'Smoke cities': Northern industrial towns in late Georgian England

Urban History

Volumn 31, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 175-190

  Barker, Hannah ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EIGHTEENTH CENTURY; NINETEENTH CENTURY; SOCIAL CHANGE; URBAN HISTORY; URBAN SOCIETY;

EASTERN HEMISPHERE; ENGLAND; EURASIA; EUROPE; UNITED KINGDOM; WESTERN EUROPE; WORLD;

EID: 13944253703     PISSN: 09639268     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0963926804002093     Document Type: Article

References (215)

1. E.J. Connell and M. Ward, 'Industrial development, 1780-1914', in Derek Fraser (ed.), A History of Modern Leeds (Manchester, 1980);
2. Geoffrey Tweedale, Steel City: Entrepreneurship, Strategy, and Technology in Sheffield 1743-1993 (Oxford, 1995);
3. David Hey, A History of Sheffield (Lancaster, 1998);
4. Alan Kidd, Manchester, 2nd edn (Keele, 1996);
5. R. Lloyd-Jones and M.J. Lewis, Manchester in the Age of the Factory: The Business Structure of Cottonopolis in the Industrial Revolution (London, 1988);
6. S. Pollard, A History of Labour in Sheffield (Liverpool, 1959).
7. Raphael Samuel, 'Workshop of the world: steam power and hand technology in mid-Victorian Britain', History Workshop Journal, 3 (1977), 6-72;
8. N.F.R. Crafts, British Economic Growth during the Industrial Revolution (Oxford, 1985);
9. E.A. Wrigley, Continuity, Chance and Change: The Character of the Industrial Revolution in England (Cambridge, 1988);
10. Maxine Berg, The Age of Manufactures, 1700-1820: Industry, Innovation and Work in Britain, 2nd edn (London, 1994).
11. Though see Helen Berry's work on Newcastle: 'Promoting taste in the provincial press: national and local culture in eighteenth-century Newcastle upon Tyne', British Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies 25, 1 (2002), 1-17;
12. Jon Stobart on Liverpool: J. Stobart, 'Culture versus commerce: societies and spaces for elites in eighteenth-century Liverpool', Journal of Historical Geography, 28, 4 (2002), 471-85.
13. Peter Clark (ed.),The Cambridge Urban History of Britain, vol. II: 1540-1840 (Cambridge, 2000), 23.
14. See also Rosemary Sweet, The English Town 1680-1840: Government, Society and Culture (Harlow, 1999);
15. Joyce Ellis, The Georgian Town, 1680-1840 (Basingstoke, 2001);
16. Janet Wolff and John Seed (eds.), The Culture of Capital: Art, Power and the Nineteenth-century Middle Class (Manchester, 1988);
17. R.G. Wilson, Gentlemen Merchants: The Merchant Community in Leeds, 1700-1830 (Manchester, 1971).
18. Accounts which describe a 'short' eighteenth century include the pioneering P.J. Corfield, The Impact of English Towns 1700-1800 (Oxford, 1982),
19. Peter Borsay, The English Urban Renaissance: Culture and Society in the Provincial Town, 1660-1770 (Oxford, 1989). The nineteenth century has produced an even greater array of texts, many of which focus specifically on northern and industrial towns: examples are listed in n. 1 above.
20. Peter Borsay, 'The English urban renaissance: the development of provincial urban culture c. 1680-c. 1760', Social History, 2, 2 (1977), 581-603, and his English Urban Renaissance. Although Borsay does not ignore industrial and commercial towns, noting various developments in building and leisure provision that took place there earlier on in the eighteenth century, they do not provide the focus for his description of urban change between 1660 and 1770.
21. Jonathan Barry, 'Provincial town culture, 1640-1780: urbane or civic?', in Joan H. Pittock and Andrew Wear (eds.), Interpretation and Cultural History (Basingstoke, 1991).
22. Carl Estabrook, Urbane and Rustic England: Cultural Ties and Social Spheres in the Provinces, 1660-1760 (Stanford, CA, 1999).
23. Corfield, Impact of English Towns, 9;
24. C.M. Law, 'Some notes on the urban population of England and Wales in the eighteenth century', Local Historian, 10 (1972), 13-26;
25. John Langton, 'Urban growth and economic change: from the late seventeenth century to 1841', in Clark (ed.), Cambridge Urban History of Britain, vol. II, 474, 484-5;
26. W.H. Chaloner, 'Manchester in the latter half of the eighteenth century', Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, 42, 1 (1959), 40-60, at 42;
27. C.J. Morgan, 'Demographic change, 1771-1911', in Fraser (ed.), History of Modern Leeds, 46-7;
28. J. Stobart, 'An eighteenth-century revolution? Investigating urban growth in north-west England 1664-1801, Urban History, 23 (1996), 26-47.
29. Joyce Ellis, 'Regional and county centres, 1700-1840', in Clark (ed.), Cambridge Urban History of Britain, vol. II, 679.
30. Thomas Henry, cited in Chaloner, 'Manchester in the latter half of the eighteenth century', 41.
31. Cited in Maurice Beresford, 'The making of a townscape: Richard Paley in the east end of Leeds, 1771-1803', in C.W. Chalkin and M.A. Havender (eds.), Rural Change and Urban Growth 1500-1800 (London, 1974), 287.
32. For similar comments on Sheffield, see Joseph Hunter, Hallamshire: The History and Topography of the Parish of Sheffield (London, 1819), 125.
33. J. Aston, Picture of Manchester (Manchester, 1816), 19.
34. See also John Holmes, A Sketch of the History of Leeds (Leeds, 1872).
35. Kevin Grady, The Georgian Public Buildings of Leeds and the West Riding (Publications of the Thoresby Society, Leeds, 1989), 162-3 and 174-5;
36. James Raven, Judging New Wealth: Popular Publishing and Responses to Commerce in England, 1750-1800 (Oxford, 1992), 113.
37. See also M. Beresford, East End, West End: The Face of Leeds during Urbanisation 1684-1842 (Publications of the Thoresby Society, vols. 60-1, Leeds, 1989).
38. W.E.A. Axon, The Annals of Manchester (Manchester, 1886), 91, 97.
39. C.W. Chalkin, 'Capital expenditure on building for cultural purposes in provincial England, 1730-1830', Business History, 20 (1980), 51-70, at 54;
40. Axon, Annals of Manchester, 103;
41. Aston, Picture of Manchester, 187, 189.
42. Thomas Kelly, Early Public Libraries (London, 1966), 126. There is some suggestion that a smaller-scale subscription library was founded at a slightly earlier date in Manchester.
43. Ann Brooks, 'The Portico Library and Newsroom' (unpublished Manchester Polytechnic MA thesis, 1992).
44. Chalkin C.W., 'Capital expenditure', 60;
45. Grady K., Georgian Public Buildings of Leeds and the West Riding, 22.
46. Grady K., Georgian Public Buildings of Leeds and the West Riding, 33.
47. Ibid.;
48. Axon W.E.A., Annals of Manchester, 99, 104, 184;
49. Aston J., Picture of Manchester, 189.
50. Grady K., Georgian Public Buildings of Leeds and the West Riding, 20.
51. This section is based on an examination of a database of the legislation of the Westminster parliament, 1660-1830, compiled under the direction of Julian Hoppit and Joanna Innes, by Julian Hoppit and Andrew Hann. I am very grateful to Joanna Innes and Julian Hoppit for access to their data. For a discussion of their project and its wider findings, see Julian Hoppit, Joanna Innes and John Styles, 'Towards a history of parliamentary legislation, 1660-1800', Parliamentary History, 13, 3 (1994), 312-21;
52. Joanna Innes, 'The local acts of a national parliament: parliament's role in sanctioning local action in eighteenth-century Britain', Parliamentary History, 17, 1 (1998), 23-47.
53. In contrast to towns in the south of England which saw much earlier programmes of improvement: E.L. Jones and M.E. Falkus, 'Urban improvement and the English economy in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries', in P.J. Uselding (ed.), Research in Economic History, vol. IV (Greenwich, CT, 1979), reprinted in Peter Borsay (ed.), The Eighteenth Century Town: A Reader in English Urban History 1688-1820 (London, 1990).
54. See also Joanna Innes and Nicholas Rogers, 'Politics and government 1700-1840', in Clark (ed.), Cambridge Urban History of Britain, vol. II.
55. Roger Scola, Feeding the Victorian City: The Food Supply of Manchester 1770-1870 (Manchester, 1992), 150;
56. James Ogden, Manchester a Hundred Years Ago (Manchester, 1887; reprint of 1783 publication), 69-71;
57. K. Grady, 'Profit, property interests, and public spirit: the provision of markets and commercial amenities in Leeds, 1822-29',Publications of the Thoresby Society, 54, 3 (1976), 165-6;
58. Hey, History of Sheffield, 48-9;
59. John Reilly, The History of Manchester, vol. I (Manchester, 1861), 260.
60. On similar developments in the midlands, see Andrew Hann, 'Industrialisation and the service economy', in Jon Stobart and Neil Raven (eds.), Towns, Regions and Industries: Urban and Industrial Change, 1700-1840 (Manchester, forthcoming);
61. John Stobart and Andrew Hann, 'Retailing revolution in the eighteenth century: evidence from north-west England', Business History, 46, 2 (2004), 171-94. I am grateful to Andrew Hann and John Stobart for allowing me to read these pieces prior to publication.
62. Helen Berry, 'Polite consumption: shopping in eighteenth-century England', Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 12 (2002), 375-94;
63. Andrew Hann, 'The production of leisure space in the 18th century town', unpublished paper: I am grateful to the author for a copy of this paper.
64. In 'Urban improvement in the Nottinghamshire market town, 1770-1840', Midland History, 25 (2000), Catherine Smith argues that improvements were largely concerned with aesthetics and providing spaces for polite members of society, whereas Manchester, Leeds and Sheffield appear to have been improved for more obviously economic reasons.
65. Neil McKendrick, 'The consumer revolution in eighteenth-century England', in Neil McKendrick, John Brewer and J.H. Plumb (eds.), The Birth of a Consumer Society: The Commercialization of Eighteenth-Century England (London, 1982).
66. See J.K. Walton, Lancashire: A Social History, 1558-1939 (Manchester, 1987);
67. D.A. Farnie, The English Cotton Industry and the World Market, 1815-1896 (Oxford, 1979);
68. Lloyd-Jones and Lewis, Manchester in the Age of the Factory;
69. Scola, Feeding the Victorian City, 21-3.
70. Scola, Feeding the Victorian City, 22.
71. Hey, History of Sheffield, 63.
72. R.J. Morris, 'Structure, culture and society in British towns', in Martin Daunton (ed.), The Cambridge Urban History of Britain, vol. III: 1840-1950 (Cambridge, 2000), 402.
73. See also Richard Trainor, 'The Middle Class', in ibid., 678-9.
74. Chalkin, Provincial Towns of Georgian England, 38.
75. Wilson, Gentlemen Merchants;
76. W.G. Rimmer, 'The industrial profile of Leeds, 1740-1840', Publications of the Thoresby Society, 14, 2 (1967), 130-57;
77. M. Yasumoto, 'Urbanization and population in an English town', Keio Economic Studies, 10 (1973), 61-94.
78. See also Ellis, 'Regional and country centres', 684-90.
79. J. Stobart, 'In search of a leisure hierarchy: English spa towns and their place in the urban system', in P. Borsay, G. Hirschfelder and R. Mohrmann (eds.), New Directions in Urban History (Munster and New York, 2000).
80. On use of commercial directories, see J. Norton, Guide to the National and Provincial Directories of England and Wales, Excluding London, Published before 1856 (Royal Historical Society Publication, 1950);
81. P.J. Corfield and S. Kelly, 'Giving directions to the town: the early town directories', Urban History Yearbook (1984), 22-34;
82. J.R. Walton, 'Trades and professions in late eighteenth-century England: assessing the evidence of directories', Local Historian, 17 (1987), 343-50.
83. Directories used for this survey: Griffith Wright, A History of Leeds ... to Which Are Added... a Leeds Directory (Leeds, 1797);
84. Griffith Wright, General and Commercial Directory of Leeds (Leeds, 1826);
85. Griffith Wright, Manchester Directory (Manchester, 1773);
86. Griffith Wright, The Manchester and Salford Directory (Manchester, 1828);
87. Griffith Wright, Sketchley's Sheffield Directory (Sheffield, 1774 );
88. Griffith Wright, Sheffield Directory and Guide (1828).
89. Hunter, Hallamshire, 125.
90. John Aikin, A Description of the Country From Thirty to Forty Miles Round Manchester (London, 1795), 184.
91. Thomas Dunham Whitaker, Loidis and Elmete (Leeds, 1816), 82-3.
92. See also Helen Berry, 'Creating polite space: the organisation and social function of the Newcastle Assembly Rooms', in Helen Berry and Jeremy Gregory (eds.), Creating and Consuming Culture in North-East England 1660-1830 (Aldershot, 2004). I am grateful to the author for a copy of this piece prior to publication.
93. Report of the surveyors to Earl Cowper on his Leeds estates, 1819, Hertfordshire County Record Office, T4951, cited in Grady, Georgian Public Buildings of Leeds and the West Riding, 94.
94. Edward Baines, History, Directory and Gazetteer of the Country of York, 2 vols. (1822), vol. I, xii. On regional diversity,
95. see J. Langton, 'The industrial revolution and the regional geography of England', Transactions of the Institute of British Geography, n.s., 9 (1984), 145-67.
96. See for example, Joshua E. White, Letters on England, 2 vols. (Philadelphia, 1815), vol. I, 46-7;
97. [R. Southey], Letters from England (1807, new edn, ed. Jack Simmons, Gloucester, 1984), 213.
98. See, for example, Manchester Mercury, 18 Nov. 1788, 11 Dec. 1804, 20 Sep. 1828;
99. Sheffield Iris, 6 Jan. 1797;
100. Leeds Mercury, 9 Aug. 1817.
101. Manchester Mercury, 12 Oct. 1773.
102. Based on figures for distribution of tea licences 1795-96 in Hoh-Cheung and Lorna Mui, Shops and Shopkeeping in Eighteenth-Century England (London, 1989), 301-3,
103. 1801 census figures in B.R. Mitchell, British Historical Statistics (Cambridge, 1988), 26-7.
104. Cf. David Alexander, Retailing in England during the Industrial Revolution (London, 1970), 93.
105. John Seed, '"Commerce and the liberal arts" the political economy of art in Manchester, 1775-1860', in Wolff and Seed (eds.), The Culture of Capital.
106. See, for example, Manchester Mercury, 25 Mar. 1788;
107. Sheffield Iris, 3 Nov. 1797;
108. Leeds Intelligencer, 21 Dec. 1826 and 19 Jan. 1828.
109. On painting instruction see also Seed, '"Commerce and the liberal arts"', 48-9.
110. Leeds Intelligencer, 20 Dec. 1828. It is worth noting, however, that whilst the dancing may have been fashionable, the venue was not. I am grateful to Helen Berry for the suggestion that the fashion for assemblies was waning by the 1780s, and would have seemed extremely dated to many by 1828.
111. Peter Borsay, 'The London connection: cultural diffusion and the eighteenth-century provincial town', London Journal, 19 (1994), 27;
112. Berry, 'Promoting taste in the provincial press', 6-8.
113. Manchester Mercury, 8 May 1804.
114. Sheffield Mercury, 24 May 1817.
115. Leeds Mercury, 15 Nov. 1817.
116. See also Manchester Mercury, 18 Nov. 1817;
117. Leeds Intelligencer, 22 Nov. 1828.
118. Borsay, 'London connection', 27-8;
119. Ellis, Georgian Town, 137-41.
120. John Money, Experience and Identity. Birmingham and the West Midlands 1760-1800 (Manchester, 1977), 80-97.
121. See also Barry on Bristol: 'Provincial town culture, 1640-1780: urbane or civic?'.
122. See survey below.
123. Grady, 'Profit, property interests, and public spirit', 96-9;
124. Hunter Hallamshire, 125.
125. Stephen Harbottle, The Reverend William Turner: Dissent and Reform in Georgian Newcastle upon Tyne (Leeds, 1997), pp. 35-6 and 53-66.
126. Chalkin, 'Capital expenditure', 57.
127. Paul Elliot, 'The origins of the "creative class": provincial urban society, scientific culture and socio-political marginality in Britain in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries', Social History, 28, 3 (2003), 361-87.
128. Manchester Mercury, 22 May 1804. On newspaper advertisements and 'taste' in the northeast of England,
129. See Berry, 'Promoting taste in the provincial press'.
130. Leeds Mercury, 3 Nov. 1810;
131. Sheffield Iris, 2 and 9 Nov. 1800;
132. Sheffield Mercury, 6 Nov. 1820;
133. Sheffield Iris, 28 Jul. 1797.
134. Leeds Intelligencer, 20 Nov. 1770.
135. Manchester Mercury, 16 Mar. 1773;
136. Sheffield Mercury, 27 Nov. 1830.
137. Sheffield Register, 5 Jan. 1788.
138. Sheffield Mercury, 25 Oct. 1817.
139. Manchester Mercury, 11 Nov. 1817.
140. Manchester Mercury, 18 Feb. 1817;
141. Leeds Intelligencer, 1 Jun. 1826.
142. Leeds Mercury, 1 Nov. 1800.
143. Manchester Mercury, 30 Nov. 1790, 22 May 1804, 3 and 25 Mar. 1817, 20 Nov. 1830;
144. Leeds Mercury, 11 Nov. 1809, 4 Jan. 1817;
145. Sheffield Mercury, 22 Nov. 1828.
146. Manchester Mercury, 30 Nov. 1790.
147. See also Manchester Mercury, 6 May and 18 Dec. 1804,
148. Sheffield Iris, 17 Feb. 1791.
149. Manchester Mercury, 22 Nov. 1764, 28 May 1771, 12 Nov. 1771, 30 Nov. 1790, 4 Nov. 1800, 28 Feb., 8 May, 13 Nov. and 18 Dec. 1804, 20 Nov. 1810;
150. Leeds Intelligencer, 6 Nov. 1770;
151. Leeds Mercury, 16 Nov. 1790;
152. Sheffield Mercury, 27 Nov. 1830.
153. Manchester Mercury, 13 Nov. 1810;
154. Sheffield Iris, 4 Nov. 1820;
155. Sheffield Mercury, 20 Nov. 1830.
156. Manchester Mercury, 7 Jan. 1809, 30 Dec. 1817;
157. Sheffield Register, 20 Oct. 1787;
158. Leeds Intelligencer, 21 Dec. 1826;
159. Leeds Mercury, 7 Jan. 1807.
160. Manchester Mercury, 5 Jan. 1828.
161. Aikin, A Description of ... Manchester, 147-206.
162. See also Hunter, Hallamshire, 125;
163. Kathleen Wilson, 'Citizenship, empire, and modernity in the English provinces, c. 1720-1790', Eighteenth-Century Studies, 29, 1 (1996), 69-96,
164. Kathleen Wilson, The Sense of the People: Politics, Culture and Imperialism in England, 1715-1785 (Cambridge, 1995).
165. Borsay, 'London connection';
166. John Brewer, The Pleasures of the Imagination (London, 1997), 493-8;
167. Rosemary Sweet, The Writing of Urban Histories in Eighteenth Century England (Oxford, 1997), 240;
168. Holger Hoock, The King's Artists: The Royal Academy of Arts and the Politics of British Culture, 1760-1840 (Oxford, 2004), ch. 3. I am grateful to the author for a copy of this piece prior to publication.
169. Papers were sampled for November at ten-yearly intervals starting in 1760, except in the case of Sheffield, where very few copies were extant for 1770 and 1780, so alternative months and surviving papers from 1776 were also examined, Newspapers used in this survey were: Manchester Mercury, 1760-1820;
170. Wheeler's Manchester Chronicle, 1830;
171. Leeds Intelligencer, 1760-80;
172. Leeds Mercury, 1790-1830;
173. Public Advertiser (Sheffield), 1760, 1770 (May), 1776 (Apr.);
174. Sheffield Register, 1790;
175. Sheffield Iris, 1800, 1810;
176. Sheffield Mercury, 1820, 1830. Advertisements for property sales, lottery tickets, legal notices and political advertisements were not included in this study.
177. Ratio of London: provincial: foreign= Manchester 41:48:10;
178. Leeds 46:47:6;
179. Sheffield 48:46:4.
180. R. Porter,'Science, provincial culture and public opinion in Enlightenment England', British Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies, 3 (1980), 20-46;
181. Brewer, Pleasures of the Imagination.
182. Cf. Stana Nenadic,'Middle-rank consumers and domestic culture in Edinburgh and Glasgow, 1720-1840', Past and Present, 145 (1994), 122-45.
183. C.B. Andrews (ed.), The Torrington Diaries, 4 vols. (London, 1934-8), vol. III, 116-17.
184. See also White, Letters on England, vol. 1, 46-7.
185. See also Verulam MS, HMC (London, 1906), 239;
186. R.L. Brett (ed.), Barclay Fox's Journal (London, 1979), 110;
187. W.S. Lewis (ed.), Horace Walpole's Correspondence, 48 vols. (London, 1937-83), vol. IX, 295.
188. Borsay, 'London connection', 24, 27;
189. R.H. Sweet, 'Topographies of politeness', Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 12 (2002), 358-66;
190. Brewer, Pleasures of the Imagination, 494.
191. Sweet, Writing of Urban Histories, 131-41.
192. Raymond Williams, The Country and the City (London, 1973).
193. Alexis de Tocqueville, Journeys to England and Ireland, trans. George Lawrence and K.P Mayer, ed. J.P. Mayer (London, 1958);
194. Frederick Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in England, trans. W.O. Henderson and W.H. Chaloner, 2nd edn (Oxford, 1971; first pub. 1844);
195. P.E. Razell and R.W. Wainwright, eds., The Victorian Working Class: Selections from Letters to the Morning Chronicle (London, 1973);
196. Sir George Head, Home Tour through the Manufacturing Districts of England in the Summer of 1835 (London, 1836).
197. William Hutton, History of Birmingham (1781) cited in Sweet, The English Town 1680-1840, 221;
198. 'A native of the town', A Description of Manchester (Manchester, 1783), p. 93.
199. See also Ellis, Georgian Town, 20-1;
200. R. Ayton, A Voyage round Great Britain Undertaken in the Summer of 1813 (London, 1814), 70.
201. Contemporary artists and writers could also present a far more upbeat representation of life in industrial towns: Caroline Arscott and Griselda Pollock with Janet Wolff, 'The partial view: the visual representation of the early nineteenth century industrial city', in Wolff and Seed (eds.), The Culture of Capital, 191-234;
202. Stephen Daniels, 'The implications of industry: Turner and Leeds', in Simon Pugh (ed.), Reading Landscape: Country-City-Capital (Manchester, 1990), 66-80;
203. Maxine Berg, 'Representations of early industrial towns: Turner and his contemporaries', in Michael Rosenthal, Christina Payne and Scott Wilcox (eds.), Prospects for the Nation: Recent Essays in British Landscape, 1750-1880 (New Haven and London, 1997), 115-31;
204. James Raven, 'Defending trade in the provinces, the gentleman merchant and Mrs Gomerall of Leeds', in his Judging New Wealth.
205. See Sweet, 'Topographies of politeness', on non-metropolitan views of politeness.
206. See for example, White, Letters on England, vol. I, 46-7;
207. Stobart, 'Culture versus commerce: societies and spaces for elites in eighteenth-century Liverpool'.
208. Most notably, F.M.L. Thompson called his social history of Victorian Britain, The Rise of Respectable Society (London, 1988).
209. See also more recent work on 'governmentality', for example, Michel Foucault, 'Governmentality', in Graham Burchell, Colin Gordon and Peter Miller (eds.), The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality (London, 1991);
210. Patrick Joyce, The Rule of Freedom: Liberalism and the Modern City (London, 2003).
211. Although he states that this provincial culture was increasingly 'plebeian' in character, wheras middling sorts and local elites were more likely to participate in a 'national society' focused on London: Dror Wahrman, 'National society, communal culture: an argument about the recent historiography of eighteenth-century Britain', Social History 17, 1 (1992), 43;
212. Hannah Barker, Newspapers, Politics, and Public Opinion in Late Eighteenth-Century England (Oxford, 1998);
213. idem, Newspapers, Politics and English Society, 1695-1855 (Harlow, 2000).
214. Ellis, Georgian Town, 140.
215. See also Barry, 'Provincial town culture, 1640-1780: urbane or civic?'.