Pediatric rheumatology for the adult rheumatologist I: Therapy and dosing for pediatric rheumatic disorders

Journal of Clinical Rheumatology

Volumn 11, Issue 1, 2005, Pages 21-33

  DeWitt, Esi M ^a   Sherry, David D ^a   Cron, Randy Q ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

^b CHILDREN S HOSPITAL OF PHILADELPHIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Juvenile idiopathic arthritis; Pediatric; Pharmacology; Treatment

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; CELECOXIB; CHOLINE MAGNESIUM TRISALICYLATE; COTRIMOXAZOLE; DEFLAZACORT; DICLOFENAC; DISEASE MODIFYING ANTIRHEUMATIC DRUG; DRUG METABOLIZING ENZYME; ETANERCEPT; ETODOLAC; HYDROXYCHLOROQUINE; IBUPROFEN; INDOMETACIN; INFLIXIMAB; LODINE XL; MELOXICAM; METHOTREXATE; METHYLPREDNISOLONE SODIUM SUCCINATE; NABUMETONE; NAPROXEN; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; ORAPRED; OXAPROZIN; PEDIAPRED; PIROXICAM; PREDNISOLONE; ROFECOXIB; SALAZOSULFAPYRIDINE; SULINDAC; TOLMETIN; TRIMETHOPRIM; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA ANTIBODY; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ABDOMINAL PAIN; ACNE; ALLERGIC PNEUMONITIS; ANAPHYLAXIS; ANOREXIA; ASTHMA; BLOOD CLOTTING DISORDER; BODY GROWTH; BULLOUS SKIN DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CATARACT; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASE; CHICKENPOX; CHOLECYSTITIS; CORTICOSTEROID INDUCED OSTEOPOROSIS; CUSHING SYNDROME; CYTOPENIA; DIABETES MELLITUS; DRUG ABSORPTION; DRUG BIOAVAILABILITY; DRUG DISTRIBUTION; DRUG DOSE REGIMEN; DRUG ELIMINATION; DRUG HYPERSENSITIVITY; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG POTENTIATION; DRUG SCREENING; DRUG USE; DUODENUM INJURY; EYE TOXICITY; FATTY LIVER; FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; GLAUCOMA; GROWTH RETARDATION; HEADACHE; HISTOPLASMOSIS; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; HYPOGAMMAGLOBULINEMIA; KIDNEY DISEASE; LEGAL ASPECT; LISTERIOSIS; LIVER CELL CARCINOMA; LIVER CIRRHOSIS; LIVER DISEASE; LIVER FIBROSIS; LYMPHOMA; MOOD DISORDER; OBESITY; OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTION; OPTIC NERVE DISEASE; OSTEOPENIA; PANCYTOPENIA; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; PHOTOSENSITIVITY DISORDER; PHOTOTOXICITY; PNEUMOCYSTOSIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSEUDOPORPHYRIA; RETINOPATHY; REVIEW; REYE SYNDROME; RHEUMATIC DISEASE; SEIZURE; SEPSIS; SEXUAL MATURITY; SKIN DISEASE; SKIN SCAR; STOMACH DISEASE; STOMACH INJURY; STRIA; SUSTAINED DRUG RELEASE; SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS; TUBERCULOUS ARTHRITIS; TUBERCULOUS PERITONITIS; UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION; URINARY TRACT INFECTION; VACCINATION;

ADOLESCENT; ADRENAL CORTEX HORMONES; ANTI-INFLAMMATORY AGENTS, NON-STEROIDAL; ANTIRHEUMATIC AGENTS; CHILD; DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP, DRUG; HUMANS; INJECTIONS, INTRA-ARTICULAR; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; RHEUMATIC DISEASES; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR-ALPHA; VACCINATION;

EID: 13544263596     PISSN: 10761608     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/01.rhu.0000152151.12999.76     Document Type: Review

References (146)

1. FD A/Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. Best Pharmaceuticals for Children Act, January 4, 2002 (Public Law No. 107-109). Posted 1/31/02 [FDA/CDER web site]. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/cder/pediatric/PL107-109.pdf. Accessed June 13, 2003.
2. Meadows M. Drug research and children. FDA Consumer Magazine. 2003, January-February. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/2003/103_drugs. html. Accessed June 13, 2003.
3. Steinbrook R. Testing medications in children. N Engl J of Med. 2002;347:1462-1470.
4. Vitiello B, Jensen PS. Medication development and testing in children and adolescents: current problems, future directions. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1997;54:871-876.
5. Restivo J. Pediatric drug testing enters infancy. Nat Med. 2003;9:631.
6. Marshall E. Challenge to FDA's authority may end up giving it more. Science. 2002;296:820-821.
7. Miller HI. Drug approval and testing on children [Letter]. Science. 296:1609-1610.
8. HHS Press Office. Bush Administration will seek new legislation for mandatory pediatric drug testing. US Department of Health & Human Services News Release. Monday, Dec 16,2002. Available at: http://www.hhs.gov/news/press/ 2002pres/20021216c.html. Accessed June 13, 2003.
9. American Academy of Pediatrics press release on passage of Pediatric Research Equity Act of 2003. Available at: http://www.aap.org/advocacy/washing/ ped_rule_passes.htm.
10. Public Law 108-155-Dec 3, 2003/Pediatric Research Equity Act of 2003. Available at: http://thomas.loc.gov/.
11. FDA/Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. Pediatric Exclusivity Labeling Changes as of August 22, 2003 [FDA/CDER web site]. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/cder/pediatric/labelchange.htm. Accessed September 11, 2003.
12. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Drugs. Use of drugs not described in the package insert (off-label uses). Pediatrics. 2002;110:181-183.
13. nd Annual Meeting November 6, 2001. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/cder/pediatric/presentation/tox_peds_ nov2001/tsld001.htm. Accessed June 13, 2003.
14. McGettigan P, Henry DA, Hennessy S. Basic principles of clinical pharmacology relevant to pharmacoepidemiology studies. In: Strom BL, ed. Pharmacoepidemiology, 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc; 2000:41-62.
15. Leeder JS, Kearns GL. Pharmacogenetics in pediatrics: implications for practice. Pediatr Clin North Am. 1997;44:55-77.
16. Reed MD, Besunder JB. Developmental pharmacology: ontogenic basis of drug disposition. Pediatr Clin North Am. 1989;36:1053-1074.
17. Kearns GL. Impact of developmental pharmacology on pediatric study design: overcoming the challenges. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2000;106: S128-138.
18. Kearns GL, Abdel-Rahman SM, Alander SW, et al. Developmental pharmacology-drug disposition, action, and therapy in infants and children. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:1157-1167.
19. Stempak D, Gammon J, Klein J, et al. Pharmacokinetics and drug disposition: single-dose and steady-state pharmacokinetics of celecoxib in children. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2002;72:490-497.
20. Udkow G. Pediatric clinical pharmacology. Am J Dis Child. 1978;132:1025-1032.
21. Strom BL. When should one perform pharmacoepidemiology studies? In: Strom BL, ed. Pharmacoepidemiology, 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc; 2000:63-71.
22. Gupta A, Waldhauser LK. Adverse drug reactions from birth to early childhood. Pediatr Clin North Am. 1997;44:79-92.
23. American Academy of Pediatrics. Immunization in special clinical circumstances-immunocompromised children. In: Pickering LK, ed. Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee of Infectious Diseases, 26th ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2003;69-81.
24. Ilowite NT. Current treatment of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Pediatrics. 2002;109-109-115.
25. McFarland E. Immunizations for the immunocompromised child. Pediatr Ann. 1999;28:487-496.
26. Loutan L. Vaccination of the immunocompromised patient. Biologicals. 1997;25:231-236.
27. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Antiviral agents for influenza: background information for clinicians, December 16, 2003. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/flu/professionals/antiviralback.htm.
28. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Preventing pneumococcal disease among infants and young children. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2000;49(RR09):1-38. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/ PDF/RR/RR4909.pdf.
29. Matsui DM. Drug compliance in pediatrics: clinical and research issues. Pediatr Clin North Am. 1997;44:1-14.
30. Hollister JR. Medical treatment of adolescents with rheumatic disease. Adolescent Medicine: State of the Art Reviews. 1998;9:163-170.
31. Cron RQ, Sharma S, Sherry DD. Current treatment by United States and Canadian pediatric rheumatologists. J Rheumatol. 1999;26:2036-2038.
32. Lindsley CB. Use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in pediatrics. Am J Dis Child. 1993;147:229-236.
33. Remington PL, Rowley D, McGee H, et al. Decreasing trends in Reye syndrome and aspirin use in Michigan, 1979 to 1984. Pediatrics. 1986;77:93-98.
34. Orlowski JP, Gillis J, Kilham HA. A catch in the Reye. Pediatrics. 1987;80:638-642.
35. Laxer RM, Gazarian M. Pharmacology and drug therapy. In: Cassidy JT, Petty RE, eds. Textbook of Pediatric Rheumatology. 4th ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 2001:90-146.
36. Physician's Desk Reference. Available at: http://www.pdr.net.
37. Mortensen ME, Rennebohm RM. Clinical pharmacology and use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Pediatr Clin North Am. 1989;36:1113-1139.
38. Fahey SM, Silver RM. Use of NSAIDs and COX-2 inhibitors in children with musculoskeletal disorders. J Pediatr Orthop. 2003;23:794-799.
39. Keenan GF, Giannini EH, Athreya BH. Clinically significant gastropathy associated with nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug use in children with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol. 1995;22:1149-1151.
40. Mulberg AE, Linz C, Bern E, et al. Identification of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug-induced gastroduodenal injury in children with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. J Pediatr. 1993;122:647-649.
41. Hermaszewski R, Hayllar J, Woo P. Gastro-duodenal damage due to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in children. Br J Rheumatol. 1993;32:69-72.
42. Dowd JE, Cimaz R, Fink CW. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug-induced gastroduodenal injury in children. Arthritis Rheum. 1995;38:1225-1231.
43. US Food and Drug Administration. FDA issues public health advisory on Vioxx as its manufacturer voluntarily withdraws the product. FDA News. September 30, 2004. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ news/2004/NEW01122.html.
44. De Silva B, Banney L, Uttley W, et al. Pseudoporphyria and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory agents in children with juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Pediatr Dermatol. 2000;17:480-483.
45. Levy ML, Barron KS, Eichenfeld A, et al. Naproxen-induced pseudoporphyria: a distinctive photodermatitis. J Pediatr. 1990;117:660-664.
46. Lang BA, Finlayson LA. Naproxen-induced pseudoporphyria in patients with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. J Pediatr. 1994;124:639-642.
47. Antony F, Layton AM. Nabumetone-associated pseudoporphyria. Br J Dermatol. 2000;142:1067-1069.
48. Cron RQ, Finkel TH. Nabumetone induced pseudoporphyria in childhood. J Rheumatol. 2000;27:1817-1818.
49. Cummins R, Wagner-Weiner L, Paller A. Pseudoporphyria induced by celecoxib in a patient with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis [Letter]. J Rheumatol. 2000;27:2938-2940.
50. Markus R, Reddick ME, Rubenstein MC. Rofecoxib-induced pseudoporphyria [Letter]. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2004;50:647-648.
51. American College of Rheumatology Subcommittee on Rheumatoid Arthritis Guidelines. Guidelines for the management of rheumatoid arthritis: 2002 update. Arthritis Rheum. 2002;46:328-346.
52. Hollingworth P. The use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in paediatric rheumatic diseases. Br J Rheumatol 1993;32:73-77.
53. Wallace CA. The use of methotrexate in childhood rheumatic diseases. Arthritis Rheum. 1998;41:381-391.
54. Rettig P, Cron RQ. Methotrexate used as a steroid-sparing agent in non-renal Henoch-Schonlein pupura. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2003;21:767-769.
55. Chan ESL, Cronstein BN. Molecular action of methotrexate in inflammatory diseases. Arthritis Res. 2002;4:266-273.
56. Wallace CA, Sherry DD. Preliminary report of higher dose methotrexate treatment in juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol. 1992;19:1604-1607.
57. Albertioni F, Flato B, Seideman P, et al. Methotrexate in juvenile rheumatoid arthritis-evidence of age dependent pharmacokinetics. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1995;47:507-511.
58. Jundt JW, Browne BA, Fiocco GP, et al. A comparison of low dose methotrexate bioavailability: oral solution, oral tablet, subcutaneous and intramuscular dosing. J Rheumatol. 1993;20:1845-1849.
59. Ramanan AV, Whitworth P, Baildam EM. Use of methotrexate in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Arch Dis Child. 2003;88:197-200.
60. Dupuis LL, Koren G, Silverman ED, et al. Influence of food on the bioavailability of oral methotrexate in children. J Rheumatol. 1995;22:1570-1573.
61. Alsufyani K, Ortiz-Alvarez O, Cabral DA, et al. The role of subcutaneous administration of methotrexate in children with juvenile idiopathic arthritis who have failed oral methotrexate. J Rheumatol. 2004;31:179-182.
62. Ruperto N, Murray KJ, Gerloni V, et al. A randomized trial of parental methotrexate comparing an intermediate dose with a higher dose in children with juvenile idiopathic arthritis who failed to respond to standard doses of methotrexate. Arthritis Rheum. 2004;50:2191-2201.
63. Hunt PG, Rose CD, McIlvain-Simpson G, et al. The effects of daily intake of folic acid on the efficacy of methotrexate therapy in children with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. A controlled study. J Rheumatol. 1997;24:2230-2232.
64. Chandran G, Ahern MJ, Hall PM, et al. Cirrhosis in patients with rheumatoid arthritis receiving low dose methotrexate. Br J Rheumatol. 1994;33:981-984.
65. Phillips CA, Cera PJ, Mangan TF. Clinical liver disease in patients with rheumatoid arthritis taking methotrexate. J Rheumatol. 1992;19:229-233.
66. Graham LD, Myones BL, Rivas-Chacon RF, et al. Morbidity associated with long-term methotrexate therapy in juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. J Pediatr. 1992;120:468-473.
67. Keim D, Ragsdale C, Heidelberger K, et al. Hepatic fibrosis with the use of methotrexate for juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol. 1990;17:846-848.
68. Lahdenne P, Rapola J, Ylijoki H, et al. Hepatotoxicity in patients with juvenile idiopathic arthritis receiving longterm methotrexate therapy. J Rheumatol. 2002;29:2442-2445.
69. Hashkes PJ, Balistreri WF, Bove KE, et al. The relationship of hepatotoxic risk factors and liver histology in methotrexate therapy for juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. J Pediatr. 1999;134:47-52.
70. Ruymann FB, Mosijczuk AD, Sayers RJ. Hepatoma in a child with methotrexate-induced hepatic fibrosis. JAMA. 1977;238:2631-2633.
71. McIntosh S, Davidson DL, O'Brien R, et al. Methotrexate hepatotoxicity in children with leukemia. J Pediatr. 1977;90:1019-1021.
72. Kumari TP, Shanvas A, Mathews A, et al. Hepatocellular carcinoma: a rare late event in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia [Letter]. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2000;22:289-290.
73. Fried M, Kalra J, Ilardi CF, et al. Hepatocellular carcinoma in a long-term survivor of acute lymphocytic leukemia. Cancer. 1987;60:2548-2552.
74. Hashkes PJ, Balistreri WF, Bove KE, et al. The long-term effect of methotrexate therapy on the liver in patients with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 1997;40:2226-2234.
75. Cleary AG, McDowell H, Sills JA. Polyarticular juvenile idiopathic arthritis treated with methotrexate complicated by non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Arch Dis Child. 2002;86:47-49.
76. Ranganathan P, Eisen S, Yokoyama WM, et al. Will pharmacogenetics allow better prediction of methotrexate toxicity and efficacy in patients with rheumatoid arthritis? Ann Rheum Dis. 2003;62:4-9.
77. Furst DE. The rational use of methotrexate in rheumatoid arthritis and other rheumatic diseases. Br J Rheumatol 1997;36:1196-1204.
78. Ferrazzini G, Klein J, Sulh H, et al. Interaction between trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and methotrexate in children with leukemia. J Pediatr. 1990;117:823-826.
79. Harel L, Wagner-Weiner L, Poznanski AK, et al. Effects of methotrexate on radiologic progression in juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 1993;36:1370-1374.
80. Ravelli A, Viola S, Ramenghi B, et al. Radiologic progression in patients with juvenile chronic arthritis treated with methotrexate. J Pediatr. 1998;133:262-265.
81. Weiss AH, Wallace CA, Sherry DD. Methotrexate for resistant chronic uveitis in children with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. J Pediatr. 1998;133:266-268.
82. Gottleib BS, Keenan GF, Lu T, et al. Discontinuation of methotrexate treatment in juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Pediatrics. 1997;100:994-997.
83. Ravelli A, Viola S, Ramenghi B, et al. Frequency of relapse after discontinuation of methotrexate therapy for clinical remission in juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol. 1995;22:1574-1576.
84. Foell D, Frosch M, Schulze zur Wiesch A, et al. Methotrexate treatment in juvenile idiopathic arthritis: when is the right time to stop? Ann Rheum Dis. 2004;63:206-208.
85. Bresnihan B. Treating early rheumatoid arthritis in the younger patient. J Rheumatol. 2001;28(suppl 62):4-9.
86. Joos R, Veys E, Mielants H, et al. Sulfasalazine treatment in juvenile chronic arthritis: an open study. J Rheumatol. 1991;18:880-884.
87. Huang JL, Chen LC. Sulphasalazine in the treatment of children with chronic arthritis. Clin Rheumatol. 1998;17:359-363.
88. Dougados M, van der Linden S, Leirisalo-Repo M, et al. Sulfasalazine in the treatment of spondyloarthropathy. A randomized, multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Arthritis Rheum. 1995;38:618-627.
89. Tanaka E, Taniguchi A, Urano W, et al. Adverse effects of sulfasalazine in patients with rheumatoid arthritis are associated with diplotype configuration at the N-acetyltransferase 2 gene. J Rheumatol. 2002;29:2492-2499.
90. Scott DL, Dacre JE. Adverse reactions to sulfasalazine: the British experience. J Rheumatol Suppl. 1998;16:17-21.
91. Leickly FE, Buckley RH. Development of IgA and IgG2 subclass deficiency after suifasalazine therapy. J Pediatr. 1986;108:481-482.
92. Fair M, Kitas GD, Tunn EJ, et al. Immunodeficiencies associated with sulphasalazine therapy in inflammatory arthritis. Br J Rheumatol. 1991;30:413-417.
93. Ansell BM, Hall MA, Loftus JK, et al. A multicentre pilot study of sulphasalazine in juvenile chronic arthritis. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 1991;9:201-203.
94. Cassidy JT, Petty RE. Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. In: Cassidy JT, Petty RE, eds. Textbook of Pediatric Rheumatology, 4th ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 2001:218-321.
95. Van Kerckhove C, Giannini EH, Lovell DJ. Temporal patterns of response to D-penicillamine, hydroxychloroquine, and placebo in juvenile rheumatoid arthritis patients. Arthritis Rheum. 1988;31:1252-1258.
96. Brewer EJ, Giannini EH, Kuzmina N, et al. Penicillamine and hydroxychloroquine in the treatment of severe juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. N Engl J Med. 1986;314:1269-1276.
97. Olson NY, Lindsley CB. Adjunctive use of hydroxychloroquine in childhood dermatomyositis. J Rheumatol. 1994;21:2171-2172.
98. Rahman P, Gladman DD, Urowitz MD, et al. The cholesterol lowering effect of antimalarial drugs in enhanced in patients with lupus taking corticosteroid drugs. J Rheumatol. 1999;26:325-330.
99. Canadian Hydroxychloroquine Study Group. A randomized study of the effect of withdrawing hydroxychloroquine sulfate in systemic lupus erythematosus. N Engl J Med. 1991;324:189-191.
100. Marmor MF, Carr RE, Easterbrook M, et al. Recommendations on screening for chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine retinopathy. Ophthalmology. 2002;109:1377-1382.
101. Lovell DJ, Giannini EH, Reiff A, et al. Etanercept in children with polyarticular juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:763-769.
102. US Food and Drag Administration. Enbrel (Etanercept). MedWatch: The FDA safety information and adverse event reporting program. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/medwatch/SAFETY/2004/May_PI/Enbrel_PI.pdf.
103. Takei S, Groh D, Bernstein B, et al. Safety and efficacy of high dose etanercept in treatment of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol. 2001;28:1677-1680.
104. Zeltser R, et al. Clinical, histological, and immunophenotypic characteristics of injection site reactions associated with etanercept. Arch Dermatol. 2001;137:893-899.
105. Lovell DJ, Giannini EH, Reiff A, et al. Long-term efficacy and safety of etanercept in children with polyarticular-course juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2003;48:218-226.
106. Ramanan A, Schneider R. Macrophage activation syndrome following initiation of etanercept in a child with systemic onset juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol. 2003;30:401-403.
107. Lepore L, Marchetti F, Facchini S, et al. Drug-induced systemic lupus erythematosus associated with etanercept therapy in a child with juvenile idiopathic arthritis [Letter]. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2003;21:276-277.
108. Manadan AM, Block JA, Sequiera W. Mycobacteria tuberculosis peritonitis associated with etanercept therapy [Letter]. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2003;21:526.
109. Foeldvari I, Kruger, Schneider T. Acute, non-obstructive, sterile cholecystitis associated with etanercept and infliximab for the treatment of juvenile polyarticular rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2003;62:908-909.
110. Lipsky PE, van der Heijde DM, St. Clair EW, et al. Infiximab and methotrexate in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. N Engl J Med. 2000;343:1594-1602.
111. Kimura Y, Imundo LF, Li SC. High dose infliximab in the treatment of resistant systemic juvenile rheumatoid arthritis [Abstract]. Arthritis Rheum. 2001;44:S272.
112. Weisman MH. What are the risks of biologic therapy in rheumatoid arthritis? An update on safety. J Rheum- Suppl. 2002;65:33-38.
113. Lahdenne P, Vähäsalo P, Honkanen V. Infliximab or etanercept in the treatment of children with refractory juvenile idiopathic arthritis: an open label study. Ann Rheum Dis. 2003;62:245-247.
114. Miele E, Markowitz JE, Mamula P, et al. Human antichimeric antibody in children and young adults with inflammatory bowel disease receiving infliximab. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2004;38:502-508.
115. Slifman NR, Gershon SK, Lee JH, et al. Listeria monocytogenes infection as a complication of treatment with tumor necrosis factor alpha-neutralizing agents. Arthritis Rheum. 2003;48:319-324.
116. Wolfe F, Michaud K. Lymphoma in rheumatoid arthritis: the effect of methotrexate and anti-tumor necrosis factor therapy in 18,572 patients. Arthritis Rheum. 2004;50:1740-1751.
117. Ten Cate R, Smiers FJ, Bredius RGM, et al. Anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody (rituximab) for refractory autoimmune thrombocytopenia in a girl with systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatology. 2004;43:245-246.
118. Zecca M, Nobili B, Ramenghi U, et al. Rituximab for the treatment of refractory autoimmune hemolytic anemia in children. Blood. 2003;101:8357-3861.
119. Bernstein BH, Stobie D, Singsen BH, et al. Growth retardation in juvenile rheumatoid arthritis (JRA). Arthritis Rheum. 1977;20(suppl): 212-216.
120. Mushtaq T, Ahmed SF. The impact of corticosteroids on growth and bone health. Arch Dis Child. 2002;87:93-96.
121. Kotaniemi A, Savolainen A, Kautiainen H, et al. Estimation of central osteopenia in children with chronic polyarthritis treated with glucocorticoids. Pediatrics. 1993;91:1127-1130.
122. Ozerdem U, Levi L, Cheng L, et al. Systemic toxicity of topical and periocular corticosteroid therapy in an 11-year-old male with posterior uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2000;130:240-241.
123. Foster CS, Havrlikova K, Baltatzis S, et al. Secondary glaucoma in patients with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis associated iridocyclitis. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2000;78:576-579.
124. Miller JJ III. Prolonged use of large intravenous steroid pulses in the rheumatic diseases of children. Pediatrics. 1980;65:989-994.
125. Sturge RA, Beardwell C, Hartog M, et al. Cortisol and growth hormone secretion in relation to linear growth: patients with Still's disease on different therapeutic regimens. BMJ. 1970;3:547-551.
126. Loftus J, Allen R, Hesp R, et al. Randomized, double-blind trial of deflazacort versus prednisone in juvenile chronic (or rheumatoid) arthritis: a relatively bone-sparing effect of deflazacort. Pediatrics. 1991;88:428-436.
127. Padeh S, Passwell JH. Intraarticular corticosteroid injection in the management of children with chronic arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 1998;41:1210-1214.
128. Cleary AG, Murphy HD, Davidson JE. Intra-articular corticosteroid injections in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Arch Dis Child. 2003;88:192-196.
129. Zulian F, Martini G, Gobber D, et al. Comparison of intra-articular triamcinolone hexacetonide and triamcinolone acetonide in oligoarticular juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Rheumatology. 2003;42:1-6.
130. Zulian F, Martini G, Gobber D, et al. Triamcinolone acetonide and hexacetonide intra-articular treatment of symmetrical joints in juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a double-blind trial. Rheumatology. 2004;43:1288-1291.
131. Sherry DD, Stein LD, Reed AM, et al. Prevention of leg length discrepancy in young children with pauciarticular juvenile rheumatoid arthritis by treatment with intraarticular steroids. Arthritis Rheum. 1999;42:2330-2334.
132. Huppertz H, Tschammler A, Horwitz AE, et al. Intraarticular corticosteroids for chronic arthritis in children: efficacy and effects on cartilage and growth. J Pediatr. 1995;127:317-321.
133. Uziel Y, Berkovitch M, Gazarian M, et al. Evaluation of eutetic lidocaine/prilocaine cream (EMLA) for steroid joint injection in children with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis: a double blind, randomized, placebo controlled trial. J Rheumatol 2003;30:594-596.
134. American Academy of Pediatrics/Committee on Drugs. Guidelines for monitoring and management of pediatric patients during and after sedation for diagnostic and therapeutic procedures: addendum. Pediatrics. 2002;110:836-838.
135. Job-Deslandre C, Menkes CJ. Complications of intra-articular injections of triamcinolone hexacetonide in chronic arthritis in children. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 1990;4:413-416.
136. Kumar S, Singh RJ, Reed AM, et al. Cushing's syndrome after intra-articular and intradermal administration of triamcinolone acetonide in three pediatric patients. Pediatrics. 2004;113:1820-1824.
137. Pal B, Morris J. Perceived risks of joint infection following intraarticular corticosteroid injections: a survey of rheumatologists. Clin Rheumatol. 1999;18:264-265.
138. Wallace CA, Sherry DD. Trial of intravenous pulse cyclophosphamide and methylprednisolone in the treatment of severe systemic-onset juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 1997;40:1852-1855.
139. Ravelli A, De Benedetti F, Viola S, et al. Clinical and laboratory observations: macrophage activation syndrome in systemic juvenile rheumatoid arthritis successfully treated with cyclosporine. J Pediatr. 1996;128:275-278.
140. Reiff A, Rawlings DJ, Shaham B, et al. Preliminary evidence for cyclosporin A as an alternative in the treatment of recalcitrant juvenile rheumatoid arthritis and juvenile dermatomyositis. J Rheumatol. 1997;24:2436-2443.
141. Lehman TH, Striegel KH, Onel KB. Thalidomide therapy for recalcitrant systemic onset juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. J Pediatr. 2002;140:125-127.
142. US Food and Drug Administration. 'Draft/proposed prescribing information' thalomid (thalidomide) capsules 50 mg, 100 mg and 200 mg MedWatch: the FDA safety information and adverse event reporting program. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/medwatch/SAFETY/2003/ 03Oct_PI/Thalomid_PI.pdf.
143. Wulffraat NM, Kuis W. Autologous stem cell transplantation: a possible treatment for refractory juvenile chronic arthritis? Rheumatology 1999;38:764-766.
144. Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. Application number 20-584/S-005. Approved Draft Labeling Lodine XL. Available at: http:// www.fda.gov/cder/ pediatric/labels/Etodolac.pdf.
145. Pharmacia Reg Affairs. SEARLE Daypro caplets. Available at: http:// www.fda.gov/cder/pediatric/labels/Oxaproz.pdf.
146. Goodman S, Howard P, Haig A, et al. An open label study to establish dosing recommendations for nabumetone in juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol. 2003;30:829-831.