Social Consequences of Disparagement Humor: A Prejudiced Norm Theory

Personality and Social Psychology Review

Volumn 8, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 79-94

  Ford, Thomas E ^a   Ferguson, Mark A ^a  

^a WESTERN MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 1542403816     PISSN: 10888683     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1207/S15327957PSPR0801_4     Document Type: Review

References (107)

1. Apte, M. L. (1987). Ethnic humor versus "sense of humor": An American sociocultural dilemma. American Behavioral Scientist, 30, 27-41.
2. Arbuckle, J. L., & Wothke, W. (2000). Amos 4.0 user's guide. Chicago: SmallWaters.
3. Attardo, S. (1993). Violation of conversational maxims and cooperation: The case of jokes. Journal of Pragmatics, 19, 537-558.
4. Bargh, J. A. (1990). Auto-motives: Preconscious determinants of thought and behavior. In E. T. Higgins & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (Vol. 3, pp. 1-43). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
5. Bargh, J. A., & Barndollar, K. (1996). Automaticity in action: The unconscious as a repository of chronic goals and motives. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action (pp. 457-481). New York: Guilford.
6. Barker, K. (1994). To be PC or not to be? A social psychological inquiry into political correctness. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 9, 271-281.
7. Bem, D. J. (1972). Self-perception theory. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 6, pp. 1-62). San Diego: Academic.
8. Berger, A. A. (1993). An anatomy of humor. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
9. Berlyne, D. E. (1972). Humor and its kin. In J. H. Goldstein & P. E. McGhee (Eds.), The psychology of humor (pp. 43-60). New York: Academic.
10. Bill, B., & Naus, P. (1992). The role of humor in the interpretation of sexist incidents. Sex Roles, 27, 645-664.
11. Blanchard, F. A., Crandall, C. S., Brigham, J. C., & Vaughn, L. A. (1994). Condemning and condoning racism: A social context approach to interracial settings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 993-997.
12. Blanchard, F. A., Lilly, T., & Vaughn, L. A. (1991). Reducing expression of racial prejudice. Psychological Science, 2, 101-105.
13. Butland, M. J., & Ivy, D. K. (1990). The effects of biological sex and egalitarianism on humor appreciation: Replication and extension. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 5, 353-366.
14. Cantor, J. R., & Zillmann, D. (1973). Resentment toward victimized protagonists and severity of misfortunes they suffer as factors in humor appreciation. Journal of Experimental Research in Personality, 6, 321-329.
15. Chapman, A. J. (1974). An experimental study of socially facilitated laughter. Psychological Reports, 35, 727-734.
16. Chapman, A. J., & Chapman, W. A. (1974). Responsiveness to humor: Its dependency upon a companion's humorous smiling and laughing. Journal of Psychology, 88, 245-252.
17. Cialdini, R. B., Kallgren, C. A., & Reno, R. R. (1991). A focus theory of normative conduct: A theoretical refinement and reevaluation of the role of norms in human behavior. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 24, 201-234.
18. Cialdini, R. B., Reno, R. R., & Kallgren, C. A. (1990). A focus theory of normative conduct: Recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 1015-1026.
19. Crandall, C. S. (1994). Prejudice against fat people: Ideology and self-interest. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 882-894.
20. Crandall, C. S., & Eshleman, A. (2003). A justification-suppression model of the expression and experience of prejudice. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 414-446.
21. Crandall, C. S., Eshleman, A., & O'Brien, L. (2002). Social norms and the expression and suppression of prejudice: The struggle for internalization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 359-378.
22. Deutsch, M., & Gerard, H. B. (1955). A study of normative and informational social influence upon individual judgment. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51, 629-636.
23. Devine, P. G., Monteith, M. J., Zuwerink, J. R., & Elliot, A. J. (1991). Prejudice with and without compunction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 817-830.
24. Devine, P. G., Plant, E. A., Amodio, D. M., Harmon-Jones, E., & Vance, S. L. (2002). The regulation of explicit and implicit racial bias: The role of motivations to respond without prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 835-848.
25. Donnerstein, E., Linz, D., & Penrod, S. (1987). The question of pornography. New York: Free Press.
26. Emerson, J. P. (1969). Negotiating the serious import of humor. Sociometry, 32, 169-181.
27. Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
28. Fine, G. A. (1983). Sociological approaches to the study of humor. In P. E. McGhee & J. H. Goldstein (Eds.), Handbook of humor research (pp. 159-181). New York: Springer-Verlag.
29. Ford, T. E. (1997). Effects of stereotypical television portrayals of African-Americans on person perception. Social Psychology Quarterly, 60, 266-278.
30. Ford, T. E. (2000). Effects of sexist humor on tolerance of sexist events. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 1094-1107.
31. Ford, T. E., Ferguson, M. A., & Kalair, S. (2002, August). Effects of sexist humor on tolerance of sexist events: The role of normative structure. Paper presented at the annual conference of the American Sociological Association, Chicago.
32. Ford, T. E., Johnson, F. J., Blevins, J., & Zepeda, C. (1999, August). Effects of the gender of the joke-teller upon perceptions of offensiveness of sexist jokes. Paper presented at the annual conference of the American Sociological Association. Chicago.
33. Ford, T. E., & Lorion, J. (2000, November). Perceptions of social norms implied by sexist humor: The moderating role of hostile sexism. Paper presented at the annual conference of the National Communication Association. Seattle, WA.
34. Ford, T. E., Wentzel, E. R., & Lorion, J. (2001). Effects of exposure to sexist humor on perceptions of normative tolerance of sexism. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31, 677-691.
35. Francis, R. G. (1988). Some sociology of humor: The joke. International Social Science Review, 63, 431-446.
36. Freud, S. (1960). Jokes and their relation to the unconscious. New York: Norton. (Original work published 1905)
37. Frey, D. L., & Gaertner, S. L. (1986). Helping and the avoidance of inappropriate interracial behavior: A strategy that perpetuates a nonprejudiced self-image. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 1083-1090.
38. Gadfield, N. J. (1977). Sex differences in humour appreciation: A question of conformity. In A. J. Chapman & H. C. Foot (Eds.), It's a funny thing, humor (pp. 433-435). Elmsford, NY: Pergamon.
39. Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (1986). The aversive form of racism. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination and racism (pp. 61-89). San Diego: Academic.
40. Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1996). The ambivalent sexism inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 491-512.
41. Gollob, H. F., & Levine, J. (1967). Distraction as a factor in the enjoyment of aggressive humor. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 5, 368-372.
42. Greenberg, J., Kirkland, S. L., & Pyszczynski, T. (1988). Some theoretical notions and preliminary research concerning derogatory ethnic labels. In G. Smitherman-Donaldson & T. A. van Dijk (Eds.), Discourse and discrimination (pp. 74-92). Detroit: Wayne State University Press.
43. Greenberg, J., & Pyszczynski, T. (1985). The effect of an over-heard ethnic slur on evaluations of the target: How to spread a social disease. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 21, 61-72.
44. Greenwood, D., & Isbell, L. M. (2002). Ambivalent sexism and the dumb blonde: Men's and women's reactions to sexist jokes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26, 341-350.
45. Gutman, J., & Priest, R. F. (1967). When is aggression funny? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 12, 60-65.
46. Hansen, C. H., & Hansen, R. D. (1988). How rock music videos can change what is seen when boy meets girl: Priming Stereotypic appraisal of social interactions. Sex Roles, 19, 287-316.
47. Henkin, B., & Fish, J. M. (1986). Gender and personality differences in the appreciation of cartoon humor. Journal of Psychology, 120, 157-175.
48. Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94, 319-340.
49. Higgins, E. T. (1989). Continuities and discontinuities in self-regulatory and self-evaluative processes: A developmental theory relating self and affect. Journal of Personality, 57, 407-444.
50. Hobden, K. L., & Olson, J. M. (1994). From jest to antipathy: Disparagement humor as a source of dissonance-motivated attitude change. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 15, 239-249.
51. Husband, C. (1977). The mass media and the functions of ethnic humor in a racist society. In A. J. Chapman & H. C. Foot (Eds.), It's a funny thing, humor (pp. 267-272). Elmsford, NY: Pergamon.
52. Janes, L. M., & Olson, J. M. (2000). Jeer pressure: The behavioral effects of observing ridicule of others. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 474-485.
53. Johnson, A. M. (1990). The "only joking" defense: Attribution bias or impression management? Psychological Reports, 67, 1051-1056.
54. Kallgren, C. A., Reno, R. R., & Cialdini, R. B. (2000). A focus theory of normative conduct: When norms do and do not affect behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 1002-1012.
55. Kane, T. R., Suls, J., & Tedeschi, J. T. (1977). Humour as a tool of social interaction. In A. J. Chapman & H. C. Foot (Eds.), It's a funny thing, humor (pp. 13-16). Elmsford, NY: Pergamon.
56. Katz, I., Wackenhut, J., & Hass, G. R. (1986). Racial ambivalence, value duality, and behavior. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination and racism (pp. 35-59). San Diego: Academic.
57. Khoury, R. M. (1985). Norm formation, social conformity, and the confederating function of humor. Social Behavior and Personality, 13, 159-165.
58. Kirkland, S. L., Greenberg, J., & Pyszczynski, T. (1987). Further evidence of the deleterious effects of overheard derogatory ethnic labels: Derogation beyond the target. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 13, 216-227.
59. La Fave, L., Haddad, J., & Maesen, W. A. (1996). Superiority, enhanced self-esteem, and perceived incongruity humor theory. In A. J. Chapman & H. C. Foot (Eds.), Humor and laughter: Theory, research and applications (pp. 63-91). New York: Wiley.
60. La Fave, L., & Mannell, R. (1976). Does ethnic humor serve prejudice? Journal of Communication, 26, 116-123.
61. La Fave, L., McCarthy, K., & Haddad, J. (1973). Humor judgments as a function of identification classes: Canadian vs. American. Journal of Psychology, 85, 53-59.
62. LaFrance, M., & Woodzicka, J. A. (1998). No laughing matter: Women's verbal and nonverbal reactions to sexist humor. In J. Swim & C. Stangor (Eds.), Prejudice: The target's perspective (pp. 61-80). San Diego: Academic.
63. Maio, G. R., Olson, J. M., & Bush, J. (1997). Telling jokes that disparage social groups: Effects on the joke-teller's stereotypes. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 27, 1986-2000.
64. Malamuth, N. M. (1984). Aggression against women: Cultural and individual causes. In N. M. Malamuth & E. Donnerstein (Eds.), Pornography and sexual aggression (pp. 19-52). San Diego: Academic.
65. Malamuth, N. M., & Briere, J. (1986). Sexual violence in the media: Indirect effects on aggression against women. Journal of Social Issues, 42, 75-92.
66. Malamuth, N. M., & Check, J. V. P. (1981). The effects of mass media exposure on acceptance of violence against women: A field experiment. Journal of Research in Personality, 15, 436-446.
67. Malamuth, N. M., & Spinner, B. (1980). A longitudinal content analysis of sexual violence in the best-selling erotic magazines. Journal of Sex Research, 16, 226-237.
68. Mannell, R. C. (1977). Vicarious superiority, injustice, and aggression in humor: The role of the playful judgmental set. In A. J. Chapman & H. C. Foot (Eds.), It's a funny thing, humor (pp. 273-276). Elmsford, NY: Pergamon.
69. Martineau, W. H. (1972). A model of social functions of humor. In J. H. Goldstein & P. E. McGhee (Eds.), The psychology of humor (pp. 101-125). New York: Academic.
70. McConahay, J. B. (1986). Modern racism, ambivalence, and the modern racism scale. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination and racism (pp. 91-125). San Diego: Academic.
71. McGhee, P. E. (1972). On the cognitive origins of incongruity humor: Fantasy assimilation versus reality assimilation. In J. H. Goldstein & P. E. McGhee (Eds.), The psychology of humor (pp. 61-79). New York: Academic.
72. McGhee, P. E., & Duffey, N. S. (1983). Children's appreciation of humor victimizing different racial groups: Racial-ethnic differences. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 14, 29-40.
73. Meyer, J. C. (2001). Humor as a double-edged sword: Four functions of humor in communication. Communication Theory, 10, 310-331.
74. Monteith, M. J., Deenen, N. E., & Tooman, G. D. (1996). The effect of social norm activation on the expression of opinions concerning gay men and blacks. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 18, 267-288.
75. Monteith, M. J., Devine, P. G., & Zuwerink, J. R. (1993). Self-directed versus other-directed affect as a consequence of prejudice-related discrepancies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 198-210.
76. Moore, T. E., Griffiths, K., & Payne, B. (1987). Gender, attitudes towards women, and the appreciation of sexist humor. Sex Roles, 16, 521-531.
77. Moretti, M. M., & Higgins, E. T. (1999). Internal representations of others in self-regulation: A new look at a classic issue. Social Cognition, 17, 186-208.
78. Mulkay, M. (1988). On humor: Its nature and its place in modern society. New York: Blackwell Inc.
79. Mutuma, H., La Fave, L., Mannell, R., & Guilmette, A. M. (1977). Ethnic humour is no joke. In A. J. Chapman & H. C. Foot (Eds.), It's a funny thing, humor (pp. 277-280). Elmsford, NY: Pergamon.
80. Olson, J. M., Maio, G. R., & Hobden, K. L. (1999). The (null) effects of exposure to disparagement humor on stereotypes and attitudes. Humor: International Journal of Humor Research, 12, 195-219.
81. Osborne, K., & Chapman, A. J. (1977). Suppression of adult laughter: An experimental approach. In A. J. Chapman & H. C. Foot (Eds.), It's a funny thing, humor (pp. 429-432). Elmsford, NY: Pergamon.
82. Plant, E. A., & Devine, P. G. (1998). Internal and external motivation to respond without prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 811-832.
83. Rouhana, N. N. (1996). Perceiving the mela-message of disparaging intergroup jokes: The role of the joke teller's group membership and attitudes. Unpublished manuscript.
84. Ruscher, J. B. (2001). Prejudiced communication: A social psychological perspective. New York: Guilford.
85. Ryan, K. M., & Kanjorski, J. (1998). The enjoyment of sexist humor, rape attitudes, and relationship aggression in college students. Sex Roles, 38, 743-756.
86. Sev'er, A., & Ungar, S. (1997). No laughing matter: Boundaries of gender-based humour in the classroom. Journal of Higher Education, 68, 87-105.
87. Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7, 422-445.
88. Simon, L., & Greenberg, J. (1996). Further progress in understanding the effects of derogatory ethnic labels: The role of preexisting attitudes toward the targeted group. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 1195-1204.
89. Stangor, C., Sechrist, G. B., & Jost, J. T. (2001). Changing racial beliefs by providing consensus information. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 486-496.
90. Stephenson, R. M. (1951). Conflict and control functions of humor. American Journal of Sociology, 56, 569-574.
91. Suls, J. M. (1972). A two-stage model for the appreciation of jokes and cartoons: An information-processing analysis. In J. H. Goldstein & P. E. McGhee (Eds.), The psychology of humor (pp. 81-100). New York: Academic.
92. Swim, J. K., Aikin, K. J., Hall, W. S., & Hunter, B. A. (1995). Sexism and racism: Old-fashioned and modern prejudices. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 199-214.
93. Tougas, F., Brown, R., Beaton, A. M., & Joly, S. (1995). Neosexism: Plus ca change, plus c'est pareil. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 842-849.
94. Vidmar, N., & Rokeach, M. (1974). Archie Bunker's bigotry: A study in selective perception and exposure. The Journal of Communication, 24, 36-47.
95. Weston, C. M., & Thomsen, C. J. (1993, August). No joking matter: Sex-typed comedy perpetuates traditional views of women. Paper presented at the American Psychological Association conference, Toronto, Canada.
96. Wicker, F. W., Barron, W. L., III, & Willis, A. C. (1980). Disparagement humor: Dispositions and resolutions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 701-709.
97. Wittenbrink, B., & Henly, J. R. (1996). Creating social reality: Informational social influence and content of Stereotypic beliefs. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 598-610.
98. Wyer, R. S., & Collins, J. E. (1992). A theory of humor elicitation. Psychological Review, 99, 663-688.
99. Young, R. D., & Frye, M. (1966). Some are laughing; some are not -Why? Psychological Reports, 18, 747-754.
100. Zenner, W. P. (1970). Joking and ethnic stereotyping. Anthropological Quarterly, 2, 93-113.
101. Zillmann, D. (1983). Disparagement humor. In P. E. McGhee & J. H. Goldstein (Eds.), Handbook of humor research: Vol. 1. Basic issues (pp. 85-107). New York: Springer-Verlag.
102. Zillmann, D. (2000). Humor and comedy. In D. Zillmann & P. Vorderer (Eds.), Media entertainment: The psychology of its appeal (pp. 37-57). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
103. Zillmann, D., & Bryant, J. (1980). Misaltribution theory of tendentious humor. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 16, 146-160.
104. Zillmann, D., & Bryant, J. (1982). Pornography, sexual callousness, and the trivialization of rape. Journal of Communication, 32, 10-21.
105. Zillmann, D., Bryant, J., & Cantor, J. R. (1974). Brutality of assault in political cartoons affecting humor appreciation. Journal of Research in Personality, 7, 334-345.
106. Zillmann, D., & Cantor, J. R. (1996). A disposition theory of humor and mirth. In A. J. Chapman & H. C. Foot (Eds.), Humor and laughter: Theory, research and applications (pp. 93-116). New York: Wiley.
107. Ziv, A., & Gadish, O. (1990). The disinhibiting effects of humor: Aggressive and affective responses. Humor: International Journal of Humor Research, 3, 247-257.