North Pacific Acoustic Laboratory

Journal of the Acoustical Society of America

Volumn 117, Issue 3 II, 2005, Pages 1499-1510

  Worcester, Peter F ^a   Spindel, Robert C ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACOUSTIC ARRAYS; ACOUSTIC RECEIVERS; ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT; FREQUENCIES; RESEARCH LABORATORIES; TRANSMITTERS;

BROADBAND PROPAGATION; ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABILITY; SIGNAL STABILITY; VERTICAL LINE ARRAY RECEIVERS;

ACOUSTIC WAVE PROPAGATION;

ACOUSTICS; ARTICLE; CALCULATION; ECHOLOCATION; ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE; FREQUENCY MODULATION; GEOMETRY; LABORATORY; LIGHT SCATTERING; MAMMAL; MARINE ENVIRONMENT; MEASUREMENT; NOISE; NORMAL DISTRIBUTION; OCEANOGRAPHY; PACIFIC OCEAN; PHYSICS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REFRACTION INDEX; SEASHORE; SIGNAL PROCESSING; SIMULATION; THERMOMETRY; TIME; TOMOGRAPHY;

ACOUSTICS; ANIMALS; DOPPLER EFFECT; LABORATORIES; MAMMALS; MODELS, THEORETICAL; NONLINEAR DYNAMICS; OCEANOGRAPHY; PACIFIC OCEAN; SEALS, EARLESS; TEMPERATURE; WHALES;

EID: 14844354797     PISSN: 00014966     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1121/1.1854780     Document Type: Article

References (47)

1. P. F. Worcester, B. D. Cornuelle, J. A. Hildebrand, W. S. Hodgkiss, Jr., T. F. Duda, J. D. Boyd, B. M. Howe, J. A. Mercer, and R. C. Spindel, "A comparison of measured and predicted broadband acoustic arrival patterns in travel time-depth coordinates at 1000 km range," J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 95, 3118-3128 (1994).
2. This experiment has become known as the ATOC Acoustic Engineering Test (AET) and is referred to by that name in some of the papers in this volume.
3. This experiment has become known as the Alternate Source Test (AST).
4. A summary of many results up to 1999 is found in J. A. Colosi and the ATOC Group (A. B. Baggeroer, T. G. Birdsall, C. Clark, J. A. Colosi, B. D. Cornuelle, D. Costa, B. D. Dushaw, M. Dzieciuch, A. M. G. Forbes, B. M. Howe, D. Menemenlis, J. A. Mercer, K. Metzger, W. H. Munk, R. C. Spindel, P. F. Worcester, and C. Wunsch), "A review of recent results on ocean acoustic wave propagation in random media: Basin scales," IEEE J. Ocean. Eng. 24, 138-155 (1999).
5. S. M. Flatté, R. Dashen, W. H. Munk, K. M. Watson, and F. Zachariasen, Sound Transmission Through a Fluctuating Ocean (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 1979).
6. R. K. Andrew, B. M. Howe, J. A. Mercer, and the NPAL Group (J. A. Colosi, B. D. Cornuelle, B. D. Dushaw, M. A. Dzieciuch, B. M. Howe, J. A. Mercer, W. H. Munk, R. C. Spindel, and P. F. Worcester), "Transverse horizontal spatial coherence of deep arrivals at megameter ranges," J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 117, 1511-1526 (2205).
7. S. M. Flatté and M. D. Vera, "Comparison between ocean-acoustic fluctuations in parabolic-equation simulations and estimates from integral approximations," J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 114, 697-706 (2003).
8. J. A. Colosi, A. B. Baggeroer, B. D. Cornuelle, M. A. Dzieciuch, W. H. Munk, P. F. Worcester, B. D. Dushaw, B. M. Howe, J. A. Mercer, R. C. Spindel, T. G. Birdsall, K. Metzger, and A. M. G. Forbes, "Analysis of multipath acoustic field variability and coherence in the finale of broadband basin-scale transmissions in the North Pacific Ocean," J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 117, 1538-1564 (2005).
9. A. G. Voronovich, V. E. Ostashev, and the NPAL Group (J. A. Colosi, B. D. Cornuelle, B. D. Dushaw, M. A. Dzieciuch, B. M. Howe, J. A. Mercer, W. H. Munk, R. C. Spindel, and P. F. Worcester), "Horizontal refraction of acoustic signals retrieved from North Pacific Ocean, Acoustic Laboratory billboard array data," J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 117, 1565-1581 (2005).
10. K. E. Wage, M. A. Dzieciuch, P. F. Worcester, B. M. Howe, and J. A. Mercer, "Mode coherence at megameter ranges in the North Pacific," J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 117, 1565-1581 (2005).
11. P. N. Mikhalevsky, A. Gavrilov, and A. B. Baggeroer, "The transarctic acoustic propagation experiment and climate monitoring in the Arctic," IEEE J. Ocean. Eng. 24, 183-201 (1999).
12. W. H. Munk, "Horizontal deflection of acoustic paths by mesoscale eddies," J. Phys. Oceanogr. 10, 596-604 (1980).
13. A. G. Voronovich and E. C. Shang, "A note on horizontal-refraction- modal tomography," J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 98, 2708-2716 (1995).
14. This term was first used in M. A. Wolfson and F. D. Tappert, "Study of horizontal multipaths and ray chaos due to ocean mesoscale structure," J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 107, 154-162 (2000).
15. Sometimes described as explosive growth of an acoustic beam.
16. K. C. Hegewisch, N. R. Cerruti, and S. Tomsovic, "Ocean acoustic wave propagation and ray method correspondence: Internal wave fine structure," J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 117, 1582-1594 (2005).
17. I. P. Smirnov, A. L. Virovlyansky, and G. M. Zaslavsky, "Ray chaos, travel time modulation and sensitivity to the initial conditions," J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 117, 1595-1606 (2005).
18. W. H. Munk, P. F. Worcester, and C. Wunsch, Ocean Acoustic Tomography (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 1995).
19. M. G. Brown, F. J. Beron-Vera, I. Rypina, and I. Udovydchenkov, "Rays, modes, wavefield structure and wavefield stability," J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 117, 1606-1610 (2005).
20. S. D. Chuprov and N. Y. Mal'tsev, "An invariant of the spatial-frequency interference pattern of the acoustic field in a layered ocean," Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 257, 2475-2479 (1981).
21. F. J. Beron-Vera and M. G. Brown, "Ray stability in weakly range-dependent sound channels," J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 114, 123-130 (2003).
22. A. K. Morozov and J. A. Colosi, "Entropy and scintillation analysis of acoustical beam propagation through ocean internal waves," J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 117, 1611-1623 (2005).
23. Bottom interactions are less of an issue for the Pioneer Seamount source, because the bottom slope on Pioneer Seamount is much steeper than the slope on Kauai.
24. K. D. Heaney, "The Kauai near-source test (KNST): Modeling and measurements of downslope propagation near the North Pacific Acoustic Laboratory (NPAL) Kauai source," J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 117, 1635-1642 (2005).
25. M. D. Vera, K. D. Heaney, and the North Pacific Aboustic Laboratory (NPAL) Group (J. A. Colosi, B. D. Cornuelle, B. D. Dushaw, M. A. Dzieciuch, B. M. Howe, J. A. Mercer, W. H. Munk, R. C. Spindel, and P. F. Worcester), "The effect of bottom interaction on transmissions from the North Pacific Acoustic Laboratory (NPAL) Kauai source," J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 117, 1624-1634 (2005)
26. P. F. Worcester, B. D. Cornuelle, M. A. Dzieciuch, W. H. Munk, B. M. Howe, J. A. Mercer, R. C. Spindel, J. A. Colosi, K. Metzger, T. G. Birdsail, and A. B. Baggeroer, "A test of basin-scale acoustic thermometry using a large-aperture vertical array at 3250-km range in the eastern North Pacific Ocean," J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 105, 3185-3201 (1999).
27. J. L. Spiesberger and K. Metzger, "A new algorithm for sound speed in seawater," J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 89, 2677-2688 (1991).
28. B. D. Dushaw, P. F. Worcester, B. D. Cornuelle, and B. M. Howe, "On equations for the speed of sound in seawater," J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 93, 255-275 (1993).
29. J. L. Spiesberger, "Is Del Grosso's sound-speed algorithm correct?" J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 93, 2235-2237 (1993).
30. For a more complete discussion of the ATOC measurements see ATOC Consortium (A. B. Baggeroer, T. G. Birdsall, C. Clark, J. A. Colosi, B. D. Cornuelle, D. Costa, B. D. Dushaw, M. Dzieciuch, A. M. G. Forbes, B. M. Howe, D. Menemenlis, J. A. Mercer, K. Metzger, W. H. Munk, R. C. Spindel, P. F. Worcester, and C. Wunsch), "Ocean climate change: comparison of acoustic tomography, satellite altimetry, and modeling," Science 281, 1327-1332 (1998); B. D. Dushaw, B. M. Howe, J. A. Mercer, R. C. Spindel, and the ATOC Group, "Multimegameter range acoustic data obtained by bottom hydrophone arrays for measurement of ocean temperature," IEEE J. Ocean. Eng. 24, 202-214 (1999); B. D. Dushaw, G. Bold, C.-S. Chui, J. Colosi, B. Cornuelle, Y. Desaubies, M. Dzieciuch, A. Forbes, F. Gaillard, J. Gould, B. Howe, M. Lawrence, J. Lynch, D. Menemenlis, J. Mercer, P. Mikhaelvsky, W. Munk, I. Nakano, F. Schott, U. Send, R. Spindel, T. Terre, P. Worcester, and C. Wunsch, "Observing the ocean in the 2000's: A strategy for the role of acoustic tomography in ocean climate observation," in Observing the Oceans in the 21st Century, edited by C. J. Koblinsky and N. R. Smith (GODAE Project Office and Bureau of Meteorology, Melbourne, 2001), pp. 391-418.
31. For a more complete discussion of the ATOC measurements see ATOC Consortium (A. B. Baggeroer, T. G. Birdsall, C. Clark, J. A. Colosi, B. D. Cornuelle, D. Costa, B. D. Dushaw, M. Dzieciuch, A. M. G. Forbes, B. M. Howe, D. Menemenlis, J. A. Mercer, K. Metzger, W. H. Munk, R. C. Spindel, P. F. Worcester, and C. Wunsch), "Ocean climate change: comparison of acoustic tomography, satellite altimetry, and modeling," Science 281, 1327-1332 (1998); B. D. Dushaw, B. M. Howe, J. A. Mercer, R. C. Spindel, and the ATOC Group, "Multimegameter range acoustic data obtained by bottom hydrophone arrays for measurement of ocean temperature," IEEE J. Ocean. Eng. 24, 202-214 (1999); B. D. Dushaw, G. Bold, C.-S. Chui, J. Colosi, B. Cornuelle, Y. Desaubies, M. Dzieciuch, A. Forbes, F. Gaillard, J. Gould, B. Howe, M. Lawrence, J. Lynch, D. Menemenlis, J. Mercer, P. Mikhaelvsky, W. Munk, I. Nakano, F. Schott, U. Send, R. Spindel, T. Terre, P. Worcester, and C. Wunsch, "Observing the ocean in the 2000's: A strategy for the role of acoustic tomography in ocean climate observation," in Observing the Oceans in the 21st Century, edited by C. J. Koblinsky and N. R. Smith (GODAE Project Office and Bureau of Meteorology, Melbourne, 2001), pp. 391-418.
32. For a more complete discussion of the ATOC measurements see ATOC Consortium (A. B. Baggeroer, T. G. Birdsall, C. Clark, J. A. Colosi, B. D. Cornuelle, D. Costa, B. D. Dushaw, M. Dzieciuch, A. M. G. Forbes, B. M. Howe, D. Menemenlis, J. A. Mercer, K. Metzger, W. H. Munk, R. C. Spindel, P. F. Worcester, and C. Wunsch), "Ocean climate change: comparison of acoustic tomography, satellite altimetry, and modeling," Science 281, 1327-1332 (1998); B. D. Dushaw, B. M. Howe, J. A. Mercer, R. C. Spindel, and the ATOC Group, "Multimegameter range acoustic data obtained by bottom hydrophone arrays for measurement of ocean temperature," IEEE J. Ocean. Eng. 24, 202-214 (1999); B. D. Dushaw, G. Bold, C.-S. Chui, J. Colosi, B. Cornuelle, Y. Desaubies, M. Dzieciuch, A. Forbes, F. Gaillard, J. Gould, B. Howe, M. Lawrence, J. Lynch, D. Menemenlis, J. Mercer, P. Mikhaelvsky, W. Munk, I. Nakano, F. Schott, U. Send, R. Spindel, T. Terre, P. Worcester, and C. Wunsch, "Observing the ocean in the 2000's: A strategy for the role of acoustic tomography in ocean climate observation," in Observing the Oceans in the 21st Century, edited by C. J. Koblinsky and N. R. Smith (GODAE Project Office and Bureau of Meteorology, Melbourne, 2001), pp. 391-418.
33. K. R. Curtis, B. M. Howe, and J. A. Mercer, "Low-frequency ambient sound in the North Pacific: Long time series observations," J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 106, 3189-3200 (1999).
34. R. K. Andrew, B. M. Howe, J A. Mercer, and M. A. Dzieciuch, "Ocean ambient sound: Comparing the 1960s with the 1990s for a receiver off the California coast," ARLO 3, 65-69 (2002).
35. A. B. Baggeroer, E. K. Scheer, and the NPAL Group (J. A. Colosi, B. D. Cornuelle, B. D. Dushaw, M. A. Dzieciuch, B. M. Howe, J. A. Mercer, W. H. Munk, R. C. Spindel, and P. F. Worcester), "Statistics and vertical directionality of low frequency ambient noise at the North Pacific Acoustic Laboratory (NPAL) site," J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 117, 1643-1665 (2005).
36. W. W. L. Au, P. E. Nachtigall, and J. L. Pawloski, "Acoustic effects of the ATOC signal (75 Hz, 195 dB) on dolphins and whales," J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 101, 2973-2977 (1997).
37. D. P. Costa, D. E. Crocker, D. M. Waples, P. M. Webb, J. Gedamke, D. S. Houser, P. D. Goley, B. J. Le Boeuf, and J. Calambokidis, "The California Marine Mammal Research Program of the Acoustic Thermometry of Ocean Climate Experiment," in California and the World Ocean '97, San Diego, California, March 24-27, 1997, edited by O. T. Magoon et al. (American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA, 1998), pp. 1542-1553.
38. A. S. Frankel and C. W. Clark, "Results of low-frequency playback of M-sequence noise to humpback whales, Megaptera novaeangliae, in Hawai'i," Can. J. Zool. 76, 521-535 (1998).
39. A. S. Frankel and C. W. Clark, "Behavioral responses of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) to full-scale ATOC signals," J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 108, 1930-1937 (2000).
40. A. S. Frankel and C. W. Clark, "ATOC and other factors affecting the distribution and abundance of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) off the north shore of Kauai," Marine Mammal Sci. 18, 644-662 (2002).
41. D. P. Costa, D. E. Crocker, J. Gedamke, P. M. Webb, D. S. Houser, S. B. Blackwell, D. Waples, S. A. Hayes, and B. J. Le Boeuf, "The effect of a low-frequency sound source (acoustic thermometry of the ocean climate) on the diving behavior of juvenile northern elephant seals, Mirounga angustirostris," J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 113, 1155-1165 (2003).
42. J. R. Mobley, Jr., "Assessing responses of humpback whales to North Pacific Acoustic Laboratory (NPAL) transmissions: Results of 2001-2003 aerial surveys north of Kauai," J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 117, 1666-1673 (2005).
43. J. C. Burtenshaw, E. M. Oleson, J. A. Hildebrand, M. A. McDonald, R. K. Andrew, B. M. Howe, and J. A. Mercer, "Acoustic and satellite remote sensing of blue whale seasonality and habitat in the northeast Pacific," Deep-Sea Res., Part II 51, 967-986 (2004).
44. -1√1023=88.21°, is chosen to achieve a spectrum with a smooth sin x/x envelope.
45. The Kauai source transmitted from 30 October 1997 to 3 October 1999, when the permit for its operation ended. The final authorization needed to resume transmissions was received on 23 January 2002, and the source transmissions started on 24 January 2002 for a 5-year period.
46. A matched filter produces the maximum signal-to-noise output if the input signal is known exactly, and the background noise is white.
47. M. A. Dzieciuch (private communication, 2002).