Contesting Democracy: HIV/AIDS and the Achievement of Gender Equality in South Africa

Feminist Studies

Volumn 29, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 595-615+676

  Albertyn, Catherine ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND   (South Africa)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 1542713332     PISSN: 00463663     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (91)

1. President Nelson Mandela's first State of the Nation Address to Parliament, 24 May 1994. http://www.org.za/ancdocs/history/mandela/1994/sp94052.html.
2. Catherine Albertyn et al., "Engendering the Political Agenda in South Africa" in Engendering the Political Agenda: The Role of the State, Women's Organisations, and the International Community (Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic: UN International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women, 2000), 170. See also Catherine Albertyn, ed., Engendering the Political Agenda: A South African Case Study (Johannesburg: Center for Applied Legal Studies, 1999), 15.
3. Catherine Albertyn et al., "Engendering the Political Agenda in South Africa" in Engendering the Political Agenda: The Role of the State, Women's Organisations, and the International Community (Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic: UN International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women, 2000), 170. See also Catherine Albertyn, ed., Engendering the Political Agenda: A South African Case Study (Johannesburg: Center for Applied Legal Studies, 1999), 15.
4. The particular kind of racial terminology used to describe different groups of women has its origins in apartheid racial classifications. However, such terminology is still current today and continues to have a bearing on women's differential access to resources in South Africa. Thus "African" women refers to women who were previously described under apartheid as coming from "Bantu-speaking groups"; "colored" women are of mixed racial descent, "Indian" women can trace their roots back to countries in southern Asia such as India or Pakistan, and white women are of predominantly European descent. Of course these labels are also contested, with women from all groups laying claim to an "African" label, regardless of racial descent. "Black" is a more general term referring to black, colored and Indian women.
5. These figures are based on annual national surveys of pregnant women at public prenatal clinics by the Department of Health. In 2000, 24.5 percent of women attending public health clinics were infected with HIV and 4.7 million (2.5 million women and 2.2 million men) South Africans were estimated to be infected by the end of 2000. Between 1999 and 2000, HIV prevalence increased significantly among women in their twenties (about 30 percent, up from about 26 percent in 1998 and 1999). It remained stable among girls younger than twenty (at 16 percent, down from 21 percent in 1998). See the Department of Health's "National HIV and Syphilis Sero-Prevalence Survey of Women Attending Public Health Clinics." http://www.doh.gov.za/docs/reports-f.html.
6. There is strong evidence for all these factors. The primary users of public health prenatal clinics where HIV testing forms the basis of HIV statistics in South Africa are poor black women. Hence, the official, high prevalence rates are most accurate in relation to this group-and likely to be lower in other groups. The strong correlation between HIV infection, race, and gender is discussed in Liz Walker and Leah Gilbert, "HIV/AIDS: South African Women at Risk," African Journal of AIDS Research 1, no. 1 (2002): 75-85. For a discussion of the particular vulnerabilities of married women and widows, see Mary T. Bassett and Marvellous Mhloyi, "Women and AIDS in Zimbabwe: The Making of an Epidemic," International Journal of Health Services 21, no. 1 (1991): 143-56; Quarraisha Abdul Karim, "Women and AIDS: The Imperative for a Gendered Prognosis and Prevention Policy," Agenda, no. 39 (1998): 19. Also see http://www.widowsrights.org/lawfile/aids.html. In South Africa, HIV prevalence is higher than the national average in three rural provinces: Kwazulu-Natal (36.2 percent), Mpumalanga (29.7 percent), Free State (27.9 percent), and just below the national average in a fourth, North-West (22.9 percent). These constitute four of the top five, with Gauteng, a densely settled urban province, having a prevalence of 29.4 percent. See "National HIV and Syphilis Sero-Prevalence Survey." For a discussion of HIV/AIDS among women sex workers and those in the mobile professions, see Abdul Karim, 19-20. See also, Catherine Campbell, Letting Them Die (Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2003), 63-82. Available figures suggest that 12 percent of educators are infected (no gender breakdown). However, infection rates among teachers in other parts of Africa have reached 40 percent. See Carole Coombes, Managing the Impact of HIV/AIDS on the Education Sector (Pretoria: UNECA, 2000), 15. For a discussion of HIV/AIDS among migrant women, see Denise Gilgen et al., "The National History of HIV/AIDS in a Major Goldmining Centre in South Africa: Results of a Biomedical and Social Survey," South African Journal of Science 97 (September/October 2001): 387-92.
7. There is strong evidence for all these factors. The primary users of public health prenatal clinics where HIV testing forms the basis of HIV statistics in South Africa are poor black women. Hence, the official, high prevalence rates are most accurate in relation to this group-and likely to be lower in other groups. The strong correlation between HIV infection, race, and gender is discussed in Liz Walker and Leah Gilbert, "HIV/AIDS: South African Women at Risk," African Journal of AIDS Research 1, no. 1 (2002): 75-85. For a discussion of the particular vulnerabilities of married women and widows, see Mary T. Bassett and Marvellous Mhloyi, "Women and AIDS in Zimbabwe: The Making of an Epidemic," International Journal of Health Services 21, no. 1 (1991): 143-56; Quarraisha Abdul Karim, "Women and AIDS: The Imperative for a Gendered Prognosis and Prevention Policy," Agenda, no. 39 (1998): 19. Also see http://www.widowsrights.org/lawfile/aids.html. In South Africa, HIV prevalence is higher than the national average in three rural provinces: Kwazulu-Natal (36.2 percent), Mpumalanga (29.7 percent), Free State (27.9 percent), and just below the national average in a fourth, North-West (22.9 percent). These constitute four of the top five, with Gauteng, a densely settled urban province, having a prevalence of 29.4 percent. See "National HIV and Syphilis Sero-Prevalence Survey." For a discussion of HIV/AIDS among women sex workers and those in the mobile professions, see Abdul Karim, 19-20. See also, Catherine Campbell, Letting Them Die (Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2003), 63-82. Available figures suggest that 12 percent of educators are infected (no gender breakdown). However, infection rates among teachers in other parts of Africa have reached 40 percent. See Carole Coombes, Managing the Impact of HIV/AIDS on the Education Sector (Pretoria: UNECA, 2000), 15. For a discussion of HIV/AIDS among migrant women, see Denise Gilgen et al., "The National History of HIV/AIDS in a Major Goldmining Centre in South Africa: Results of a Biomedical and Social Survey," South African Journal of Science 97 (September/October 2001): 387-92.
8. There is strong evidence for all these factors. The primary users of public health prenatal clinics where HIV testing forms the basis of HIV statistics in South Africa are poor black women. Hence, the official, high prevalence rates are most accurate in relation to this group-and likely to be lower in other groups. The strong correlation between HIV infection, race, and gender is discussed in Liz Walker and Leah Gilbert, "HIV/AIDS: South African Women at Risk," African Journal of AIDS Research 1, no. 1 (2002): 75-85. For a discussion of the particular vulnerabilities of married women and widows, see Mary T. Bassett and Marvellous Mhloyi, "Women and AIDS in Zimbabwe: The Making of an Epidemic," International Journal of Health Services 21, no. 1 (1991): 143-56; Quarraisha Abdul Karim, "Women and AIDS: The Imperative for a Gendered Prognosis and Prevention Policy," Agenda, no. 39 (1998): 19. Also see http://www.widowsrights.org/lawfile/aids.html. In South Africa, HIV prevalence is higher than the national average in three rural provinces: Kwazulu-Natal (36.2 percent), Mpumalanga (29.7 percent), Free State (27.9 percent), and just below the national average in a fourth, North-West (22.9 percent). These constitute four of the top five, with Gauteng, a densely settled urban province, having a prevalence of 29.4 percent. See "National HIV and Syphilis Sero-Prevalence Survey." For a discussion of HIV/AIDS among women sex workers and those in the mobile professions, see Abdul Karim, 19-20. See also, Catherine Campbell, Letting Them Die (Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2003), 63-82. Available figures suggest that 12 percent of educators are infected (no gender breakdown). However, infection rates among teachers in other parts of Africa have reached 40 percent. See Carole Coombes, Managing the Impact of HIV/AIDS on the Education Sector (Pretoria: UNECA, 2000), 15. For a discussion of HIV/AIDS among migrant women, see Denise Gilgen et al., "The National History of HIV/AIDS in a Major Goldmining Centre in South Africa: Results of a Biomedical and Social Survey," South African Journal of Science 97 (September/October 2001): 387-92.
9. There is strong evidence for all these factors. The primary users of public health prenatal clinics where HIV testing forms the basis of HIV statistics in South Africa are poor black women. Hence, the official, high prevalence rates are most accurate in relation to this group-and likely to be lower in other groups. The strong correlation between HIV infection, race, and gender is discussed in Liz Walker and Leah Gilbert, "HIV/AIDS: South African Women at Risk," African Journal of AIDS Research 1, no. 1 (2002): 75-85. For a discussion of the particular vulnerabilities of married women and widows, see Mary T. Bassett and Marvellous Mhloyi, "Women and AIDS in Zimbabwe: The Making of an Epidemic," International Journal of Health Services 21, no. 1 (1991): 143-56; Quarraisha Abdul Karim, "Women and AIDS: The Imperative for a Gendered Prognosis and Prevention Policy," Agenda, no. 39 (1998): 19. Also see http://www.widowsrights.org/lawfile/aids.html. In South Africa, HIV prevalence is higher than the national average in three rural provinces: Kwazulu-Natal (36.2 percent), Mpumalanga (29.7 percent), Free State (27.9 percent), and just below the national average in a fourth, North-West (22.9 percent). These constitute four of the top five, with Gauteng, a densely settled urban province, having a prevalence of 29.4 percent. See "National HIV and Syphilis Sero-Prevalence Survey." For a discussion of HIV/AIDS among women sex workers and those in the mobile professions, see Abdul Karim, 19-20. See also, Catherine Campbell, Letting Them Die (Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2003), 63-82. Available figures suggest that 12 percent of educators are infected (no gender breakdown). However, infection rates among teachers in other parts of Africa have reached 40 percent. See Carole Coombes, Managing the Impact of HIV/AIDS on the Education Sector (Pretoria: UNECA, 2000), 15. For a discussion of HIV/AIDS among migrant women, see Denise Gilgen et al., "The National History of HIV/AIDS in a Major Goldmining Centre in South Africa: Results of a Biomedical and Social Survey," South African Journal of Science 97 (September/October 2001): 387-92.
10. There is strong evidence for all these factors. The primary users of public health prenatal clinics where HIV testing forms the basis of HIV statistics in South Africa are poor black women. Hence, the official, high prevalence rates are most accurate in relation to this group-and likely to be lower in other groups. The strong correlation between HIV infection, race, and gender is discussed in Liz Walker and Leah Gilbert, "HIV/AIDS: South African Women at Risk," African Journal of AIDS Research 1, no. 1 (2002): 75-85. For a discussion of the particular vulnerabilities of married women and widows, see Mary T. Bassett and Marvellous Mhloyi, "Women and AIDS in Zimbabwe: The Making of an Epidemic," International Journal of Health Services 21, no. 1 (1991): 143-56; Quarraisha Abdul Karim, "Women and AIDS: The Imperative for a Gendered Prognosis and Prevention Policy," Agenda, no. 39 (1998): 19. Also see http://www.widowsrights.org/lawfile/aids.html. In South Africa, HIV prevalence is higher than the national average in three rural provinces: Kwazulu-Natal (36.2 percent), Mpumalanga (29.7 percent), Free State (27.9 percent), and just below the national average in a fourth, North-West (22.9 percent). These constitute four of the top five, with Gauteng, a densely settled urban province, having a prevalence of 29.4 percent. See "National HIV and Syphilis Sero-Prevalence Survey." For a discussion of HIV/AIDS among women sex workers and those in the mobile professions, see Abdul Karim, 19-20. See also, Catherine Campbell, Letting Them Die (Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2003), 63-82. Available figures suggest that 12 percent of educators are infected (no gender breakdown). However, infection rates among teachers in other parts of Africa have reached 40 percent. See Carole Coombes, Managing the Impact of HIV/AIDS on the Education Sector (Pretoria: UNECA, 2000), 15. For a discussion of HIV/AIDS among migrant women, see Denise Gilgen et al., "The National History of HIV/AIDS in a Major Goldmining Centre in South Africa: Results of a Biomedical and Social Survey," South African Journal of Science 97 (September/October 2001): 387-92.
11. There is strong evidence for all these factors. The primary users of public health prenatal clinics where HIV testing forms the basis of HIV statistics in South Africa are poor black women. Hence, the official, high prevalence rates are most accurate in relation to this group-and likely to be lower in other groups. The strong correlation between HIV infection, race, and gender is discussed in Liz Walker and Leah Gilbert, "HIV/AIDS: South African Women at Risk," African Journal of AIDS Research 1, no. 1 (2002): 75-85. For a discussion of the particular vulnerabilities of married women and widows, see Mary T. Bassett and Marvellous Mhloyi, "Women and AIDS in Zimbabwe: The Making of an Epidemic," International Journal of Health Services 21, no. 1 (1991): 143-56; Quarraisha Abdul Karim, "Women and AIDS: The Imperative for a Gendered Prognosis and Prevention Policy," Agenda, no. 39 (1998): 19. Also see http://www.widowsrights.org/lawfile/aids.html. In South Africa, HIV prevalence is higher than the national average in three rural provinces: Kwazulu-Natal (36.2 percent), Mpumalanga (29.7 percent), Free State (27.9 percent), and just below the national average in a fourth, North-West (22.9 percent). These constitute four of the top five, with Gauteng, a densely settled urban province, having a prevalence of 29.4 percent. See "National HIV and Syphilis Sero-Prevalence Survey." For a discussion of HIV/AIDS among women sex workers and those in the mobile professions, see Abdul Karim, 19-20. See also, Catherine Campbell, Letting Them Die (Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2003), 63-82. Available figures suggest that 12 percent of educators are infected (no gender breakdown). However, infection rates among teachers in other parts of Africa have reached 40 percent. See Carole Coombes, Managing the Impact of HIV/AIDS on the Education Sector (Pretoria: UNECA, 2000), 15. For a discussion of HIV/AIDS among migrant women, see Denise Gilgen et al., "The National History of HIV/AIDS in a Major Goldmining Centre in South Africa: Results of a Biomedical and Social Survey," South African Journal of Science 97 (September/October 2001): 387-92.
12. There is strong evidence for all these factors. The primary users of public health prenatal clinics where HIV testing forms the basis of HIV statistics in South Africa are poor black women. Hence, the official, high prevalence rates are most accurate in relation to this group-and likely to be lower in other groups. The strong correlation between HIV infection, race, and gender is discussed in Liz Walker and Leah Gilbert, "HIV/AIDS: South African Women at Risk," African Journal of AIDS Research 1, no. 1 (2002): 75-85. For a discussion of the particular vulnerabilities of married women and widows, see Mary T. Bassett and Marvellous Mhloyi, "Women and AIDS in Zimbabwe: The Making of an Epidemic," International Journal of Health Services 21, no. 1 (1991): 143-56; Quarraisha Abdul Karim, "Women and AIDS: The Imperative for a Gendered Prognosis and Prevention Policy," Agenda, no. 39 (1998): 19. Also see http://www.widowsrights.org/lawfile/aids.html. In South Africa, HIV prevalence is higher than the national average in three rural provinces: Kwazulu-Natal (36.2 percent), Mpumalanga (29.7 percent), Free State (27.9 percent), and just below the national average in a fourth, North-West (22.9 percent). These constitute four of the top five, with Gauteng, a densely settled urban province, having a prevalence of 29.4 percent. See "National HIV and Syphilis Sero-Prevalence Survey." For a discussion of HIV/AIDS among women sex workers and those in the mobile professions, see Abdul Karim, 19-20. See also, Catherine Campbell, Letting Them Die (Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2003), 63-82. Available figures suggest that 12 percent of educators are infected (no gender breakdown). However, infection rates among teachers in other parts of Africa have reached 40 percent. See Carole Coombes, Managing the Impact of HIV/AIDS on the Education Sector (Pretoria: UNECA, 2000), 15. For a discussion of HIV/AIDS among migrant women, see Denise Gilgen et al., "The National History of HIV/AIDS in a Major Goldmining Centre in South Africa: Results of a Biomedical and Social Survey," South African Journal of Science 97 (September/October 2001): 387-92.
13. There is strong evidence for all these factors. The primary users of public health prenatal clinics where HIV testing forms the basis of HIV statistics in South Africa are poor black women. Hence, the official, high prevalence rates are most accurate in relation to this group-and likely to be lower in other groups. The strong correlation between HIV infection, race, and gender is discussed in Liz Walker and Leah Gilbert, "HIV/AIDS: South African Women at Risk," African Journal of AIDS Research 1, no. 1 (2002): 75-85. For a discussion of the particular vulnerabilities of married women and widows, see Mary T. Bassett and Marvellous Mhloyi, "Women and AIDS in Zimbabwe: The Making of an Epidemic," International Journal of Health Services 21, no. 1 (1991): 143-56; Quarraisha Abdul Karim, "Women and AIDS: The Imperative for a Gendered Prognosis and Prevention Policy," Agenda, no. 39 (1998): 19. Also see http://www.widowsrights.org/lawfile/aids.html. In South Africa, HIV prevalence is higher than the national average in three rural provinces: Kwazulu-Natal (36.2 percent), Mpumalanga (29.7 percent), Free State (27.9 percent), and just below the national average in a fourth, North-West (22.9 percent). These constitute four of the top five, with Gauteng, a densely settled urban province, having a prevalence of 29.4 percent. See "National HIV and Syphilis Sero-Prevalence Survey." For a discussion of HIV/AIDS among women sex workers and those in the mobile professions, see Abdul Karim, 19-20. See also, Catherine Campbell, Letting Them Die (Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2003), 63-82. Available figures suggest that 12 percent of educators are infected (no gender breakdown). However, infection rates among teachers in other parts of Africa have reached 40 percent. See Carole Coombes, Managing the Impact of HIV/AIDS on the Education Sector (Pretoria: UNECA, 2000), 15. For a discussion of HIV/AIDS among migrant women, see Denise Gilgen et al., "The National History of HIV/AIDS in a Major Goldmining Centre in South Africa: Results of a Biomedical and Social Survey," South African Journal of Science 97 (September/October 2001): 387-92.
14. Of the 36.1 million people living with HIV/AIDS at the end of 2000, an estimated 25.3 million (71 percent) live in sub-Saharan Africa. In 1999, sub-Saharan Africa accounted for an estimated 67 percent of new infections. See Joint UN Program on HIV/AIDS and World Health Organization, AIDS Epidemic Update (Geneva: UN and World Health Organization, 2001), 4, 10-11.
15. The poorest 40 percent of households (equivalent to 50 percent of the people) earn 11 percent of income, while the top 11 percent of households (a mere 7 percent of the population) earn 40 percent of income. See Julian May, Ingrid Woolard, and Stephan Klasen, "The Nature and Measurement of Poverty and Inequality," in Poverty and Inequality in South Africa: Meeting the Challenge, ed. Julian May (Cape Town: Zed Books, 2000), 27. See Sampie Terreblanche, A History of Inequality in South Africa, 1652-2002 (Pietermaritzberg: University of Natal Press, 2002), 30-44. For statistics on African women, see Statistics South Africa, Women and Men in South Africa: Five Years On (Pretoria: Statistics South Africa, 2002).
16. The poorest 40 percent of households (equivalent to 50 percent of the people) earn 11 percent of income, while the top 11 percent of households (a mere 7 percent of the population) earn 40 percent of income. See Julian May, Ingrid Woolard, and Stephan Klasen, "The Nature and Measurement of Poverty and Inequality," in Poverty and Inequality in South Africa: Meeting the Challenge, ed. Julian May (Cape Town: Zed Books, 2000), 27. See Sampie Terreblanche, A History of Inequality in South Africa, 1652-2002 (Pietermaritzberg: University of Natal Press, 2002), 30-44. For statistics on African women, see Statistics South Africa, Women and Men in South Africa: Five Years On (Pretoria: Statistics South Africa, 2002).
17. The poorest 40 percent of households (equivalent to 50 percent of the people) earn 11 percent of income, while the top 11 percent of households (a mere 7 percent of the population) earn 40 percent of income. See Julian May, Ingrid Woolard, and Stephan Klasen, "The Nature and Measurement of Poverty and Inequality," in Poverty and Inequality in South Africa: Meeting the Challenge, ed. Julian May (Cape Town: Zed Books, 2000), 27. See Sampie Terreblanche, A History of Inequality in South Africa, 1652-2002 (Pietermaritzberg: University of Natal Press, 2002), 30-44. For statistics on African women, see Statistics South Africa, Women and Men in South Africa: Five Years On (Pretoria: Statistics South Africa, 2002).
18. Joseph Collins and Bill Rau, "AIDS in the Context of Development" (paper 4, UN Research Institute for Social Development, Geneva, 2000), 8, 13-15.
19. See Dorothy Nairne and Sinead Delany, Women at Risk: A Study of Sex Work in Hillbrow (Johannesburg: Reproductive Health Research, 2001). Sex work is criminalized in the Sexual Offences Act, 23 of 1957. This act was recently confirmed by the Constitutional Court. See, The State v. Jordan and Others, 2002 (6) SA 642 (CC); 2002 (11) BCLR 1117 (CC). Research has revealed how women who are unable to afford bail or fines are expected to have sex with police officers to secure their release. Lisa Vetten and Joanne Dladla, "Women's Fear and Survival in Inner-City Johannesburg," Agenda, no. 45 (2000): 70-75.
20. See Dorothy Nairne and Sinead Delany, Women at Risk: A Study of Sex Work in Hillbrow (Johannesburg: Reproductive Health Research, 2001). Sex work is criminalized in the Sexual Offences Act, 23 of 1957. This act was recently confirmed by the Constitutional Court. See, The State v. Jordan and Others, 2002 (6) SA 642 (CC); 2002 (11) BCLR 1117 (CC). Research has revealed how women who are unable to afford bail or fines are expected to have sex with police officers to secure their release. Lisa Vetten and Joanne Dladla, "Women's Fear and Survival in Inner-City Johannesburg," Agenda, no. 45 (2000): 70-75.
21. See Dorothy Nairne and Sinead Delany, Women at Risk: A Study of Sex Work in Hillbrow (Johannesburg: Reproductive Health Research, 2001). Sex work is criminalized in the Sexual Offences Act, 23 of 1957. This act was recently confirmed by the Constitutional Court. See, The State v. Jordan and Others, 2002 (6) SA 642 (CC); 2002 (11) BCLR 1117 (CC). Research has revealed how women who are unable to afford bail or fines are expected to have sex with police officers to secure their release. Lisa Vetten and Joanne Dladla, "Women's Fear and Survival in Inner-City Johannesburg," Agenda, no. 45 (2000): 70-75.
22. Douglas Webb, HIV/AZDS in Africa (Durban: University of Natal Press, 1997); Hilda Adams and Anita Marshall, "Off Target Messages: Poverty, Risk, and Sexual Rights," Agenda, no. 39 (1998): 87-92. Beth Goldblatt, Cohabitation and Gender in the South African Context: Implications for Law Reform (Johannesburg: University of Witwatersrand Press, 2001). Geeta Rao Gupta and Ellen Weiss, Gender-Related Vulnerability and Obstacles to Prevention and Coping (Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute, 1995).
23. Douglas Webb, HIV/AZDS in Africa (Durban: University of Natal Press, 1997); Hilda Adams and Anita Marshall, "Off Target Messages: Poverty, Risk, and Sexual Rights," Agenda, no. 39 (1998): 87-92. Beth Goldblatt, Cohabitation and Gender in the South African Context: Implications for Law Reform (Johannesburg: University of Witwatersrand Press, 2001). Geeta Rao Gupta and Ellen Weiss, Gender-Related Vulnerability and Obstacles to Prevention and Coping (Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute, 1995).
24. Douglas Webb, HIV/AZDS in Africa (Durban: University of Natal Press, 1997); Hilda Adams and Anita Marshall, "Off Target Messages: Poverty, Risk, and Sexual Rights," Agenda, no. 39 (1998): 87-92. Beth Goldblatt, Cohabitation and Gender in the South African Context: Implications for Law Reform (Johannesburg: University of Witwatersrand Press, 2001). Geeta Rao Gupta and Ellen Weiss, Gender-Related Vulnerability and Obstacles to Prevention and Coping (Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute, 1995).
25. Douglas Webb, HIV/AZDS in Africa (Durban: University of Natal Press, 1997); Hilda Adams and Anita Marshall, "Off Target Messages: Poverty, Risk, and Sexual Rights," Agenda, no. 39 (1998): 87-92. Beth Goldblatt, Cohabitation and Gender in the South African Context: Implications for Law Reform (Johannesburg: University of Witwatersrand Press, 2001). Geeta Rao Gupta and Ellen Weiss, Gender-Related Vulnerability and Obstacles to Prevention and Coping (Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute, 1995).
26. Tony Barnett and Piers Blaikie, AIDS in Africa: Its Present and Future Impact (New York: Guilford Press, 1992), 77.
27. Ibid., 75-78; see also, Tom Bennett, Human Rights and African Customary Law under the South Africa Constitution (Cape Town: Juta & Co., 1995), 80-81, 126-28.
28. Ibid., 75-78; see also, Tom Bennett, Human Rights and African Customary Law under the South Africa Constitution (Cape Town: Juta & Co., 1995), 80-81, 126-28.
29. Suzanne Leclerc-Madlala, "Silence, AIDS, and Sexual Culture in Africa," Women's International Network News 27, no. 1 (2001): 20. Suzanne Leclerc-Madlala, "The Silences that Nourish AIDS," Weekly Mail and Guardian, 4-11 Aug. 2000. Adams and Marshall, 87-92. See Mead Over, "The Effects of Societal Variables on Urban Rates of HIV Infection in Developing Countries: An Exploratory Analysis," in Confronting AIDS: Evidence from the Developing World, ed. Martha Ainsworth, Lieve Fransen, and Mead Over (Luxembourg: European Communities, 1998), 39-51. Anne Kelk Mager, Gender and the Making of a South African Bantustan (London: Heineman, 1999), 185.
30. Suzanne Leclerc-Madlala, "Silence, AIDS, and Sexual Culture in Africa," Women's International Network News 27, no. 1 (2001): 20. Suzanne Leclerc-Madlala, "The Silences that Nourish AIDS," Weekly Mail and Guardian, 4-11 Aug. 2000. Adams and Marshall, 87-92. See Mead Over, "The Effects of Societal Variables on Urban Rates of HIV Infection in Developing Countries: An Exploratory Analysis," in Confronting AIDS: Evidence from the Developing World, ed. Martha Ainsworth, Lieve Fransen, and Mead Over (Luxembourg: European Communities, 1998), 39-51. Anne Kelk Mager, Gender and the Making of a South African Bantustan (London: Heineman, 1999), 185.
31. Suzanne Leclerc-Madlala, "Silence, AIDS, and Sexual Culture in Africa," Women's International Network News 27, no. 1 (2001): 20. Suzanne Leclerc-Madlala, "The Silences that Nourish AIDS," Weekly Mail and Guardian, 4-11 Aug. 2000. Adams and Marshall, 87-92. See Mead Over, "The Effects of Societal Variables on Urban Rates of HIV Infection in Developing Countries: An Exploratory Analysis," in Confronting AIDS: Evidence from the Developing World, ed. Martha Ainsworth, Lieve Fransen, and Mead Over (Luxembourg: European Communities, 1998), 39-51. Anne Kelk Mager, Gender and the Making of a South African Bantustan (London: Heineman, 1999), 185.
32. Suzanne Leclerc-Madlala, "Silence, AIDS, and Sexual Culture in Africa," Women's International Network News 27, no. 1 (2001): 20. Suzanne Leclerc-Madlala, "The Silences that Nourish AIDS," Weekly Mail and Guardian, 4-11 Aug. 2000. Adams and Marshall, 87-92. See Mead Over, "The Effects of Societal Variables on Urban Rates of HIV Infection in Developing Countries: An Exploratory Analysis," in Confronting AIDS: Evidence from the Developing World, ed. Martha Ainsworth, Lieve Fransen, and Mead Over (Luxembourg: European Communities, 1998), 39-51. Anne Kelk Mager, Gender and the Making of a South African Bantustan (London: Heineman, 1999), 185.
33. Caroline Baylies and Janet Bujra, "Discourses in Power and Empowerment in the Fight against HIV/AIDS in Africa," in AIDS: Setting a Feminist Agenda, ed. Lesley Dayal, Jennie Naidoo, and Tamsin Wilton (London: Taylor & Francis, 1994). See also Pat McFadden, "Sex, Sexuality, and the Problem of AIDS in Africa," in Gender in Southern Africa: Conceptual and Theoretical Issues, ed. Ruth Meena (Harare, Zimbabwe: Sape Books, 1992), 157-95.
34. Caroline Baylies and Janet Bujra, "Discourses in Power and Empowerment in the Fight against HIV/AIDS in Africa," in AIDS: Setting a Feminist Agenda, ed. Lesley Dayal, Jennie Naidoo, and Tamsin Wilton (London: Taylor & Francis, 1994). See also Pat McFadden, "Sex, Sexuality, and the Problem of AIDS in Africa," in Gender in Southern Africa: Conceptual and Theoretical Issues, ed. Ruth Meena (Harare, Zimbabwe: Sape Books, 1992), 157-95.
35. Barbara Klugman, "Sexual Rights in Southern Africa: A Beijing Discourse or a Strategic Necessity," Health and Human Rights 4, no. 2 (2000): 146-47.
36. Ibid. See also, Katharine Wood and Rachel Jewkes, "Love Is a Dangerous Thing": Microdynamics of Violence in Sexual Relationships of Young People in Umtata (Pretoria: Medical Research Council, 1998).
37. Ibid. See also, Katharine Wood and Rachel Jewkes, "Love Is a Dangerous Thing": Microdynamics of Violence in Sexual Relationships of Young People in Umtata (Pretoria: Medical Research Council, 1998).
38. Suzanne Leclerc-Madlala, "Virginity Testing: Managing Sexuality in a Maturing HIV/AIDS Epidemic," Medical Anthropology Quarterly 15, no. 4 (2001): 541; MacFadden, 150; Janet Bujra, "Targeting Men for a Change: AIDS Discourse and Activism in Africa," Agenda, no. 44 (2000): 10-11.
39. Suzanne Leclerc-Madlala, "Virginity Testing: Managing Sexuality in a Maturing HIV/AIDS Epidemic," Medical Anthropology Quarterly 15, no. 4 (2001): 541; MacFadden, 150; Janet Bujra, "Targeting Men for a Change: AIDS Discourse and Activism in Africa," Agenda, no. 44 (2000): 10-11.
40. Suzanne Leclerc-Madlala, "Virginity Testing: Managing Sexuality in a Maturing HIV/AIDS Epidemic," Medical Anthropology Quarterly 15, no. 4 (2001): 541; MacFadden, 150; Janet Bujra, "Targeting Men for a Change: AIDS Discourse and Activism in Africa," Agenda, no. 44 (2000): 10-11.
41. Agnes Runganga, Johanne Sundby, and Peter Aggleton, "Culture, Identity, and Reproductive Failure in Zimbabwe," Sexualities 4, no. 3 (2001): 332, 330. Kelk Mager, 175.
42. Agnes Runganga, Johanne Sundby, and Peter Aggleton, "Culture, Identity, and Reproductive Failure in Zimbabwe," Sexualities 4, no. 3 (2001): 332, 330. Kelk Mager, 175.
43. McFadden, 165.
44. Caroline White, "'Close to Home' in Johannesburg: Gender Oppression in Township Households," Women's Studies International Forum 16 (March/April 1993): 149-63. See also, Promise Mthembu, "A Positive View," Agenda, no. 39 (1998): 26-28; Kelk Mager, 178.
45. Caroline White, "'Close to Home' in Johannesburg: Gender Oppression in Township Households," Women's Studies International Forum 16 (March/April 1993): 149-63. See also, Promise Mthembu, "A Positive View," Agenda, no. 39 (1998): 26-28; Kelk Mager, 178.
46. Caroline White, "'Close to Home' in Johannesburg: Gender Oppression in Township Households," Women's Studies International Forum 16 (March/April 1993): 149-63. See also, Promise Mthembu, "A Positive View," Agenda, no. 39 (1998): 26-28; Kelk Mager, 178.
47. CIETafrica, Beyond Victims and Villains: The Culture of Sexual Violence in South Africa (Johannesburg: CIETafrica and Southern Metropolitan Local Council, 2000). See also, Rachel Jewkes et al., "He Must Give Me Money, He Mustn't Beat Me," in Violence against Women in Three South African Provinces (Pretoria: Medical Research Council, 1999). 11-12. Lovelife, Hof Prospects, Cold Facts: National Survey of South African Youth (Johannesburg: Lovelife, 2000). See also, Betsie Pendry, "The Links between Gender Violence and HIV/AIDS," Agenda, no. 39 (1998): 30-33.
48. CIETafrica, Beyond Victims and Villains: The Culture of Sexual Violence in South Africa (Johannesburg: CIETafrica and Southern Metropolitan Local Council, 2000). See also, Rachel Jewkes et al., "He Must Give Me Money, He Mustn't Beat Me," in Violence against Women in Three South African Provinces (Pretoria: Medical Research Council, 1999). 11-12. Lovelife, Hof Prospects, Cold Facts: National Survey of South African Youth (Johannesburg: Lovelife, 2000). See also, Betsie Pendry, "The Links between Gender Violence and HIV/AIDS," Agenda, no. 39 (1998): 30-33.
49. CIETafrica, Beyond Victims and Villains: The Culture of Sexual Violence in South Africa (Johannesburg: CIETafrica and Southern Metropolitan Local Council, 2000). See also, Rachel Jewkes et al., "He Must Give Me Money, He Mustn't Beat Me," in Violence against Women in Three South African Provinces (Pretoria: Medical Research Council, 1999). 11-12. Lovelife, Hof Prospects, Cold Facts: National Survey of South African Youth (Johannesburg: Lovelife, 2000). See also, Betsie Pendry, "The Links between Gender Violence and HIV/AIDS," Agenda, no. 39 (1998): 30-33.
50. CIETafrica, Beyond Victims and Villains: The Culture of Sexual Violence in South Africa (Johannesburg: CIETafrica and Southern Metropolitan Local Council, 2000). See also, Rachel Jewkes et al., "He Must Give Me Money, He Mustn't Beat Me," in Violence against Women in Three South African Provinces (Pretoria: Medical Research Council, 1999). 11-12. Lovelife, Hof Prospects, Cold Facts: National Survey of South African Youth (Johannesburg: Lovelife, 2000). See also, Betsie Pendry, "The Links between Gender Violence and HIV/AIDS," Agenda, no. 39 (1998): 30-33.
51. Suzanne Leclerc-Madlala, "Demonizing Women in the Era of AIDS: An Analysis of the Sociocultural Construction of HIV/AIDS in Kawzulu-Natal" (Ph.D. diss., University of Natal, 1997). See also, Eleanor Preston-Whyte, Quarraisha Abdul-Karim, and Maria Zondi, "Women, Apartheid, and AIDS: The Triple Imperative," Critical Health 34 (June 1991): 42-47; Christine Varga, "Sexual Decision-Making and Negotiations in the Midst of AIDS: Youth in Kwazulu-Natal," Health Transition Review 7, supp. 3 (1997): 45-67. See also, Kelk Mager, 185.
52. Suzanne Leclerc-Madlala, "Demonizing Women in the Era of AIDS: An Analysis of the Sociocultural Construction of HIV/AIDS in Kawzulu-Natal" (Ph.D. diss., University of Natal, 1997). See also, Eleanor Preston-Whyte, Quarraisha Abdul-Karim, and Maria Zondi, "Women, Apartheid, and AIDS: The Triple Imperative," Critical Health 34 (June 1991): 42-47; Christine Varga, "Sexual Decision-Making and Negotiations in the Midst of AIDS: Youth in Kwazulu-Natal," Health Transition Review 7, supp. 3 (1997): 45-67. See also, Kelk Mager, 185.
53. Suzanne Leclerc-Madlala, "Demonizing Women in the Era of AIDS: An Analysis of the Sociocultural Construction of HIV/AIDS in Kawzulu-Natal" (Ph.D. diss., University of Natal, 1997). See also, Eleanor Preston-Whyte, Quarraisha Abdul-Karim, and Maria Zondi, "Women, Apartheid, and AIDS: The Triple Imperative," Critical Health 34 (June 1991): 42-47; Christine Varga, "Sexual Decision-Making and Negotiations in the Midst of AIDS: Youth in Kwazulu-Natal," Health Transition Review 7, supp. 3 (1997): 45-67. See also, Kelk Mager, 185.
54. Suzanne Leclerc-Madlala, "Demonizing Women in the Era of AIDS: An Analysis of the Sociocultural Construction of HIV/AIDS in Kawzulu-Natal" (Ph.D. diss., University of Natal, 1997). See also, Eleanor Preston-Whyte, Quarraisha Abdul-Karim, and Maria Zondi, "Women, Apartheid, and AIDS: The Triple Imperative," Critical Health 34 (June 1991): 42-47; Christine Varga, "Sexual Decision-Making and Negotiations in the Midst of AIDS: Youth in Kwazulu-Natal," Health Transition Review 7, supp. 3 (1997): 45-67. See also, Kelk Mager, 185.
55. Helen Jackson, AIDS in Africa (Harare, Zimbabwe: SAfAIDS, 2002), 22-27; UNIFEM, "Gender-Related Socio-Economic Impact of HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe" (Harare, Zimbabwe: UNIFEM, 2000), 26-27. Likhapha Mbatha, "Reforming the Customary Law of Succession," South African Journal on Human Rights 18 (2002): 264.
56. Helen Jackson, AIDS in Africa (Harare, Zimbabwe: SAfAIDS, 2002), 22-27; UNIFEM, "Gender-Related Socio-Economic Impact of HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe" (Harare, Zimbabwe: UNIFEM, 2000), 26-27. Likhapha Mbatha, "Reforming the Customary Law of Succession," South African Journal on Human Rights 18 (2002): 264.
57. Helen Jackson, AIDS in Africa (Harare, Zimbabwe: SAfAIDS, 2002), 22-27; UNIFEM, "Gender-Related Socio-Economic Impact of HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe" (Harare, Zimbabwe: UNIFEM, 2000), 26-27. Likhapha Mbatha, "Reforming the Customary Law of Succession," South African Journal on Human Rights 18 (2002): 264.
58. Leclerc-Madlala, "Virginity Testing," 542-43; Mthembu, 26-28.
59. Leclerc-Madlala, "Virginity Testing," 542-43; Mthembu, 26-28.
60. Leclerc-Madlala, "Virginity Testing," 542-43, 547.
61. Anna Strebel, "'There Is Nothing I Can Do: Just Believe in God": South African Women with AIDS," Agenda, no. 50 (1992): 52.
62. Albertyn, "Women and Democracy," 57-60; Felicity Kaganas and Christina Murray, "The Contest between Culture and Gender Equality under South Africa's Interim Constitution," Journal of Law and Society 21, no. 4 (1994): 409-11.
63. Albertyn, "Women and Democracy," 57-60; Felicity Kaganas and Christina Murray, "The Contest between Culture and Gender Equality under South Africa's Interim Constitution," Journal of Law and Society 21, no. 4 (1994): 409-11.
64. On material gains for women, see President Nelson Mandela 's first State of the Nation address, May 1994, where he announced that there would be free health care for all pregnant women and children under six years. See http://www.org.za/ancdocs/history/mandela/1994/sp94052.html. Helle Christiansen Cawthra, Andrea Helman-Smith, and Dudley Moloi, "Annual Review: The Voluntary Sector and Development 1999/2000," Development Update 3, no. 3 (2001): 81.
65. See Terreblanche, 30-44. Lisa Vetten and Khailash Bhana, Violence, Vengeance, and Gender (Johannesburg: Center for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation, 2001).
66. See Terreblanche, 30-44. Lisa Vetten and Khailash Bhana, Violence, Vengeance, and Gender (Johannesburg: Center for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation, 2001)
67. Jerome Blumenfeld, "From Icon to Scapegoat: The Experience of South Africa's Reconstruction and Development Program," Development Policy Review 15, no. 1 (1997): 65-91.
68. Helen Schneider and Joanne Stein, "Implementing AIDS Policy in Post-Apartheid South Africa," Women's Health Project Newsletter, no. 34, May 2000, 11.
69. Ibid., 12
70. Iris Marion Young, "Impartiality and the Civic Public: Some Implications of Feminist Critiques of Moral and Political Theory," in Throwing like a Girl and Other Essays in Feminist Philosophy and Social Theory (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), 107; Nancy Fraser, Justice Interruptus: Critical Reflections on the "Postsocialist" Condition (New York: Routledge, 1997).
71. Iris Marion Young, "Impartiality and the Civic Public: Some Implications of Feminist Critiques of Moral and Political Theory," in Throwing like a Girl and Other Essays in Feminist Philosophy and Social Theory (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), 107; Nancy Fraser, Justice Interruptus: Critical Reflections on the "Postsocialist" Condition (New York: Routledge, 1997).
72. Young, 108. See Catherine Albertyn, "Reproductive Health Law and the Right to Choose: Policy and Law Reform on Abortion" (45-49), and Sheila Meintjes, "The State, Civil Society, and Gender Violence: A Case Study of the Domestic Violence Act" (114-15), both in Engendering the Political Agenda; Cherryl Walker, Women and Resistance in South Africa (London: Onyx Press, 1982), 145-46.
73. Young, 108. See Catherine Albertyn, "Reproductive Health Law and the Right to Choose: Policy and Law Reform on Abortion" (45-49), and Sheila Meintjes, "The State, Civil Society, and Gender Violence: A Case Study of the Domestic Violence Act" (114-15), both in Engendering the Political Agenda; Cherryl Walker, Women and Resistance in South Africa (London: Onyx Press, 1982), 145-46.
74. Young, 108. See Catherine Albertyn, "Reproductive Health Law and the Right to Choose: Policy and Law Reform on Abortion" (45-49), and Sheila Meintjes, "The State, Civil Society, and Gender Violence: A Case Study of the Domestic Violence Act" (114-15), both in Engendering the Political Agenda; Cherryl Walker, Women and Resistance in South Africa (London: Onyx Press, 1982), 145-46.
75. Young, 108. See Catherine Albertyn, "Reproductive Health Law and the Right to Choose: Policy and Law Reform on Abortion" (45-49), and Sheila Meintjes, "The State, Civil Society, and Gender Violence: A Case Study of the Domestic Violence Act" (114-15), both in Engendering the Political Agenda; Cherryl Walker, Women and Resistance in South Africa (London: Onyx Press, 1982), 145-46.
76. Jane Bennett, "'Enough Lip Service!' Hearing Postcolonial Experience of Gender-based Violence," Agenda, no. 50 (2001): 90-91; Shereen Essof, "African Feminisms: Histories, Applications, and Prospects," Agenda, no. 50 (2001): 126.
77. Jane Bennett, "'Enough Lip Service!' Hearing Postcolonial Experience of Gender-based Violence," Agenda, no. 50 (2001): 90-91; Shereen Essof, "African Feminisms: Histories, Applications, and Prospects," Agenda, no. 50 (2001): 126.
78. See Albertyn, "Women and Democracy," 57-60; Kaganas and Murray, 409-11.
79. See Albertyn, "Women and Democracy," 57-60; Kaganas and Murray, 409-11.
80. See Vicky Bronstein, "Reconceptualising the Customary Law Debate in South Africa," South African Journal of Human Rights 14, no. 3 (1998): 403; Marius Pieterse, "It's a Black Thing: Upholding Culture and Customary Law," South African Journal of Human Rights 17, part 3 (2001).
81. See Vicky Bronstein, "Reconceptualising the Customary Law Debate in South Africa," South African Journal of Human Rights 14, no. 3 (1998): 403; Marius Pieterse, "It's a Black Thing: Upholding Culture and Customary Law," South African Journal of Human Rights 17, part 3 (2001).
82. Belinda Bozzoli, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life, Strategy, and Migrancy in South Africa, 1900-1983 (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1991), esp. 238-41; Virginia van der Vliet, "Traditional Husbands, Modern Wives? Constructing Marriages in a South African Township," in Tradition and Transition in Southern Africa, ed. Andrew Spiegel and Patrick McAllister (Johannesburg: Wits University Press, 1991), 219-41; Likhapha Mbatha, "Research Report on Marriage Practices of Black South Africans" (Johannesburg: University of Witwatersrand Press, 1997); David Webster, "Abafazi Bathonga Bafuhlakala: Ethnicity and Gender in a Kwa Zulu Border Community," in Tradition and Transition in South Africa (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1991), 243-71.
83. Belinda Bozzoli, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life, Strategy, and Migrancy in South Africa, 1900-1983 (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1991), esp. 238-41; Virginia van der Vliet, "Traditional Husbands, Modern Wives? Constructing Marriages in a South African Township," in Tradition and Transition in Southern Africa, ed. Andrew Spiegel and Patrick McAllister (Johannesburg: Wits University Press, 1991), 219-41; Likhapha Mbatha, "Research Report on Marriage Practices of Black South Africans" (Johannesburg: University of Witwatersrand Press, 1997); David Webster, "Abafazi Bathonga Bafuhlakala: Ethnicity and Gender in a Kwa Zulu Border Community," in Tradition and Transition in South Africa (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1991), 243-71.
84. Belinda Bozzoli, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life, Strategy, and Migrancy in South Africa, 1900-1983 (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1991), esp. 238-41; Virginia van der Vliet, "Traditional Husbands, Modern Wives? Constructing Marriages in a South African Township," in Tradition and Transition in Southern Africa, ed. Andrew Spiegel and Patrick McAllister (Johannesburg: Wits University Press, 1991), 219-41; Likhapha Mbatha, "Research Report on Marriage Practices of Black South Africans" (Johannesburg: University of Witwatersrand Press, 1997); David Webster, "Abafazi Bathonga Bafuhlakala: Ethnicity and Gender in a Kwa Zulu Border Community," in Tradition and Transition in South Africa (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1991), 243-71.
85. Belinda Bozzoli, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life, Strategy, and Migrancy in South Africa, 1900-1983 (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1991), esp. 238-41; Virginia van der Vliet, "Traditional Husbands, Modern Wives? Constructing Marriages in a South African Township," in Tradition and Transition in Southern Africa, ed. Andrew Spiegel and Patrick McAllister (Johannesburg: Wits University Press, 1991), 219-41; Likhapha Mbatha, "Research Report on Marriage Practices of Black South Africans" (Johannesburg: University of Witwatersrand Press, 1997); David Webster, "Abafazi Bathonga Bafuhlakala: Ethnicity and Gender in a Kwa Zulu Border Community," in Tradition and Transition in South Africa (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1991), 243-71.
86. Ida Susser and Zena Stein, "Culture, Sexuality, and Women's Agency in the Prevention of HIV/AIDS in Southern Africa," American Journal of Public Health 90 (July 2000): 1048.
87. Mbatha, "Customary Law of Succession," 268-74. Aili Mari Tripp, "The Politics of Women's Rights and Cultural Diversity in Uganda Democracy," in Gender Justice, Development, and Rights, ed. Maxine Molyneux and Shahra Razavi (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 417.
88. Mbatha, "Customary Law of Succession," 268-74. Aili Mari Tripp, "The Politics of Women's Rights and Cultural Diversity in Uganda Democracy," in Gender Justice, Development, and Rights, ed. Maxine Molyneux and Shahra Razavi (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 417.
89. Young, 108.
90. Tripp, 435-56.
91. Ibid., 434.