Assessing the optimal length of parental leave for child and parental well-being: How can research inform policy?

Journal of Family Issues

Volumn 26, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 219-246

  Galtry, Judith ^a   Callister, Paul ^a  

^a VICTORIA UNIVERSITY

Author keywords

Gender equality; Health; Labor markets; Parental leave

Indexed keywords

EID: 14644423197     PISSN: 0192513X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0192513X04270344     Document Type: Review

References (96)

1. Ainsworth, M. (1967). Infancy in Uganda: Infant care and the growth of love. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins.
2. American Academy of Pediatrics. (1997). Breastfeeding and the use of human milk. Pediatrics, 100, 1035-1039.
3. Angelsen, N. K., Vik, T., Jacobsen, G., & Bakketeig, L. S. (2001). Breast feeding and cognitive development at age 1 and5 years. Archives of Diseases in Childhood, 85, 183-188.
4. Auerbach, K. G. (1999). Maternal employment and breastfeeding. In J. Riordan & K. G. Auerbach (Eds.), Breastfeeding and human lactation (2nd ed., pp. 577-600). Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett.
5. Auerbach, K. G., & Guss, E. (1984). Maternal employment and breastfeeding: A study of 567 women's experiences. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 138, 958-960.
6. Barker, D. J. P. (1994). Mothers, babies and disease in later life. London: BMJ.
7. Bell, L., & Freeman, R. B. (2001). Working hard. In G. Wong & G. Picot (Eds.), Working time in comparative perspective, Volume 1 (pp.71 -105). Kalamazoo, ML: W. E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research.
8. Bergmann, B. R. (1986). The economic emergence of women. New York: Basic Books.
9. Bick, D. E., MacArthur, C., & Lancashire, R. J. (1998). What influences the uptake and early cessation of breast feeding? Midwifery, 14, 242-247.
10. Blaauw, R., Albertse, E. C., Beneke, T., Lombard, C. J., Laubsher, R., & Hough, F. S. (1994). Risk factors for the development of osteoporosis in a South African population: A prospective analysis. South African Medical Journal, 84, 328-332.
11. Blau, F. D., Ferber, M. A., & Winkler, A. E. (2001). The economics of women, men, and work. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
12. Bowlby, J. (1952). Maternal care and mental health. Report prepared on behalf of the World Health Organization as a contribution to the United Nations program for the welfare of homeless children. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
13. Callister, P. (2002). Should job protection and income support for new parents be separated? Policy options in a U.S. and New Zealand context. Community, Work & Family, 5, 279-299.
14. Carlsen, S. (1998). Men on parental leave: How men use parental leave in the Nordic countries. Report prepared for the Nordic Council of Ministers.
15. Clark, R., Hyde, J. S., Essex, M. J., & Klein, M. H. (1997). Length of maternity leave and quality of mother-infant interactions. Child Development, 68, 364-383.
16. Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. (2002). Breast cancer and breastfeeding: Collaborative reanalysis of individual data from 47 epidemiological studies in 30 countries. Lancet, 20, 360(9328), 203-10.
17. Dettwyler, K. (1995). Beauty and the breast: The cultural context of breastfeeding in the United States. In P. Stuart-Macadam & K. Dettwyler (Eds.), Breastfeeding: Biocultural perspectives (pp. 167-216). New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
18. Esping-Andersen, G. (1996). After the golden age? Welfare state dilemmas in a global economy. In G. Esping-Andersen (Ed.), Welfare states in transition: National adaptations in global economies (pp. 1-31). London: Sage.
19. European Commission. (1994). Leave arrangements for workers with children: A review of leave arrangements in the member states of the European Union and Austria, Finland, Norway and Sweden (Document No. V/773/94-EN). Brussels: European Commission.
20. Fein, S. B., & Roe, B. (1998). The effect of work status on initiation and duration of breastfeeding. American Journal of Public Health, 88, 1042-1046.
21. Folbre, N. (1994). Who pays for the kids? Gender and the structures of constraint. London/New York: Routledge.
22. Folbre, N. (2001). The invisible heart: Economics and family values. New York: New Press.
23. Freudenheim, J. L., Marshall, J. R., Graham, S., Laughlin, R., Vena, J. E., Bandera, E., et al. (1994). Exposure to breastmilk in infancy and the risk of breast cancer. Epidemiology, 5, 324-331.
24. Galtry, J. (1997). Suckling and silence in the USA: The costs and benefits of breastfeeding. Feminist Economics, 3, 1-23.
25. Galtry, J. (2000). Extending the "bright line": Feminism, breastfeeding and the workplace in the United States. Gender & Society, 14, 295-317.
26. Galtry, J. (2001). Maternal employment and breastfeeding: Policies and practices in the United States and Sweden (BLCC Working Paper #01-12). Ithaca, NY.: Cornell University, Bronfenbrenner Life Course Center.
27. Galtry, J. (2002). Child health: An underplayed variable in parental leave policy debates. Community, Work & Family, 5, 257-278.
28. Gerrard, N. (2001, August 12). Delivery by caesarean section is now touted as the celebrities' choice. The Observer.
29. Gielen, A. C., Faden, R. R., O'Campo, P., Hendricks-Brown, C., & Paige, D. M. (1991). Maternal employment during the early postpartum period: Effects on initiation and continuation of breast-feeding. Pediatrics, 87, 298-305.
30. Gjerdingen, D. K., Froberg, D. G., & Kochevar, L. (1991). Changes in women's mental and physical health from pregnancy through six months postpartum. Journal of Family Practice, 32, 161-166.
31. Greiner, T. (1990, May 26-June 1). Breastfeeding and working women: Thinking strategically. Revised background paper for the UNICEF Workshop on Work, Women, and Breastfeeding, Brasilia.
32. Gwinn, M. L., Lee, N. C., Rhodes, P. H., Layde, P. M., & Rubin, G. L. (1990). Pregnancy, breastfeeding, and oral contraceptives and the risk of epithelial ovarian cancer. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 43, 559-568.
33. Haas, L. (1992). Equal parenthood and social policy: A study of parental leave in Sweden. Albany: State University of New York Press.
34. Haas, L., & Hwang, P. (1999). Parental leave in Sweden. In P. Moss & F. Deven (Eds.), Parental leave: Progress or pitfall? Research and policy issues in Europe (pp. 45-68). Brussels: Vlaamse Gemeenschap/CBGS.
35. Han, W-J., Waldfogel, J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2001). The effects of early maternal employment on later cognitive and behavioral outcomes. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 63, 336-354.
36. Harris, A. C. (1993). Child Development (2nd ed.). St. Paul, MN: West.
37. Hartge, P., Schiffmon, M. H., Hoover, R., McGowan, L., Lesher, L., & Noms, H. J. (1989). A case-control study of epithelial ovarian cancer. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 161, 10-16.
38. Hattiangadi, A. (2000, August 11). Bringing up baby: A comparison of U.S. and European family leave policies. Contemporary Issues in Employment and Workplace Policy. Washington, DC.: Employment Policy Foundation.
39. Heitlinger, A. (1993). Women's equality, demography and public policies. Britain: MacMillan Press/New York: St. Martins.
40. Huffman, L. W., Youngblade L. M., Coley, R. L., Fuligni, A. S., & Kovacs, D. D. (1999). Mothers at work: Effects on children's well-being. New York: Cambridge University.
41. Horwood, L. J., & Ferguson, D. M. (1998). Breastfeeding and later cognitive development and academic outcomes. Pediatrics, 101, e9. [Pediatrics Online]. Available from www.pediatrics.org
42. Hrdy, S. B. (1999). Mother nature: A history of mothers, infants, and natural selection. New York: Pantheon Books.
43. Institute for Women's Policy Research. (2000). Paid family and medical leave: Essential support for working women and men, Fact sheet. Washington, DC.: Institute for Women's Policy Research.
44. International Labour Organization. (1997). Maternity protection at work: Revision of the Maternity Protection Convention (Rev. ed.), 7952 (No. 103), and Recommendation, 1952 (No. 95), Report V (1). International Labour Conference, 87th Session. Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Office.
45. Jones, E. G., & Matheny, R. J. (1993). Relationship between infant feeding and exclusion rate from child care because of illness. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 93, 809-811.
46. Joshi, H., Paci, P., & Waldfogel, J. (1999). The wages of motherhood: Better or worse? Cambridge Journal of Economics, 23, 543-564.
47. Kamerman, S. B. (2000). Parental leave policies: An essential ingredient in early childhood education and care policies. Social policy report, Volume XIV, 2. A Publication of the Society for Research in Child Development. Michigan: University of Michigan.
48. Kamerman, S. B., & Kahn, A. J. (1991). A U.S. policy challenge. In S. B. Kamerman & A. J. Kahn (Eds.), Child care, parental leave, and the under 3's-Policy innovation in Europe (pp. 1-22). Westport, CT: Auburn House.
49. Kearney, M. H., & Cronenwett, L. (1991). Breastfeeding and employment. Journal of Obstetric-Gynecologic and Neonatal Nursing, 20, 471-480.
50. Klaus, M. H., & Kennell, J. H. (1976). Maternal-infant bonding: The impact of early separation or loss on family development. St. Louis, MO: Mosby.
51. Labbok, M. (2001). Effects of breastfeeding on the mother. Pediatrie Clinics of North America,48, 143-158.
52. Lamb, M. E. (1976). The role of the father in child development. New York: John Wiley.
53. Lero, D. S. (2003). Research on parental leave policies and children's development: Implications for policy makers and service providers. In R. E. Tremblay, R. G. Barr, & R. D. Peters (Eds.), Encyclopedia in early childhood development, 1-9. Montreal, Quebec: Centre of Excellence for Early Childhood Development retrieved from www.excellence-jeunesenfants.ca/documents/LeroANGxp.pdf
54. Lindberg, L. D. (1996). Women's decisions about breastfeeding and maternal employment. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 58, 239-251.
55. McGovern, P., Dowd, B., Gjerdingen, D. K., Moscovice, I., Kochevar, L., & Lohman, W. (1997). Time off work and the postpartum health of employed women. Medical Care, 35, 507-521.
56. McGovern, P., Gjerdingen, D. K., & Froberg, D. G. (1992). The parental leave debate: Implications for policy relevant research. Women and Health, 18, 97-118.
57. McKim, M. K., Cramer, K. M., Stuart, B., & O'Connor, D. L. (1999). Infant care decisions and attachment security: The Canadian transition to child care study. Canadian Journal of Behaviourial Science, 31, 92-106.
58. Moen, P. (1989). Working parents: Transformations in gender roles and public policies in Sweden. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
59. Moen, P., & Forest, K. B. (1999). Strengthening families: Policy issues for the twenty-first century. In M. B. Sussman, S. K. Steinmetz, & G. W. Peterson (Eds.), Handbook of marriage and the family (pp. 633-663). New York: Plenum.
60. Morley, R., Cole, T. J., Powell, R., & Lucas, A. (1988). Mother's choice to provide breast milk and developmental outcome. Archives of Diseases in Childhood, 63, 1382-1385.
61. Moss, P., & Deven, F. (1999). Parental leave in context. In P. Moss & F. Deven (Eds.), Parental leave: Progress or pitfall? Research and policy issues in Europe (pp. 1-24). Brussels: Vlaamse Gemeenschap/CBGS.
62. National Alliance for Caregiving and National Center on Women and Aging. (1999). The Metlife juggling act study: Balancing caregiving with work and the costs involved. Brandeis University, MA: National Alliance for Caregiving and National Center on Women and Aging.
63. Newcomb, P. A., Storer, B. E., Longnecker, M. P., Mittendorf, R., Greenberg, E. R., Clapp, R. W., et al. (1994). Lactation and a reduced risk of premenopausal breast cancer. New England Journal of Medicine, 330, 81-87.
64. OECD. (1995, July). Long-term leave for parents in OECD countries. Employment Outlook, 171-202.
65. OECD. (1999). OECD health data 99: A comparative analysis of 29 countries. Paris: Author.
66. Riley, L. A., & Glass, J. (2002). You can't always get what you want: Infant care preferences and use among employed mothers. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64, 2-15.
67. Roe, B., Whittington, L. A., Fein, S. B., & Teisl, M. F. (1999). Is there competition between breast-feeding and maternal employment? Demography, 36, 157-171.
68. Rønsen, M., & Sundström, M. (1996). Maternal employment in Scandinavia: A comparison of the after-birth employment activity of Norwegian and Swedish women. Journal of Population Economics, 9, 67-285.
69. Ruhm, C. (1998a). The economic consequences of parental leave mandates: Lessons from Europe. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 113, 285-317.
70. Ruhm, C. (1998b). Parental leave and child health (NBER Working Paper 6554). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
71. Ruhm, C. (2000a). Parental employment and child cognitive development (NBER Working Paper 7666). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
72. Ruhm, C. (2000b). Parental leave and child health. Journal of Health Economics, 19, 931-960.
73. Ryan, A. S., & Martinez, G. A. (1989). Breastfeeding and the working mother: A profile. Pediatrics, 83, 524-531.
74. Scariati, P. D., Grummer-Strawn, L. M., & Fein, S. B. (1997). A longitudinal analysis of infant morbidity and the extent of breastfeeding in the United States. Pediatrics, 99, e5 [Pediatrics Online]. Available from www.pediatrics.org
75. Shapiro, D., & Mott, F. L. (1994). Long-term employment and earnings of women in relation to employment behavior surrounding the first birth. Journal of Human Resources, 24, 249-275.
76. Shulock, N. (1999). The paradox of policy analysis: If it is not used, why do we produce so much of it? Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 18, 226-244.
77. Skocpol, T. (2000). The missing middle: Working families and the future of American social policy. New York: Norton.
78. Stafford, F. P., & Sundström, M. (1994, September 23-25). Time out for childcare and career wages of men and women. Paper presented at the 6th annual conference of the European Association of Labour Economists, Warsaw.
79. Stevens-Simon, C., & Orleans, M. (1999). Low-birthweight prevention programs: The enigma of failure. Birth, 26, 184-191.
80. Sundström, M. (1991). Sweden: Supporting work, family, and gender equality. In S. B. Kamerman & A. J. Kahn (Eds.), Child care, parental leave, and the under 3's-Policy innovation in Europe (pp. 171-199). New York: Auburn House.
81. Sundström, M., & Duvander, A. E. (1999). Family division of child care: Why do-or don't-Swedish fathers take parental leave? (Stockholm research reports in demography). Stockholm: Stockholm University Demography Unit.
82. Swedish Ministry of Health and Social Affairs. (1995). Shared power and responsibility: National report by the government of Sweden for the fourth world conference on women in Beijing 1995. Stockholm: Author.
83. Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare. (2000). Statistics-Health and diseases. Breast-feeding, children born 1998 (Centre for Epidemiology. Official Statistics of Sweden). Stockholm: Author.
84. Swedish National Social Insurance Board. (2001). Statistics on father's use of parental leave in Sweden. Retrieved from www.rfv.se/english/stat/famba/pa.htm
85. Treffers, P. E. (2000, March 13-17). Health aspects of maternity protection. Background paper prepared for the World Health Organization/UNICEF Technical Consultation of Infant and Young Child Feeding.
86. Tulman, L., & Fawcett, J. (1991). Factors influencing recovery from childbirth. In J. S. Hyde & M. J. Essex (Eds.), Parental leave and childcare: Setting a research and policy agenda (pp. 294-304). Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
87. UNICEF. (1998). The state of the world's children 1998. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
88. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2000). Healthy people 2010. Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. (Objectives 16-19). Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services. Available from www.health.gov/healthypeople/
89. U.S. Department of Labor. (2000). FMLA Survey, 2000. Balancing the needs of families and employers: The family and medical leave surveys, 2000 update. Washington, DC: Author.
90. Visness, C. M., & Kennedy, K. I. (1997). Maternal employment and breast-feeding: Findings from the 1988 National Maternal and Infant Health Study. American Journal of Public Health, 87, 945-950.
91. Waldfogel, J. (1995). The price of motherhood: Family status and women's pay in a young British cohort. Oxford Economic Papers, 47, 584-610.
92. Waldfogel, J. (1998). The family gap for young women in the United States and Britain: Can maternity leave make a difference? Journal of Labor Economics, 16, 505-545.
93. Weimer, J. (2001). The economic benefits of breastfeeding: A review and analysis (Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Report No. 13. Food and Rural Economics Division, Economic Research Service). U.S. Department of Agriculture.
94. Weinraub, M., & Jaeger, J. (1991). Time the return to the workplace: Effects on the developing mother-infant relationship. In J. S. Hyde & M. J. Essex (Eds.), Parental leave and childcare: Setting a research and policy agenda (pp. 307-322), Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
95. Wisensale, S. K. (2001). Family leave policy: The political economy of work and family in America. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.
96. World Health Organization. (2002). Infant and young child nutrition. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.