Leptospirosis: A forgotten zoonosis?

Clinical and Applied Immunology Reviews

Volumn 4, Issue 6, 2004, Pages 435-448

  Levett, Paul N ^a  

^a Saskatchewan Health   (Canada)

Author keywords

Leptospira; Leptospirosis; Serologic diagnosis

Indexed keywords

BACTERIUM ANTIBODY; BETA LACTAM ANTIBIOTIC; DOXYCYCLINE; IMMUNOGLOBULIN M; MACROLIDE; PENICILLIN G; QUINOLINE DERIVED ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; RAIN; STREPTOMYCIN; TETRACYCLINE DERIVATIVE;

AGGLUTINATION TEST; ANTIBIOTIC SENSITIVITY; BACTERIUM CULTURE; BACTERIUM IDENTIFICATION; BACTERIUM ISOLATION; BLOOD ANALYSIS; CHEMOPROPHYLAXIS; COMPLEMENT FIXATION TEST; DEVELOPED COUNTRY; DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURE; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; ENZYME LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY; EPIDEMIC; EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA; EXPOSURE; HUMAN; LEPTOSPIRA; LEPTOSPIROSIS; MICROSCOPY; OCCUPATIONAL DISEASE; POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE; RECREATION; REVIEW; TAXONOMY; TROPICS; WATER CONTAMINATION; ZOONOSIS;

EID: 13944271109     PISSN: 15291049     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.cair.2004.08.001     Document Type: Review

References (118)

1. P.N. Levett Leptospirosis Clin. Microbiol. Rev 14 2001 296-326
2. S. Faine N.D. Stallman Amended descriptions of the genus Leptospira Noguchi 1917 and the species L. interrogans (Stimson 1907) Wenyon 1926 and L. biflexa (Wolbach and Binger 1914) Noguchi 1918 Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol 32 1982 461-463
3. R.C. Johnson S. Faine Leptospira In: N.R. Krieg J.G. Holt editors. Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology 1984 Williams & Wilkins Baltimore 62-67
4. H. Dikken E. Kmety Serological typing methods of leptospires. In: T. Bergan J.R. Norris (Eds.) Methods in Microbiology 1978 Academic Press London 259-307
5. E. Kmety H. Dikken Classification of the species Leptospira interrogans and history of its serovars 1993 University Press Groningen Groningen
6. P.H. Yasuda A.G. Steigerwalt K.R. Sulzer A.F. Kaufmann F. Rogers D.J. Brenner Deoxyribonucleic acid relatedness between serogroups and serovars in the family Leptospiraceae with proposals for seven new Leptospira species Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol 37 1987 407-415
7. P. Ramadass B.D.W. Jarvis R.J. Corner D. Penny R.B. Marshall Genetic characterization of pathogenic Leptospira species by DNA hybridization Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol 42 1992 215-219
8. D.J. Brenner A.F. Kaufmann K.R. Sulzer A.G. Steigerwalt F.C. Rogers R.S. Weyant Further determination of DNA relatedness between serogroups and serovars in the family Leptospiraceae with a proposal for Leptospira alexanderi sp. nov. and four new Leptospira genomospecies Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol 49 1999 839-858
9. P. Pérolat R.J. Chappel B. Adler G. Baranton D.M. Bulach M.L. et al. Billinghurst Leptospira fainei sp. nov., isolated from pigs in Australia Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol 48 1998 851-858
10. P. Ramadass B.D.W. Jarvis R.J. Corner M. Cinco R.B. Marshall DNA relatedness among strains of Leptospira biflexa Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol 40 1990 231-235
11. M. Letocart P. Boerlin F. Boerlin-Petzold J. Goudet G. Baranton P. Perolat Genetic structure of the genus Leptospira by mutlilocus enzyme electrophoresis Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol 49 1999 231-238
12. J.V. Hookey J. Bryden L. Gatehouse The use of 16S rDNA sequence analysis to investigate the phylogeny of Leptospiraceae and related spirochaetes J. Gen. Microbiol 139 1993 2585-2590
13. S.B. Feresu C.A. Bolin H. van de Kemp H. Korver Identification of a serogroup Bataviae Leptospira strain isolated from an ox in Zimbabwe Zentralbl. Bakteriol 289 1999 19-29
14. D.A. Haake M.A. Suchard M.M. Kelley M. Dundoo D.P. Alt R.L. Zuerner Molecular evolution and mosaicism of leptospiral outer membrane proteins involves horizontal DNA transfer J. Bacteriol 186 2004 2818-2828
15. World Health Organization Leptospirosis worldwide, 1999 Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec 74 1999 237-242
16. S. Faine B. Adler C. Bolin P. Perolat Leptospira and leptospirosis 2 ed. 1999 MedSci Melbourne
17. A.B. Thiermann R.R. Frank Human leptospirosis in Detroit and the role of rats as chronic carriers Int. J. Zoonoses 7 1980 62-72
18. J.M. Vinetz G.E. Glass C.E. Flexner P. Mueller D.C. Kaslow Sporadic urban leptospirosis Ann. Int. Med 125 1996 794-798
19. M.P. Ward L.T. Glickman L.F. Guptill Prevalence of and risk factors for leptospirosis among dogs in the United States and Canada: 677 cases (1970-1998) J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc 220 2002 53-58
20. N. Birnbaum S.C. Barr S.A. Center T. Schermerhorn J.F. Randolph K.W. Simpson Naturally acquired leptospirosis in 36 dogs: Serological and clinicopathological features J Small Anim Pract 39 1998 231-236
21. C.A. Brown A.W. Roberts M.A. Miller D.A. David S.A. Brown C.A. Bolin et al. Leptospira interrogans serovar grippotyphosa infection in dogs J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc 209 1996 1265-1267
22. E. Wilkins A. Cope S. Waitkins Rapids, rafts, and rats Lancet 2 1988 283-284
23. D.A. Haake M. Dundoo R. Cader B.M. Kubak R.A. Hartskeerl J.J. Sejvar et al. Leptospirosis, water sports, and chemoprophylaxis Clin. Infect. Dis 34 2002 e40-e43
24. J. Morgan S.L. Bornstein A.M. Karpati M. Bruce C.A. Bolin C.C. Austin et al. Outbreak of Leptospirosis among Triathlon participants and community residents in Springfield, Illinois, 1998 Clin. Infect. Dis 34 2002 1593-1599
25. S.R. Zaki W.-J. Shieh The Epidemic Working Group. Leptospirosis associated with outbreak of acute febrile illness and pulmonary haemorrhage, Nicaragua, 1995 Lancet 347 1996 535
26. A.I. Ko M. Galvao Reis C.M. Ribeiro Dourado W.D. Johnson L.W. Riley Salvador Leptospirosis Study Group. Urban epidemic of severe leptospirosis in Brazil Lancet 354 1999 820-825
27. World Health Organization Leptospirosis, India. Report of the investigation of a post-cyclone outbreak in Orissa, November 1999 Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec 75 2000 217-223
28. P. Vijayachari A.P. Sugunan T. Umapathi S.C. Sehgal Evaluation of darkground microscopy as a rapid diagnostic procedure in leptospirosis Indian J. Med. Res 114 2001 54-58
29. L.H. Turner Leptospirosis III. Maintenance, isolation and demonstration of leptospires Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg 64 1970 623-646
30. S.R. Zaki R.A. Spiegel Leptospirosis. In: A.M. Nelson C.R. Horsburgh (Eds.) Pathology of Emerging Infections 2 1998 American Society for Microbiology Washington, D.C. 73-92
31. C. Gravekamp H. van de Kemp D. Carrington G.J.J.M. van Eys C.O.R. Everard W.J. Terpstra Detection of leptospiral DNA by PCR in serum from patients with copenhageni infections. In: Y. Kobayashi (Ed.) Leptospirosis. Proceedings of the leptospirosis research conference 1990 1991 University of Tokyo Press Tokyo 151-164
32. F. Merien P. Amouriauz P. Pérolat G. Baranton I. Saint Girons Polymerase chain reaction for detection of Leptospira spp. in clinical samples J. Clin. Microbiol 30 1992 2219-2224
33. M.J. Woodward G.J. Sullivan N.M.A. Palmer J.C. Woolley J.S. Redstone Development of a PCR test specific for Leptospira hardjo genotype bovis Vet. Rec 128 1991 282-283
34. G.J.J.M. Van Eys C. Gravekamp M.J. Gerritsen W. Quint M.T.E. Cornelissen J. ter Schegget et al. Detection of leptospires in urine by the polymerase chain reaction J. Clin. Microbiol 27 1989 2258-2262
35. R.L. Zuerner D. Alt C.A. Bolin IS1533-based PCR assay for identification of Leptospira interrogans sensu lato J. Clin. Microbiol 33 1995 3284-3289
36. M.J. Taylor W.A. Ellis J.M. Montgomery K.T. Yan S.W. McDowell D.P. Mackie Magnetic immuno capture PCR assay (MIPA): Detection of Leptopsira borgpetersenii serovar hardjo Vet. Microbiol 56 1997 135-145
37. S.A. Masri P.T. Nguyen S.P. Gale C.J. Howard S.C. Jung A polymerase chain reaction assay for the detection of Leptospira spp. in bovine semen Can. J. Vet. Res 61 1997 15-20
38. J. Wagenaar R.L. Zuerner D. Alt C.A. Bolin Comparison of polymerase chain reaction assays with bacteriologic culture, immunofluorescence, and nucleic acid hybridization for detection of Leptospira borgpetersenii serovar hardjo in urine of cattle Am. J. Vet. Res 61 2000 316-320
39. F. Merien G. Baranton P. Pérolat Comparison of polymerase chain reaction with microagglutination test and culture for diagnosis of leptospirosis J. Infect. Dis 172 1995 281-285
40. P.D. Brown C. Gravekamp D.G. Carrington H. Van de Kemp R.A. Hartskeerl C.N. Edwards et al. Evaluation of the polymerase chain reaction for early diagnosis of leptospirosis J. Med. Microbiol 43 1995 110-114
41. C. Gravekamp H. van de Kemp M. Franzen D. Carrington G.J. Schoone G.J.J.M. van Eys et al. Detection of seven species of pathogenic leptospires by PCR using two sets of primers J. Gen. Microbiol 139 1993 1691-1700
42. A.E. Bal C. Gravekamp R.A. Hartskeerl J. de Meza-Brewster H. Korver W.J. Terpstra Detection of leptospires in urine by PCR for early diagnosis of leptospirosis J. Clin. Microbiol 32 1994 1894-1898
43. F. Merien P. Pérolat E. Mancel D. Persan G. Baranton Detection of leptospiral DNA by polymerase chain reaction in aqueous humor of a patient with unilateral uveitis J. Infect. Dis 168 1993 1335-1336
44. E.C. Romero A.E.C. Billerbeck V.S. Lando E.D. Camargo C.C. Souza P.H. Yasuda Detection of Leptospira DNA in patients with aseptic meningitis by PCR J. Clin. Microbiol 36 1998 1453-1455
45. P.D. Brown D.G. Carrington C. Gravekamp H. van de Kemp C.N. Edwards S.R. Jones et al. Direct detection of leptospiral material in human postmortem samples Res. Microbiol 154 2003 581-586
46. L.D. Smythe I.L. Smith G.A. Smith M.F. Dohnt M.L. Symonds L.J. Barnett et al. A quantitative PCR (TaqMan) assay for pathogenic Leptospira spp BMC Infect Dis 2 2002 13
47. F.R. McCrumb J.L. Stockard C.R. Robinson L.H. Turner D.G. Levis C.W. et al. Maisey Leptospirosis in Malaya. I. Sporadic cases among military and civilian personnel Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg 6 1957 238-256
48. C.R. Sulzer W.L. Jones Leptospirosis: Methods in Laboratory Diagnosis 1978 U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare Atlanta
49. M.F. Palmer W.J. Zochowski Survival of leptospires in commercial blood culture systems revisited J. Clin. Pathol 53 2000 713-714
50. Y. Kobayashi T. Tamai E. Sada Serological analysis of serogroup Icterohaemorrhagiae using monoclonal antibodies Microbiol. Immunol 29 1985 1229-1235
51. W.J. Terpstra H. Korver J. Van Leeuwen P.R. Klatser A.H.J. Kolk The classification of Sejroe group serovars of Leptospira interrogans with monoclonal antibodies Zbl. Bakt 259 1985 498-506
52. M.J. Kim Serovar identification of Korean leptospiral strains with monoclonal antibodies Korean J. Intern. Med 32 1987 571-578
53. W.J. Terpstra H. Korver G.J. Schoone J. van Leeuwen C.E. Schönemann M. De Jonge-Aglibut et al. Comparative classification of Leptospira serovars of the Pomona serogroup by monolconal antibodies and restriction-endonuclease analysis Zbl. Bakt 266 1987 412-421
54. F. Shinozaki E. Sada T. Tamai Y. Kobayashi Characterization of Leptospira strains HY-1, HY-2, and HY-10 isolated in Korea by means of monoclonal antibodies and restriction endonuclease analysis Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg 46 1992 342-349
55. H. Korver A.H.J. Kolk J. Vingerhoed J. van Leeuwen W.J. Terpstra Classification of serovars of the Icterohaemorrhagiae serogroup by monoclonal antibodies Isr. J. Vet. Med 44 1988 15-18
56. J.L. Herrmann Genomic techniques for identification of Leptospira strains Path. Biol 41 1993 943-950
57. W.J. Terpstra Typing leptospira from the perspective of a reference laboratory Acta Leiden 60 1992 79-87
58. C.A. Bolin R.L. Zuerner Correlation between DNA restriction fragment length polymorphisms in Leptospira interrogans serovar pomona type kennewicki and host animal source J. Clin. Microbiol 34 1996 424-425
59. P.D. Brown P.N. Levett Differentiation of Leptospira species and serovars by PCR-restriction endonuclease analysis, arbitrarily primed PCR and low-stringency PCR J. Med. Microbiol 46 1997 173-181
60. L. Ciceroni S. Ciarrocchi A. Ciervo A. Petrucca A. Pinto A. Calderaro et al. Differentiation of leptospires of the serogroup Pomona by monoclonal antibodies, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis and arbitrarily primed polymerase chain reaction Res. Microbiol 153 2002 37-44
61. O.L.S.D. de Caballero E. Dias Neto M.C. Koury A.J. Romanha A.J.G. Simpson Low-stringency PCR with diagnostically useful primers for identification of Leptospira serovars J. Clin. Microbiol 32 1994 1369-1372
62. S.C. Hathaway R.B. Marshall T.W.A. Little S.A. Headlam P.J. Winter Identification by cross-agglutination absorption and restriction endonuclease analysis of leptospires of the Pomona serogroup isolated in the United Kingdom Res. Vet. Sci 39 1985 151-156
63. J.L. Herrmann E. Bellenger P. Perolat G. Baranton I. Saint Girons Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis of NotI digests of leptospiral DNA: A new rapid method of serovar identification J. Clin. Microbiol 30 1992 1696-1702
64. P. Vijayachari N. Ahmed A.P. Sugunan S. Ghousunnissa K.R. Rao S.E. Hasnain et al. Use of fluorescent amplified fragment length polymorphism for molecular epidemiology of leptospirosis in India J. Clin. Microbiol 42 2004 3575-3580
65. L.H. Turner Leptospirosis II. Serology Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg 62 1968 880-889
66. S. Faine Guidelines for the control of leptospirosis 1982 World Health Organization Geneva
67. M. Torten Leptospirosis. In: H.E. Stoenner M. Torten W. Kaplan editors. CRC Handbook Series in Zoonoses. Section A: Bacterial, Rickettsial and Mycotic Diseases 1979 CRC press Boca Raton 363-420
68. A.R. Katz S.J. Manea D.M. Sasaki Leptospirosis on Kauai: Investigation of a common source waterborne outbreak Am. J. Public Health 81 1991 1310-1312
69. P.N. Levett Usefulness of serologic analysis as a predictor of the infecting serovar in patients with severe leptospirosis Clin. Infect. Dis 36 2003 447-452
70. J.M. Alston J.C. Broom Leptospirosis in man and animals 1958 E. & S. Livingstone Edinburgh
71. R.A. Tjalma M.M. Galton Human leptospirosis in Iowa Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg 14 1965 387-396
72. B. Adler S. Faine The antibodies involved in the human immune response to leptospiral infection J. Med. Microbiol 11 1978 387-400
73. A.J. Chapman B. Adler S. Faine Genus-specific antigens in Leptospira revealed by immunoblotting Zbl. Bakt 264 1987 279-283
74. M. Lin O. Surujballi K. Nielsen S. Nadin-Davis G. Randall Identification of a 35-kilodalton serovar-cross-reactive flagellar protein, FlaB, from Leptospira interrogans by N-terminal sequencing, gene cloning, and sequence analysis Infect. Immun 65 1997 4355-4359
75. A.P. Brandão E.D. Camargo E.D. da Silva M.V. Silva R.V. Abrão Macroscopic agglutination test for rapid diagnosis of human leptospirosis J. Clin. Microbiol 36 1998 3138-3142
76. P.C. Cumberland C.O.R. Everard P.N. Levett Assessment of the efficacy of the IgM enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and microscopic agglutination test (MAT) in the diagnosis of acute leptospirosis Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg 61 1999 731-734
77. H. Appassakij K. Silpapojakul R. Wansit J. Woodtayakorn Evaluation of the immunofluorescent antibody test for the diagnosis of human leptospirosis Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg 52 1995 340-343
78. M.A. Ribeiro C.S.N. Assis E.C. Romero Serodiagnosis of human leptospirosis employing immunodominant antigen. Serodiag. Immunother Infect. Dis 6 1994 140-144
79. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Case definitions for infectious conditions under public health surveillance Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep 46 No. RR-10 1997 49
80. S. Faine Leptospirosis. In: A. Balows W.J. Hausler M. Ohashi A. Turano editors. Laboratory Diagnosis of Infectious Diseases. Principles and Practice 1988 Springer-Verlag New York 344-352
81. A.D. Alexander Serological diagnosis of leptospirosis. In: N.R. Rose H. Friedman J.L. Fahey editors. Manual of clinical laboratory immunology 3rd edition ed 1986 American Society for Microbiology Washington, DC 435-439
82. D.K. Blackmore L.M. Schollum K.M. Moriarty The magnitude and duration of titres of leptospiral agglutinins in human sera N. Z. Med. J 97 1984 83-86
83. R. Lupidi M. Cinco D. Balanzin E. Delprete P.E. Varaldo Serological follow-up of patients in a localized outbreak of leptospirosis J. Clin. Microbiol 29 1991 805-809
84. E.C. Romero C.R. Caly P.H. Yasuda The persistence of leptospiral agglutinins titers in human sera diagnosed by the microscopic agglutination test Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Sao Paulo 40 1998 183-184
85. P.C. Cumberland C.O.R. Everard J.G. Wheeler P.N. Levett Persistence of anti-leptospiral IgM, IgG and agglutinating antibodies in patients presenting with acute febrile illness in Barbados 1979-1989 Eur. J. Epidemiol 17 2001 601-608
86. J.D. Everard C.O.R. Everard Leptospirosis in the Caribbean Rev. Med. Microbiol 4 1993 114-122
87. Chappel RJ, Goris MG, Palmer MF, Hartskeerl RA. Impact of proficiency testing for the microscopic agglutination test for leptospirosis. J. Clin. Microbiol.:(In press)
88. P.N. Levett Leptospira and Leptonema. In: P.R. Murray E.J. Baron J.H. Jorgensen M.A. Pfaller R.H. Yolken editors. Manual of clinical microbiology 8th ed. 2003 ASM Press Washington D.C. 929-936
89. B. Adler A.M. Murphy S.A. Locarnini S. Faine Detection of specific anti-leptospiral immunoglobulins M and G in human serum by solid-phase enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay J. Med. Microbiol 11 1980 452-457
90. W.J. Terpstra G.S. Ligthart G.J. Schoone Serodiagnosis of human leptospirosis by enzyme-linked-immunosorbentassay (ELISA) Zbl. Bakt 247 1980 400-405
91. M. Mailloux J.G. Mazzonelli Y. Dufresne Application of an immuno-enzyme technique to titration of antiboides in leptospirosis: ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) Zbl. Bakt 257 1984 511-513
92. W.J. Terpstra G.S. Ligthart G.J. Schoone ELISA for the detection of specific IgM and IgG in human leptospirosis J. Gen. Microbiol 131 1985 377-385
93. K.-H. Park W.-H. Chang J.-S. Lee K.-W. Choi K.-H. Park H.-B. Oh Diagnosis of leptospirosis by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay J Korea Soc Microbiol 21 1986 181-189
94. Y.G. Chernukha Z.S. Shishkina P.M. Baryshev I.L. Kokovin The dynamics of IgM- and IgG-antibodies in leptospiral infection in man Zbl. Bakt 236 1976 336-343
95. E.L. Edelweiss M. Mailloux The curve of immunoglobulins in human leptospirosis Int. J. Zoonoses 9 1982 51-55
96. P.N. Levett C.U. Whittington Evaluation of the indirect hemagglutination assay for diagnosis of acute leptospirosis J. Clin. Microbiol 36 1998 11-14
97. G. Watt L.M. Alquiza L.P. Padre M.L. Tuazon L.W. Laughlin The rapid diagnosis of leptospirosis: A prospective comparison of the dot enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and the genus-specific microscopic agglutination test at different stages of illness J. Infect. Dis 157 1988 840-842
98. W.E. Winslow D.J. Merry M.L. Pirc P.L. Devine Evaluation of a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of immunoglobulin M antibody in diagnosis of human leptospiral infection J. Clin. Microbiol 35 1997 1938-1942
99. P.N. Levett S.L. Branch C.U. Whittington C.N. Edwards H. Paxton Two methods for rapid serological diagnosis of acute leptospirosis Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol 8 2001 349-351
100. H.L. Smits Y.V. Ananyina A. Chereshsky L. Dancel A.F.R.F. Lai H.D. Chee et al. International multicenter evaluation of the clinical utility of a dipstick assay for detection of Leptospira-specific immunoglobulin M antibodies in human serum specimens J. Clin. Microbiol 37 1999 2904-2909
101. C. Yersin P. Bovet H.L. Smits P. Perolat Field evaluation of a one-step dipstick assay for the diagnosis of human leptospirosis in the Seychelles Trop. Med. Int. Health 4 1999 38-45
102. S.C. Sehgal P. Vijayachari S. Sharma A.P. Sugunan LEPTO dipstick: A rapid and simple method for serodiagnosis of acute leptospirosis Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg 93 1999 161-164
103. M.D. Bajani D.A. Ashford S.L. Bragg C.W. Woods T. Aye R.A. Spiegel et al. Evaluation of four commercially available rapid serologic tests for diagnosis of leptospirosis J. Clin. Microbiol 41 2003 803-809
104. C.R. Sulzer J.W. Glosser F. Rogers W.L. Jones M. Frix Evaluation of an indirect hemagglutination test for the diagnosis of human leptospirosis J. Clin. Microbiol 2 1975 218-221
105. H.L. Smits M.A. van Der Hoorn M.G. Goris G.C. Gussenhoven C. Yersin D.M. Sasaki et al. Simple latex agglutination assay for rapid serodiagnosis of human leptospirosis J. Clin. Microbiol 38 2000 1272-1275
106. Y. Arimitsu E. Kmety Y. Ananyina G. Baranton I.R. Ferguson L. Smythe et al. Evaluation of the one-point microcapsule agglutination test for diagnosis of leptospirosis Bull. World Health Organ 72 1994 395-399
107. P.V. Effler H.Y. Domen S.L. Bragg T. Aye D.M. Sasaki Evaluation of the indirect hemagglutination assay for diagnosis of acute leptospirosis in Hawaii J. Clin. Microbiol 38 2000 1081-1084
108. H.L. Smits H.D. Chee C.K. Eapen M. Kuriakose S. Sugathan M.H. Gasem et al. Latex based, rapid and easy assay for human leptospirosis in a single test format Trop. Med. Int. Health 6 2001 114-118
109. B. Flannery D. Costa F.P. Carvalho H. Guerreiro J. Matsunaga E.D. Da Silva et al. Evaluation of recombinant leptospira antigen-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for the serodiagnosis of leptospirosis J. Clin. Microbiol 39 2001 3303-3310
110. J. Matsunaga M.A. Barocchi J. Croda T.A. Young Y. Sanchez I. Siqueira et al. Pathogenic Leptospira species express surface-exposed proteins belonging to the bacterial immunoglobulin superfamily Mol. Microbiol 49 2003 929-946
111. A.D. Alexander P.L. Rule Penicillins, cephalosporins, and tetracyclines in treatment of hamsters with fatal leptospirosis Antimicrob. Agents Chemother 30 1986 835-839
112. H.C. Ellinghausen Growth, cultural characteristics, and antibacterial sensitivity of Leptospira interrogans serovar hardjo Cornell Vet 73 1983 225-239
113. J.A.H. Wylie E. Vincent The sensitivity of organisms of the genus Leptospira to penicillin and streptomycin J. Pathol. Bacteriol 59 1947 247-254
114. S. Oie K. Hironaga A. Koshiro H. Konishi Z. Yoshii In vitro susceptibilities of five Leptospira strains to 16 antimicrobial agents Antimicrob. Agents Chemother 24 1983 905-908
115. C.U. Whittington P.N. Levett Development of rapid, microtiter-based antimicrobial susceptibility testing of Leptospira species Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg 65 Supplement 2001 434
116. C.K. Murray D.R. Hospenthal Broth microdilution susceptibility testing for Leptospira spp Antimicrob. Agents Chemother 48 2004 1548-1552
117. C.N. Edwards P.N. Levett Prevention and treatment of leptospirosis Expert Rev. Anti-infect. Ther 2 2004 293-298
118. S.B. Feresu A.G. Steigerwalt D.J. Brenner DNA relatedness of Leptospira strains isolated from beef cattle in Zimbabwe Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol 49 1999 1111-1117