'Purifying' science: E. C. Slater and postwar biochemistry in the Netherlands

History of Science

Volumn 41, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 1-34

  Van Helvoort, Ton ^a  

^a MAASTRICHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; BIOCHEMISTRY; HISTORY; NETHERLANDS; SCIENCE; UNIVERSITY;

BIOCHEMISTRY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; NETHERLANDS; SCIENCE; UNIVERSITIES;

EID: 1542600981     PISSN: 00732753     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/007327530304100101     Document Type: Review

References (165)

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10. In this essay, the adjectives 'pure', 'basic', 'fundamental', and 'applied' are used loosely. As an illustration of the extreme confusion surrounding this terminology see, e.g., Lord Rothschild, "Forty-five varieties of research (and development)", Nature, ccxxxix (1972), 373-8.
11. Sheila Slaughter and Larry L. Leslie, Academic capitalism: Politics, policies, and the entrepreneurial university (Baltimore, 1997), 206.
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13. Vannevar Bush, Science - The endless frontier: A report to the President on a program for postwar scientific research, July 1945 [reprint] (Washington, D.C., 1960); Daniel J. Kevles, "The National Science Foundation and the debate over postwar research policy, 1942-1945: A political reinterpretation of Science - The endless frontier", Isis, lxviii (1977), 5-26; Nathan Reingold, "Vannevar Bush's new deal for research; or, the triumph of the old order", in: idem, Science, American style (New Brunswick, NJ, 1991), 284-333; Daniel L. Kleinman, Politics on the endless frontier: Postwar research policy in the United States (Durham, 1995).
14. Vannevar Bush, Science - The endless frontier: A report to the President on a program for postwar scientific research, July 1945 [reprint] (Washington, D.C., 1960); Daniel J. Kevles, "The National Science Foundation and the debate over postwar research policy, 1942-1945: A political reinterpretation of Science - The endless frontier", Isis, lxviii (1977), 5-26; Nathan Reingold, "Vannevar Bush's new deal for research; or, the triumph of the old order", in: idem, Science, American style (New Brunswick, NJ, 1991), 284-333; Daniel L. Kleinman, Politics on the endless frontier: Postwar research policy in the United States (Durham, 1995).
15. Vannevar Bush, Science - The endless frontier: A report to the President on a program for postwar scientific research, July 1945 [reprint] (Washington, D.C., 1960); Daniel J. Kevles, "The National Science Foundation and the debate over postwar research policy, 1942-1945: A political reinterpretation of Science - The endless frontier", Isis, lxviii (1977), 5-26; Nathan Reingold, "Vannevar Bush's new deal for research; or, the triumph of the old order", in: idem, Science, American style (New Brunswick, NJ, 1991), 284-333; Daniel L. Kleinman, Politics on the endless frontier: Postwar research policy in the United States (Durham, 1995).
16. Kevles, op. cit. (ref. 9), 11; see also Kleinman, op. cit. (ref. 9), 138.
17. Kevles, op. cit. (ref. 9), 11; see also Kleinman, op. cit. (ref. 9), 138.
18. Reingold, op. cit. (ref. 9), 300.
19. Ronald Kline, "Construing 'technology' as 'applied science': Public rhetoric of scientists and engineers in the United States, 1880-1945", Isis, lxxxvi (1995), 194-221, p. 221.
20. Thomas F. Gieryn, Cultural boundaries of science: Credibility on the line (Chicago, 1999), 23.
21. Cited in Harmke Kamminga and Mark W. Weatherall, "The making of a biochemist, I: Frederick Gowland Hopkins' construction of dynamic biochemistry", Medical history, xl (1996), 269-92, p. 292.
22. Kamminga and Weatherall, op. cit. (ref. 14); Mark W. Weatherall and Harmke Kamminga, "The making of a biochemist, II: The construction of Frederick Gowland Hopkins' reputation", Medical history, xl (1996), 415-36.
23. Kamminga and Weatherall, op. cit. (ref. 14); Mark W. Weatherall and Harmke Kamminga, "The making of a biochemist, II: The construction of Frederick Gowland Hopkins' reputation", Medical history, xl (1996), 415-36.
24. Harmke Kamminga, "Internationalizing biochemistry: The 1949 congress in context", Trends in biochemical sciences, xxiv (1999), 404-8.
25. Robert E. Kohler, From medical chemistry to biochemistry: The making of a biomedical discipline (Cambridge, 1982), 7-8.
26. See also Piet Borst and Simon G. van den Bergh, "E. C. Slater in the Netherlands", in: Karel van Dam and Bob F. van Gelder (eds), Structure and function of energy-transducing membranes: In honour of E. C. Slater (BBA library, xiv; Amsterdam, 1977), pp. xvii-xxvi. The remainder of this essay makes use of the Slater archive which is kept in the Rijksarchief [State Archive] in Noord-Holland at Haarlem, under entrynumber RANH 379.
27. The renowned virologist, immunologist and Nobel prize laureate Sir Macfarlane Burnet (1899-1985) was also educated at Geelong College; for Burnet's biography, see Christopher Sexton, The seeds of time: The life of Sir Macfarlane Burnet (Oxford, 1991).
28. Anonymous, "Science in Australia", Nature, clxxii (1953), 969-71.
29. Frederick W. Clements, A history of human nutrition in Australia (Melbourne, 1987).
30. F. W. Clements, Director, Australian Institute of Anatomy to W. J. Young, Department of Biochemistry, University of Melbourne; see also Slater's letter of application, dated 10 August 1939, RANH 379 452.1.
31. F. W. Clements, Director, Australian Institute of Anatomy to W. J. Young, Department of Biochemistry, University of Melbourne; see also Slater's letter of application, dated 10 August 1939, RANH 379 452.1.
32. R. Luyken, "Voedingsonderzoek in voormalig Nederlands-Indië. B. C. P. Jansen (1884-1962)", Voeding, lvii/5 (1995), 19-22.
33. E. C. Slater, "An Australian biochemist in four countries", in: Rainer Jaenicke and Giorgio Semenza (eds), Selected topics in the history of biochemistry: Personal recollections V (Comprehensive biochemistry, xl; Amsterdam, 1997), 69-203, p. 88.
34. Rudolph A. Peters, "Development and theoretical significance of British anti-lewisite (BAL)", British medical bulletin, v (1948), 313-19.
35. E. C. Slater, "The BAL-labile factor in the respiratory chain", in: Giorgio Semenza (ed.), Selected topics in the history of biochemistry: Personal recollections II (Comprehensive biochemistry, xxxvi; Amsterdam, 1986), 197-253.
36. For a biography of Woods, see Ernest F. Gale and Paul Fildes, "Donald Devereux Woods", Biographical memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, xi (1965), 203-19.
37. C. C. Kratzing and E. C. Slater, "Effect of sulphonamides on the aneurin economy in animals", Biochemical journal, xlvii (1950), 24-35.
38. Slater to F. W. Clements, 25 October 1945, RANH 379 452.1.
39. For a history of the British Council, see Frances Donaldson, The British Council: The first fifty years (London, 1984).
40. Kohler, Medical chemistry (ref. 17), 73-92.
41. Malcolm Dixon, "Sir F. Gowland Hopkins, O.M., F.R.S.", Nature, clx (1947), 44-47; Weatherall and Kamminga, Construction (ref. 15).
42. Malcolm Dixon, "Sir F. Gowland Hopkins, O.M., F.R.S.", Nature, clx (1947), 44-47; Weatherall and Kamminga, Construction (ref. 15).
43. Cited in Malcolm Dixon, Multi-enzyme systems: Four special lectures given to University College, London, May 1948 (Cambridge, 1949), 5.
44. Robert E. Kohler, "The history of biochemistry: A survey", Journal of the history of biology, viii (1975), 275-318, p. 291.
45. Mark W. Weatherall and Harmke Kamminga, Dynamic science: Biochemistry in Cambridge 1898-1949 (Cambridge, 1992), 70-73.
46. Cf. Norman U. Meldrum [David E. Green (ed.)], Cellular respiration (London, 1934).
47. David Keilin and E. F. Hartree, "Cytochrome and cytochrome oxidase", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, ser. B, cxxvii (1939), 167-91, pp. 189-90; emphasis mine.
48. See, e.g., W. W. Umbreit, R. H. Burris and J. F. Stauffer, Manometric techniques: A manual describing methods applicable to the study of tissue metabolism (Minneapolis, MN, 1945).
49. Weatherall and Kamminga, Dynamic science (ref. 35).
50. Van Rensselaar Potter, "Years with Conrad Elvehjem", in: David L. Nelson and Brook Ch. Soltvedt (eds), One hundred years of agricultural chemistry and biochemistry at Wisconsin: A Steenbock symposium (Madison, WI, 1989), 103-13.
51. Slater to F. W. Clements, 7 October 1946, RANH 379 452.1.
52. Slater to F. W. Clements, 6 November 1946, RANH 379 452.1.
53. Slater to F. W. Clements, 15 December 1946, RANH 379 452.1.
54. Slater to F. W. Clements, 30 January 1947, RANH 379 452.1.
55. Cf. Joseph Needham (ed.), The chemistry of life: Eight lectures on the history of biochemistry (Cambridge, 1971); Rudolph A. Peters, "The faith of a master in biochemistry - The first Hopkins Memorial Lecture", Biochemical journal, lxxi (1959), 1-9.
56. Cf. Joseph Needham (ed.), The chemistry of life: Eight lectures on the history of biochemistry (Cambridge, 1971); Rudolph A. Peters, "The faith of a master in biochemistry - The first Hopkins Memorial Lecture", Biochemical journal, lxxi (1959), 1-9.
57. Slater, Australian biochemist (ref. 24), 112.
58. Interview with Slater by Bruce H. Weber, undated, RANH 379 183.
59. Interview with Slater by Bruce H. Weber, undated, RANH 379 183.
60. Slater to Henry Priestley, 23 January 1955, RANH 379 452.1.
61. Harmke Kamminga, "Credit and resistance: Eijkman and the transformation of beri-beri into a vitamin deficiency disease" (1998), in: Kurt Bayertz and Roy Porter (eds), From physico-theology to bio-technology: Essays in the social and cultural history of biosciences: A Festschrift for Mikuláš Teich (Amsterdam, 1998), 232-54, p. 234.
62. Cited in Frank Fenner, "The history of the John Curtin School of Medical Research: A centre for research and postgraduate education in the basic medical sciences", Medical journal of Australia. 1971, ii, 177-86, p. 185.
63. R. Porter, "The John Curtin School of Medical Research", Medical journal of Australia, cxlii (1985), 205-13; Trevor I. Williams, Howard Florey: Penicillin and after (New York, 1984), 282-93.
64. R. Porter, "The John Curtin School of Medical Research", Medical journal of Australia, cxlii (1985), 205-13; Trevor I. Williams, Howard Florey: Penicillin and after (New York, 1984), 282-93.
65. Slater, Australian biochemist (ref. 24), 118-9.
66. Slater, Australian biochemist (ref. 24), 120.
67. F. W. Clements to Slater, 20 October 1947, RANH 379 452.1.
68. Slater to F. W. Clements, 11 October 1947, RANH 379 452.1.
69. F. W. Clements to Slater, 14 November 1947, RANH 379 452.1.
70. Slater to F. W. Clements, 25 November 1947, RANH 379 452.1.
71. Slater to F. W. Clements, 25 November 1947, RANH 379 452.1; Bush, Science (ref. 9), 5.
72. Slater to F. W. Clements, 25 November 1947, RANH 379 452.1; Bush, Science (ref. 9), 5.
73. Slater to F. W. Clements, 25 November 1947, RANH 379 452.1.
74. F. W. Clements to Slater, 9 December 1947, RANH 379 452.1.
75. F. W. Clements to Slater, 26 January 1949, RANH 379 452.1.
76. Slater to F. W. Clements, 16 February 1949, RANH 379 452.1.
77. See, e.g., Herman M. Kalckar, Biological phosphorylations: Development of concepts (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1969); Mikuláš Teich and Dorothy Needham, A documentary history of biochemistry 1770-1940 (Leicester, 1992), 206-70.
78. See, e.g., Herman M. Kalckar, Biological phosphorylations: Development of concepts (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1969); Mikuláš Teich and Dorothy Needham, A documentary history of biochemistry 1770-1940 (Leicester, 1992), 206-70.
79. Slater, Australian biochemist (ref. 24), 122.
80. For a review, see George H. Hogeboom, "Fractionation of cell components of animal tissues", Methods in enzymology, i (1955), 16-19.
81. Morris E. Friedkin and Albert L. Lehninger, "Phosphorylation coupled to electron transport between dihydrophosphopyridine nucleotide and oxygen", Journal of biological chemistry, clxxiv (1948), 757-8; see also Joseph S. Fruton, "Albert Lester Lehninger (17 February 1917 - 4 March 1986)", American Philosophical Society yearbook, 1986, 141-4.
82. Morris E. Friedkin and Albert L. Lehninger, "Phosphorylation coupled to electron transport between dihydrophosphopyridine nucleotide and oxygen", Journal of biological chemistry, clxxiv (1948), 757-8; see also Joseph S. Fruton, "Albert Lester Lehninger (17 February 1917 - 4 March 1986)", American Philosophical Society yearbook, 1986, 141-4.
83. For Ochoa's work in the United States and Spain, see Severo Ochoa, "The pursuit of a hobby", Annual review of biochemistry, xlix (1980), 1-30; and María Jesús Santesmases, "Severo Ochoa and the biomedical sciences in Spain under Franco, 1959-1975", Isis, xci (2000), 706-34.
84. For Ochoa's work in the United States and Spain, see Severo Ochoa, "The pursuit of a hobby", Annual review of biochemistry, xlix (1980), 1-30; and María Jesús Santesmases, "Severo Ochoa and the biomedical sciences in Spain under Franco, 1959-1975", Isis, xci (2000), 706-34.
85. For a history of the discovery of ATP in the 1930s, see Koscak Maruyama, "The discovery of adenosine triphosphate and the establishment of its structure", Journal of the history of biology, xxiv (1991), 145-54.
86. On Racker, see Gottfried Schatz, "Efraim Racker: 28 June 1913 to 9 September 1991", in: Jaenicke and Semenza, Selected topics (ref. 24), 253-76.
87. Philip Siekevitz, "The continuing life of the Enzyme Club of New York City: The growth of American biochemistry from 1942 to 1982", Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences, xli (1983), 213-32; see also Sarah Ratner, "A long view of nitrogen metabolism", Annual review of biochemistry, xlvi (1977), 1-24.
88. Philip Siekevitz, "The continuing life of the Enzyme Club of New York City: The growth of American biochemistry from 1942 to 1982", Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences, xli (1983), 213-32; see also Sarah Ratner, "A long view of nitrogen metabolism", Annual review of biochemistry, xlvi (1977), 1-24.
89. Slater, Australian biochemist (ref. 24), 121-2.
90. See also Ton van Helvoort, "Institutionalizing biochemistry: The Enzyme Institute at the University of Wisconsin", Journal of the history of medicine and allied sciences, lvii (2002), 449-79.
91. Slater, Australian biochemist (ref. 24), 124-8.
92. For a history of the ARC, see G. W. Cooke (ed.), Agricultural research, 1931-1981: A history of the Agricultural Research Council and a review of developments in agricultural science during the last fifty years (London, 1981).
93. Slater, Australian biochemist (ref. 24), 128.
94. Lord Rothschild to Slater, 23 December 1950, RANH 379 453.4; Slater, Australian biochemist (ref. 24), 129.
95. Lord Rothschild to Slater, 23 December 1950, RANH 379 453.4; Slater, Australian biochemist (ref. 24), 129.
96. E. C. Slater, "Phosphorylation coupled with the reduction of cytochrome c by alpha-ketoglutarate in heart muscle granules", Nature, clxvi (1950), 982-4.
97. Slater, Australian biochemist (ref. 24), 132-5.
98. Slater to Britton Chance, 30 September 1951, RANH 379 176; emphasis mine.
99. For a discussion of the conflicting contributions made by the latter two researchers, see Nicolas Rasmussen, "Cell fractionation biochemistry and the origins of 'cell biology"', Trends in biochemical sciences, xxi (1996), 319-21.
100. Slater, Australian biochemist (ref. 24), 135.
101. E. C. Slater, "Mechanism of phosphorylation in the respiratory chain", Nature, clxxii (1953), 975-8.
102. Cf. Marcel Weber, "Theory testing in experimental biology: The chemiosmotic mechanism of ATP synthesis", Studies in history and philosophy of biological and biomedical sciences, xxxiii (2002), 29-52; John N. Prebble, "The philosophical origins of Mitchell's chemiosmotic concepts: The personal factor in scientific theory formulation", Journal of the history of biology, xxxiv (2001), 433-60.
103. Cf. Marcel Weber, "Theory testing in experimental biology: The chemiosmotic mechanism of ATP synthesis", Studies in history and philosophy of biological and biomedical sciences, xxxiii (2002), 29-52; John N. Prebble, "The philosophical origins of Mitchell's chemiosmotic concepts: The personal factor in scientific theory formulation", Journal of the history of biology, xxxiv (2001), 433-60.
104. E. C. Slater, "The sixth Keilin Memorial Lecture: From cytochrome to adenosine triphosphate and back", Biochemical Society transactions, ii (1974), 1149-63, p. 1153. I discuss the matter further in a paper as yet unpublished, entitled "Enzymology as meeting ground (or battle field) for biology and chemistry: E. C. Slater, Peter Mitchell and the controversy on oxidative phosphorylation".
105. Slater to Jack Legge, 17 January 1949, RANH 379 182.
106. Bush, Science (ref. 9), 19.
107. Z.W.O. [H. J. Reinink et al.], Nederlandse Organisatie voor Zuiver-Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek: Voorbereiding en werkzaamheden in de oprichtingsperiode 1945-1949 ('s-Gravenhage, 1950), 8-9.
108. Albert E. Kersten, Een organisatie van en voor onderzoekers: De Nederlandse Organisatie voor Zuiver-Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (Z.W.O.) 1947-1988 (Assen, 1996), 8-9 and 39-40; cf. Ton van Helvoort, Biochemie tussen nut en cultuur: De 'triple helix' van de Nederlandse biowetenschappen (s.l., 2002).
109. Albert E. Kersten, Een organisatie van en voor onderzoekers: De Nederlandse Organisatie voor Zuiver-Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (Z.W.O.) 1947-1988 (Assen, 1996), 8-9 and 39-40; cf. Ton van Helvoort, Biochemie tussen nut en cultuur: De 'triple helix' van de Nederlandse biowetenschappen (s.l., 2002).
110. H. J. Reinink et al., Rapport van de Staatscommissie tot Reorganisatie van het Hoger Onderwijs ('s-Gravenhage, 1949).
111. Reinink et al., op. cit. (ref. 90), 246-7.
112. M. W. Woerdeman, "Minderheidsnota naar aanleiding van het rapport der sectie K (Geneeskunde)", in: Reinink et al., op. cit. (ref. 90), 317-22, p. 322.
113. Reinink et al., op. cit. (ref. 90), 266.
114. For a brief outline of the history of UvA up to the Second World War, see Peter Jan Knegtmans, Een kwetsbaar centrum van de geest: De Universiteit van Amsterdam tussen 1935 en 1950 (Amsterdam, 1998), 15-68.
115. Peter Jan Knegtmans, "Onderwijs, wetenschap en particulier initiatief aan de Universiteit van Amsterdam, 1920-1950", in: Peter Jan Knegtmans and A. J. Kox (eds), Tot nut en eer van de stad: Wetenschappelijk onderzoek aan de Universiteit van Amsterdam (Amsterdam, 2000), 79-105.
116. E. Sluiter, "De oprichting van het Nederlandsch Instituut voor Volksvoeding en zijn eerste directeur Prof. Dr E. C. van Leersum", Voeding, xv (1954), 424-7; Arie C. van der Linden and B. S. J. Wöstmann, "Het Nederlands Instituut voor Volksvoeding onder zijn tweede directeur Prof. Dr B. C. P. Jansen", Voeding, xv (1954), 427-37.
117. E. Sluiter, "De oprichting van het Nederlandsch Instituut voor Volksvoeding en zijn eerste directeur Prof. Dr E. C. van Leersum", Voeding, xv (1954), 424-7; Arie C. van der Linden and B. S. J. Wöstmann, "Het Nederlands Instituut voor Volksvoeding onder zijn tweede directeur Prof. Dr B. C. P. Jansen", Voeding, xv (1954), 427-37.
118. Cf. Rivers Singleton Jr, "From bacteriology to biochemistry: Albert Jan Kluyver and Chester Werkman at Iowa State", Journal of the history of biology, xxxiii (2000), 141-80.
119. Van Helvoort, Biochemie (ref. 89).
120. 28 April 1948, Folder 55, Box 5, Series 650, RG 1.2, Rockefeller Foundation Archives (RF), Rockefeller Archive Center, North Tarrytown, New York (RAC).
121. 16 January 1952, Folder 55, Box 5, Series 650, RG 1.2, RF.
122. 25 September 1953, Folder 38, Box 4, Series 650, RG 1.2, RF.
123. 2 March 1953, Folder 39, Box 4, Series 650, RG 1.2, RF.
124. Slater, Australian biochemist (ref. 24), 143-4; on Mendel, see W. S. Feldberg, "Bruno Mendel, 1897-1959", Biographical memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, vi (1960), 191-200.
125. Slater, Australian biochemist (ref. 24), 143-4; on Mendel, see W. S. Feldberg, "Bruno Mendel, 1897-1959", Biographical memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, vi (1960), 191-200.
126. Slater, Australian biochemist (ref. 24), 146.
127. RANH 379 451; see also Knegtmans, Kwetsbaar centrum (ref. 94), 284.
128. RANH 379 451; see also Knegtmans, Kwetsbaar centrum (ref. 94), 284.
129. RANH 379 451; see also Slater, Australian biochemist (ref. 24), 148.
130. RANH 379 451; see also Slater, Australian biochemist (ref. 24), 148.
131. Slater to F. W. Clements, 9 January 1955, RANH 379 177.10.
132. "Documents on the transfer of the Nederlands Instituut voor Volksvoeding from Amsterdam to Wageningen", RANH 379 128.2.
133. Slater to F. W. Clements, 6 March 1955, RANH 379 451.
134. Letter from Slater to "Jim", 15 October 1955, RANH 379 451.
135. Slater to K. W. Cleland, 14 November 1955, RANH 379 177.9.
136. Slater to D. Keilin, 1 July 1955, RANH 379 181.8.
137. Slater to D. Keilin, 1 July 1955, RANH 379 181.8.
138. E. C. Slater, Cell physiology and intracellular enzymes - Rede, 28 november 1955 (Amsterdam, 1955), 7.
139. E. C. Slater, "Introduction", in: E. C. Slater et al., Enzymes: Lectures held at the conference on enzymes and their action (Zwolle, 1959), 5-28, pp. 8-9.
140. See, e.g., W. C. Hülsmann, Beschouwingen over het metabolisme van het hart - Openbare les, 18 december 1962 (Groningen, 1962).
141. "Minutes of the meetings of the Medical Faculty, 9 May 1966", RANH 379 34.1-2, FG UvA, February 1966 - October 1966.
142. Hendrik C. Hemker, Begrijpen versus ingrijpen: De plaats van de kliniek in de biochemie, geïllustreerd aan voorbeelden uit de biochemie van de bloedstolling - Openbare les 6 mei 1969 (Leiden, 1969), 7-8.
143. Slater to D. Keilin, 16 March 1957, RANH 397 181.8.
144. Reinink et al., Rapport (ref. 90), 242.
145. Anonymous, Z.W.O. en de bevordering van de wetenschappen: Wetenswaardigheden omtrent de Nederlandse Organisatie voor Zuiver-Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (The Hague, 1954), 10-12.
146. For a history of SON, see F. Th. Hesselink, "Stichting Scheikundig Onderzoek in Nederland 1956-1998", in: Jaarboek Chemische Wetenschappen 1999 (The Hague, 1999), 19-28; see also Kersten, Organisatie (ref. 89).
147. For a history of SON, see F. Th. Hesselink, "Stichting Scheikundig Onderzoek in Nederland 1956-1998", in: Jaarboek Chemische Wetenschappen 1999 (The Hague, 1999), 19-28; see also Kersten, Organisatie (ref. 89).
148. 26 February 1960, Folder 40, Box 4, Series 650, RG 1.2, RF.
149. Harm Beukers, M. Gruber and R. Matthijsen, Nederlandse Vereniging voor Biochemie: De eerste 60 jaar (Utrecht, 1987); H. A. M. Snelders, "Biochemie", in: H. A. M. Snelders, De geschiedenis van de scheikunde in Nederland - 2: De ontwikkeling van chemie en chemische technologie in de eerste helft van de twintigste eeuw (Delft, 1997), 149-56.
150. Harm Beukers, M. Gruber and R. Matthijsen, Nederlandse Vereniging voor Biochemie: De eerste 60 jaar (Utrecht, 1987); H. A. M. Snelders, "Biochemie", in: H. A. M. Snelders, De geschiedenis van de scheikunde in Nederland - 2: De ontwikkeling van chemie en chemische technologie in de eerste helft van de twintigste eeuw (Delft, 1997), 149-56.
151. "Faculteit Geneeskunde, November 1968 - March 1969", RANH 379 38.
152. Reinink et al., Rapport (ref. 90), 246-7.
153. Faculteit Geneeskunde, April 1970 - September 1970, RANH 379 41; see also Hans Knippenberg and Willem van der Ham, Een bron van aanhoudende zorg: 75 Jaar Ministerie van Onderwijs (Kunsten) en Wetenschappen, 1918-1993 (Assen, 1993).
154. Faculteit Geneeskunde, April 1970 - September 1970, RANH 379 41; see also Hans Knippenberg and Willem van der Ham, Een bron van aanhoudende zorg: 75 Jaar Ministerie van Onderwijs (Kunsten) en Wetenschappen, 1918-1993 (Assen, 1993).
155. See also Daniel S. Greenberg, The politics of pure science (Chicago, IL, 1967/1999); Bruce L. R. Smith, American science policy since World War II (Washington, DC, 1990).
156. See also Daniel S. Greenberg, The politics of pure science (Chicago, IL, 1967/1999); Bruce L. R. Smith, American science policy since World War II (Washington, DC, 1990).
157. Cf. Robert E. Kohler, Partners in science: Foundations and natural scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago, 1991).
158. See also Angela N. H. Creager, "Wendell Stanley's dream of a free-standing Biochemistry Department at the University of California, Berkeley", Journal of the history of biology, xxix (1996), 331-60, pp. 338-9.
159. Verkenningscommissie Biochemie [E. C. Slater, chairman], Over Leven: Betekenis van de Biochemie in Nederland: Rapport van de Verkenningscommissie Biochemie ('s-Gravenhage, 1982), 126.
160. See, e.g., Derek Bok, Beyond the ivory tower: Social responsibilities of the modern university (Cambridge, MA, 1982); Gerhard Sonnert, Ivory bridges: Connecting science and society (Cambridge, MA, 2002).
161. See, e.g., Derek Bok, Beyond the ivory tower: Social responsibilities of the modern university (Cambridge, MA, 1982); Gerhard Sonnert, Ivory bridges: Connecting science and society (Cambridge, MA, 2002).
162. Prof. Karel van Dam, Universiteit van Amsterdam, personal communication.
163. Bas de Boer, Karel van Dam et al., Kritiek van de biochemie (Amsterdam, 1971), 18.
164. NVBMB [Nederlandse Vereniging voor Biochemie en Moleculalre Biologie], Verder met biochemie en moleculaire biologie: Beleid voor een vitale wetenschap (s.l., 2001), 2.
165. Corynne McSherry, Who owns academic work? Battling for control of intellectual property (Cambridge, MA, 2001), 6.