 December 1857 and 9 December 1861, NLS (MS 10779/10a).
72. On this point more generally, see M. Rudwick, ' Geological travel and theoretical innovation: the role of "liminal" experience', Social Studies of Science (1996), 26, 143-59.
73. Being appropriately known to the audience community was critical for holding credibility when reporting on distant nature. See C. Withers, 'Travel and trust in the eighteenth century', in L'Invitation au voyage (ed. J. Renwick), Oxford, 2000, 47-54; and, more generally, S. Shapin, A Social History of Truth, Chicago and London, 1994.
74. Being appropriately known to the audience community was critical for holding credibility when reporting on distant nature. See C. Withers, 'Travel and trust in the eighteenth century', in L'Invitation au voyage (ed. J. Renwick), Oxford, 2000, 47-54; and, more generally, S. Shapin, A Social History of Truth, Chicago and London, 1994.
75. Kirk's journals are published in R. Foskett (ed.), The Zambesi Journal and Letters of Dr. John Kirk, 2858-63, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1965. Most of the originals are now held as NLS (ACC 9942/21-24).
76. D. Livingstone and C. Livingstone, Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi and Its Tributaries and of the Discovery of the Lakes Shirwa and Nyassa, 1858-1864, London, 1865, 274.
77. Foskett, op. cit. (53), passim.
78. John Kirk to William Hooker, 6 December 1861, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew Library (hereafter RGBK) (Zambezi Expedition Book, 18-23).
79. John Kirk to William Hooker, 19 December 1861, RBGK (Director's Correspondence v.42/163).
80. A letter to Joseph Hooker the previous day (18 December 1861) indicates this. RBGK (Director's Correspondence v.42/162).
81. Kirk to W. Hooker, op. cit. (56).
82. John Kirk to Joseph Hooker, 9 January 1861, RBGK (Director's Correspondence v.42/167).
83. Natural History Museum of London (hereafter NHML) (Owen Correspondence, 62.16/437-40).
84. Sponsored by the Royal Geographical Society, Burton and Speke travelled from Zanzibar to Lake Tanganyika from 1857 to 1859 and made preliminary observations of the southern shores of Lake Victoria. Kirk may have seen S. Woodward, 'On some new freshwater shells from Central Africa', Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (1859), 348; and R. F. Burton, 'The lake regions of central Africa', Journal of the Royal Geographical Society (1859), 29, 1-454.
85. Sponsored by the Royal Geographical Society, Burton and Speke travelled from Zanzibar to Lake Tanganyika from 1857 to 1859 and made preliminary observations of the southern shores of Lake Victoria. Kirk may have seen S. Woodward, 'On some new freshwater shells from Central Africa', Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (1859), 348; and R. F. Burton, 'The lake regions of central Africa', Journal of the Royal Geographical Society (1859), 29, 1-454.
86. J. H. Speke, Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile, Mineola, New York, 1996 (1st edn: Edinburgh, 1863), 197-309.
87. Letters from the Admiralty to William Hooker, RGBK (Zambezi Expedition Book, 32-5).
88. The entry book listing for the day reads, 'one small tin box of shells'. RBGK (Economic Botany Collections, Museum Entry Book, 102.1862).
89. Kirk to W. Hooker, op. cit. (56).
90. 6 January 1862, published in W. Clendennen Gary, 'David Livingstone on the Zambezi: letters to John Washington, 1861-1863', Munger Africana Library Notes (1976), 32, 1-89.
91. P. B. du Chaillu, Explorations & Adventures in Equatorial Africa, London, 1861.
92. S. McCook, '"It may be truth, but it is not evidence": Paul du Chaillu and the legitimization of evidence in field science', Osiris (1996), 11, 177-99.
93. Exposure to danger in the field could lend the collector more authority in the metropolis. See B. Hevly, 'The heroic science of glacial motion", Osiris (1996), 11, 66-86.
94. NHML (Zoological Donations Record, 1848-73. DF216.28).
95. I. Lea, 'Descriptions of six new species of Unionidae from Lake Nyassa, Central Africa, &C.' Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia (1864), 16, 108-9. Lea errs here as he recorded in his diary previously seeing Zambezian Unio specimens when he was Berlin in 1853. See the discussion of Lea's European tour of 1852 and 1853, above.
96. Dohrn, op. cit. (31).
97. Dohrn, op. cit. (31), 234.
98. L. López-Ocón and S. Badïa, 'Overcoming obstacles: the triple mobilization of the Comisión Científica Del Pacífico', Science in Context (2003), 16, 504-34.
99. I highlight the possibility for other geographies due to the multifaceted nature of expeditions; not, in this case, due to what D. N. Livingstone has styled a 'postmodern inclination to expunge the definite article'. M. Hoyler, T. Freytag and H. Jöns, 'Geographical traditions, science studies and biography: a conversation with David N. Livingstone ', in David N. Livingstone, Science, Space and Hermeneutics, Heidelberg, 2002, 77.
100. I highlight the possibility for other geographies due to the multifaceted nature of expeditions; not, in this case, due to what D. N. Livingstone has styled a 'postmodern inclination to expunge the definite article'. M. Hoyler, T. Freytag and H. Jöns, 'Geographical traditions, science studies and biography: a conversation with David N. Livingstone ', in David N. Livingstone, Science, Space and Hermeneutics, Heidelberg, 2002, 77.
101. Steven Shapin has called for a more robust geographical perspective in the history of science in which travel is key. See Shapin, op. cit. (4).
102. Latour, Science in Action, op. cit. (9), 233.
103. The expert could very likely be located at the museum, or perform the work there. In this case, the 'sending on' was an operation internal to the institution, yet the type of decision made about the fate of specimens remained the same.
104. Thanks are due to Dr Colin MacArthy, Collections Manager for Reptiles, Amphibians and Fishes at the Natural History Museum, London. Our discussion of the accessions registers and his assistance in locating examples of Kirk's specimens was invaluable.
105. Dohrn, op. cit. (31).
106. For examples of this, see G. Bentham, 'On African Anonaceae', Transactions of the Linnean Society (1862), 23, 463-80; J. E. Gray, 'Notes on some new lizards from South-Eastern Africa, with the description of several new species', Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (1864), 58-62; idem, 'On Urocyclus, a new genus of terrestrial Gasteropodus Mollusca from Africa ', Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (1864), 250; idem, 'Notice of a new species of Galago from Quillimane (Otogale Crassicaudata Var. Kirkii)', Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (1864), 456-8; J. R. Jackson, 'Notes on some African vegetable products', The Technologist: A Monthly Record of Science Applied to Art, Manufacture, and Culture (1864), 4, 471-7.
107. For examples of this, see G. Bentham, 'On African Anonaceae', Transactions of the Linnean Society (1862), 23, 463-80; J. E. Gray, 'Notes on some new lizards from South-Eastern Africa, with the description of several new species', Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (1864), 58-62; idem, 'On Urocyclus, a new genus of terrestrial Gasteropodus Mollusca from Africa ', Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (1864), 250; idem, 'Notice of a new species of Galago from Quillimane (Otogale Crassicaudata Var. Kirkii)', Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (1864), 456-8; J. R. Jackson, 'Notes on some African vegetable products', The Technologist: A Monthly Record of Science Applied to Art, Manufacture, and Culture (1864), 4, 471-7.
108. For examples of this, see G. Bentham, 'On African Anonaceae', Transactions of the Linnean Society (1862), 23, 463-80; J. E. Gray, 'Notes on some new lizards from South-Eastern Africa, with the description of several new species', Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (1864), 58-62; idem, 'On Urocyclus, a new genus of terrestrial Gasteropodus Mollusca from Africa ', Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (1864), 250; idem, 'Notice of a new species of Galago from Quillimane (Otogale Crassicaudata Var. Kirkii)', Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (1864), 456-8; J. R. Jackson, 'Notes on some African vegetable products', The Technologist: A Monthly Record of Science Applied to Art, Manufacture, and Culture (1864), 4, 471-7.
109. For examples of this, see G. Bentham, 'On African Anonaceae', Transactions of the Linnean Society (1862), 23, 463-80; J. E. Gray, 'Notes on some new lizards from South-Eastern Africa, with the description of several new species', Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (1864), 58-62; idem, 'On Urocyclus, a new genus of terrestrial Gasteropodus Mollusca from Africa ', Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (1864), 250; idem, 'Notice of a new species of Galago from Quillimane (Otogale Crassicaudata Var. Kirkii)', Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (1864), 456-8; J. R. Jackson, 'Notes on some African vegetable products', The Technologist: A Monthly Record of Science Applied to Art, Manufacture, and Culture (1864), 4, 471-7.
110. For examples of this, see G. Bentham, 'On African Anonaceae', Transactions of the Linnean Society (1862), 23, 463-80; J. E. Gray, 'Notes on some new lizards from South-Eastern Africa, with the description of several new species', Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (1864), 58-62; idem, 'On Urocyclus, a new genus of terrestrial Gasteropodus Mollusca from Africa ', Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (1864), 250; idem, 'Notice of a new species of Galago from Quillimane (Otogale Crassicaudata Var. Kirkii)', Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (1864), 456-8; J. R. Jackson, 'Notes on some African vegetable products', The Technologist: A Monthly Record of Science Applied to Art, Manufacture, and Culture (1864), 4, 471-7.
111. For examples of this, see G. Bentham, 'On African Anonaceae', Transactions of the Linnean Society (1862), 23, 463-80; J. E. Gray, 'Notes on some new lizards from South-Eastern Africa, with the description of several new species', Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (1864), 58-62; idem, 'On Urocyclus, a new genus of terrestrial Gasteropodus Mollusca from Africa ', Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (1864), 250; idem, 'Notice of a new species of Galago from Quillimane (Otogale Crassicaudata Var. Kirkii)', Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (1864), 456-8; J. R. Jackson, 'Notes on some African vegetable products', The Technologist: A Monthly Record of Science Applied to Art, Manufacture, and Culture (1864), 4, 471-7.
112. Lea, op. cit. (72).
113. Harris, op. cit. (1), 294.
114. Livingstone, op. cit. (14), 27.