Optimizing functional exercise capacity in the elderly surgical population

Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care

Volumn 8, Issue 1, 2005, Pages 23-32

  Carli, Franco ^a,b   Zavorsky, Gerald S ^a  

^a MCGILL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b MCGILL UNIVERSITY HEALTH CENTRE   (Canada)

Author keywords

Functional capacity; Prehabilitation; Rehabilitation; Surgery

Indexed keywords

ADAPTATION; CARDIOVASCULAR FUNCTION; CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM; DISABILITY; ELDERLY CARE; EXERCISE; HOSPITAL ADMISSION; HOSPITALIZATION; HUMAN; MORBIDITY; MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM; NUTRITION; QUALITY OF LIFE; REHABILITATION; REVIEW; SURGICAL PATIENT; TRAINING;

ACTIVITIES OF DAILY LIVING; ADAPTATION, PHYSIOLOGICAL; AGED; AGED, 80 AND OVER; EXERCISE; EXERCISE THERAPY; HUMANS; LENGTH OF STAY; POSTOPERATIVE PERIOD; PREOPERATIVE CARE; QUALITY OF LIFE;

EID: 13444278702     PISSN: 13631950     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00075197-200501000-00005     Document Type: Review

References (87)

1. Fleisher LA, Eagle KA, Shatter T, Anderson GF. Perioperative- and long-term mortality rates after major vascular surgery: the relationship to preoperative testing in the medicare population. Anesth Analg 1999; 89:849-855.
2. Carli F, Mayo N. Measuring the outcome of surgical procedures: what are the challenges? Br J Anaesth 2001; 87:531-533.
3. Belardinelli R, Georgiou D, Cianci G, Purcaro A. Randomized, controlled trial of long-term moderate exercise training in chronic heart failure: effects on functional capacity, quality of life, and clinical outcome. Circulation 1999; 99:1173-1182.
4. McKelvie RS, Teo KK, Roberts R, et al. Effects of exercise training in patients with heart failure: the Exercise Rehabilitation Trial (EXERT). Am Heart J 2002; 144:23-30.
5. Pierson LM, Herbert WG, Norton HJ, et al. Effects of combined aerobic and resistance training versus aerobic training alone in cardiac rehabilitation. J Cardiopulm Rehabil 2001; 21:101-110.
6. Courneya KS. Exercise interventions during cancer treatment: biopsychosocial outcomes. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 2001; 29:60-64.
7. Topp R, Ditmyer M, King K, et al. The effect of bed rest and potential of prehabilitation on patients in the intensive care unit. AACN Clin Issues 2002; 13:263-276.
8. 2max should be higher than ∼5% to show any real benefit of training to aerobic capacity.
9. Zavorsky GS. Evidence and possible mechanisms of altered maximum heart rate with endurance training and tapering. Sports Med 2000; 29:13-26.
10. Convertino VA. Heart rate and sweat rate responses associated with exercise-induced hypervolemia. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1983; 15:77-82.
11. Spina RJ, Ogawa T, Kohrt WM, et al. Differences in cardiovascular adaptations to endurance exercise training between older men and women. J Appl Physiol 1993; 75:849-855.
12. Govindasamy D, Paterson DH, Poulin MJ, Cunningham DA. Cardiorespiratory adaptation with short term training in older men. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1992; 65:203-208.
13. Paterson DH. Effects of ageing on the cardiorespiratory system. Can J Sport Sci 1992; 17:171-177.
14. 2max with advancing age compared to healthy sedentary results.
15. Myers J, Prakash M, Froelicher V, et al. Exercise capacity and mortality among men referred for exercise testing. N Engl J Med 2002; 346:793-801.
16. Lexell J, Taylor CC, Sjostrom M. What is the cause of the ageing atrophy? Total number, size and proportion of different fiber types studied in whole vastus lateralis muscle from 15- to 83-year-old men. J Neurol Sci 1988; 84:275-294.
17. Doherty TJ. Invited review: Aging and sarcopenia. J Appl Physiol 2003; 95:1717-1727.
18. Grimby G, Saltin B. The ageing muscle. Clin Physiol 1983; 3:209-218.
19. Karlsson M. Does exercise reduce the burden of fractures? A review. Acta Orthop Scand 2002; 73:691-705.
20. Frontera WR, Meredith CN, O'Reilly KP, et al. Strength conditioning in older men: skeletal muscle hypertrophy and improved function. J Appl Physiol 1988; 64:1038-1044.
21. Welle S, Totterman S, Thornton C. Effect of age on muscle hypertrophy induced by resistance training. J Geroniol A Biol Sci Med Sci 1996; 51:M270-275.
22. Kalapotharakos VI, Michalopoulou M, Godolias G, et al. The effects of high- and moderate-resistance training on muscle function in the elderly. J Aging Phys Act 2004; 12:131-143. This is a really good study, showing that resistance training at 80% of 1-RM improves strength more than does 60% of 1-RM, Also, it shows that elderly men and women are able to perform high-intensity strength training three times per week for 12 weeks.
23. Izquierdo M, Hakkinen K, Ibanez J, et al. Effects of strength training on submaximal and maximal endurance performance capacity in middle-aged and older men. J Strength Cond Res 2003; 17:129-139.
24. Reeves ND, Narici MV, Maganaris CN. Effect of resistance training on skeletal muscle-specific force in elderly humans. J Appl Physiol 2004; 96:885-892.
25. Suetta C, Aagaard P, Rosted A, et al. Training induced changes in muscle CSA, muscle strength, EMG and rate of force development in the elderly after long term unilateral disuse. J Appl Physiol 2004; 97:1954-1961.
26. Hunter GR, Treuth MS. Relative training intensity and increases in strength in older women. J Strength Cond Research 1995; 9:188-191.
27. Iwamoto J, Otaka Y, Kudo K, et al. Efficacy of training program for ambulatory competence in elderly women. Keio J Med 2004; 53:85-89.
28. Brown AB, McCartney N, Sale DG. Positive adaptations to weight-lifting training in the elderly. J Appl Physiol 1990; 69:1725-1733.
29. Karlsson M. Is exercise of value in the prevention of fragility fractures in men? Scand J Med Sci Sports 2002; 12:197-210.
30. Tracy BL, Ivey FM, Hurlbut D, et al. Muscle quality. II. Effects of strength training in 65- to 75-yr-old men and women. J Appl Physiol 1999; 86:195-201.
31. Layne JE, Nelson ME. The effects of progressive resistance training on bone density: a review. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999; 31:25-30.
32. Nelson ME, Fiatarone MA, Morganti CM, et al. Effects of high-intensity strength training on multiple risk factors for osteoporotic fractures: a randomized controlled trial. Jama 1994; 272:1909-1914.
33. Rennie MJ, Wackerhage H, Spangenburg EE, Booth FW. Control of the size of the human muscle mass. Annu Rev Physiol 2004; 66:799-828. A good review on the mechanisms of change (mechanical-chemical transduction) in human muscle mass with respect to ageing and exercise.
34. Dorrens J, Rennie MJ. Effects of ageing and human whole body and muscle protein turnover. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2003; 13:26-33. A more applicable review on the effects of ageing on muscle mass.
35. Playforth MJ, Smith GM, Evans M, Pollock AV. Pre-operative assessment of fitness score. Br J Surg 1987; 74:890-892.
36. Cook JW, Pierson LM, Herbert WG, et al. The influence of patient strength, aerobic capacity and body composition upon outcomes after coronary artery bypass grafting. Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2001; 49:89-93.
37. Ware JE Jr, Sherbourne CD. The MOS 36-item short-form health survey (SF-36). I. Conceptual framework and item selection. Med Care 1992; 30:473-483.
38. Tinetti ME. Performance-oriented assessment of mobility problems in elderly patients. J Am Geriatr Soc 1986; 34:119-126.
39. Bellamy N, Buchanan WW, Goldsmith CH, et al. Validation study of WOMAC: a health status instrument for measuring clinically important patient relevant outcomes to antirheumatic drug therapy in patients with osteoarthritis of the hip or knee. J Rheumatol 1988; 15:1833-1840.
40. Hawker G, Melfi C, Paul J, et al. Comparison of a generic (SF-36) and a disease specific (WOMAC) (Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index) instrument in the measurement of outcomes after knee replacement surgery. J Rheumatol 1995; 22:1193-1196.
41. Fortin PR, Clarke AE, Joseph L, et al. Outcomes of total hip and knee replacement: preoperative functional status predicts outcomes at six months after surgery. Arthritis Rheum 1999; 42:1722-1728.
42. Ditmyer MM, Topp R, Pifer M. Prehabilitation in preparation for orthopaedic surgery. Orthop Nurs 2002; 21:43-51; quiz 52-44.
43. Asoh T, Takeuchi Y, Tsuji H. Effect of voluntary exercise on resistance to trauma in rats. Circ Shock 1986; 20:259-267.
44. Gentile AM, Beheshti Z, Held JM. Enrichment versus exercise effects on motor impairments following cortical removals in rats. Behav Neural Biol 1987; 47:321-332.
45. Asoh T, Tsuji H. Preoperative physical training for cardiac patients requiring non-cardiac surgery. Jpn J Surg 1981; 11:251-255.
46. Weidenhielm L, Mattsson E, Brostrom LA, Wersall-Robertsson E. Effect of preoperative physiotherapy in unicompartmental prosthetic knee replacement. Scand J Rehabil Med 1993; 25:33-39.
47. Wijgman AJ, Dekkers GH, Waltje E, et al. No positive effect of preoperative exercise therapy and teaching in patients to be subjected to hip arthroplasty [in Dutch]. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 1994; 138:949-952.
48. Harris WH. Traumatic arthritis of the hip after dislocation and acetabular fractures: treatment by mold arthroplasty. An end-result study using a new method of result evaluation. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1969; 51:737-755.
49. D'Lima DD, Colwell CW, Jr, Morris BA, et al. The effect of preoperative exercise on total knee replacement outcomes. Clin Orthop 1996:174-182.
50. Insall JN, Dorr LD, Scott RD, Scott WN. Rationale of the Knee Society clinical rating system. Clin Orthop 1989; 248:13-14.
51. Meenan RF, Gertman PM, Mason JH. Measuring health status in arthritis. The arthritis impact measurement scales. Arthritis Rheum 1980; 23:146-152.
52. Kaplan RM, Bush JW, Berry CC. Health status index: category rating versus magnitude estimation for measuring levels of well-being. Med Care 1979; 17:501-525.
53. Arthur HM, Daniels C, McKelvie R, et al. Effect of a preoperative intervention on preoperative and postoperative outcomes in low-risk patients awaiting elective coronary artery bypass graft surgery: a randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 2000; 133:253-262.
54. Gill TM, Baker DI, Gottschalk M, et al. A prehabilitation program for physically frail community-living older persons. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2003; 84:394-404.
55. Gill TM, Baker DI, Gottschalk M, et al. A prehabilitation program for the prevention of functional decline: effect on higher-level physical function. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2004; 85:1043-1049.
56. Lawton MP, Brody EM. Assessment of older people: self-maintaining and instrumental activities of daily living. Gerontologist 1969; 9:179-186.
57. Fillenbaum GG. Screening the elderly: a brief instrumental activities of daily living measure. J Am Geriatr Soc 1985; 33:698-706.
58. Reuben DB, Siu AL. An objective measure of physical function of elderly outpatients: the Physical Performance Test. J Am Geriatr Soc 1990; 38:1105-1112.
59. Beaupre LA, Lier D, Davies DM, Johnston DB. The effect of a preoperative exercise and education program on functional recovery, health related quality of life, and health service utilization following primary total knee arthroplasty. J Rheumatol 2004; 31:1166-1173.
60. Bombardier C, Melfi CA, Paul J, et al. Comparison of a generic and a disease-specific measure of pain and physical function after knee replacement surgery. Med Care 1995; 33 (Suppl 4):AS131-144.
61. Carvalho J, Mota J, Soares JM. Strength training vs. aerobic training: cardiovascular tolerance in elderly adults. Rev Port Cardiol 2003; 22:1315-1330.
62. Fatouros IG, Taxildaris K, Tokmakidis SP, et al. The effects of strength training, cardiovascular training and their combination on flexibility of inactive older adults. Int J Sports Med 2002; 23:112-119.
63. Mayo JJ, Kravitz L. A review of the acute cardiovascular responses of resistance exercise of healthy young and older adults. J Strength Cond Research 1999; 13:90-96.
64. Liu-Ambrose T, Khan KM, Eng JJ, et al. Resistance and agility training reduce fall risk in women aged 75 to 85 with low bone mass: a 6-month randomized, controlled trial. J Am Geriatr Soc 2004; 52:657-665.
65. American College of Sports Medicine. ACSM's Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription. 6th ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2000.
66. American College of Sports Medicine Position Stand. The recommended quantity and quality of exercise for developing and maintaining cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness, and flexibility in healthy adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1998; 30:975-991.
67. Swain DP, Franklin BA. VO(2) reserve and the minimal intensity for improving cardiorespiratory fitness. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2002; 34:152-157.
68. Karvonen MJ, Kentala E, Mustala O. The effects of training on heart rate: a longitudinal study. Ann Med Exp Biol Fenn 1957; 35:307-315.
69. Swain DP, Leutholtz BC. Heart rate reserve is equivalent to %VO2 reserve, not to %VO2max. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997; 29:410-414.
70. Borg GA. Psychophysical bases of perceived exertion. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1982; 14:377-381.
71. Iwasaki K, Zhang R, Zuckerman JH, Levine BD. Dose-response relationship of the cardiovascular adaptation to endurance training in healthy adults: how much training for what benefit? J Appl Physiol 2003; 95:1575-1583.
72. Banister EW, Morton RH, Fitz-Clarke J. Dose/response effects of exercise modeled from training: physical and biochemical measures. Ann Physiol Anthropol 1992; 11:345-356.
73. Jensen L, Pilegaard H, Neufer PD, Hellsten Y. Effect of acute exercise and exercise training on VEGF splice variants in human skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2004; 287:R397-402.
74. Porter MM, Vandervoort AA, Lexell J. Aging of human muscle: structure, function and adaptability. Scand J Med Sci Sports 1995; 5:129-142.
75. Vandervoort AA. Aging of the human neuromuscular system. Muscle Nerve 2002; 25:17-25.
76. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Strength training among adults aged >/ = 65 years - United States, 2001. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2004; 53:25-28.
77. Rogers MA, Evans WJ. Changes in skeletal muscle with aging: effects of exercise training. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 1993; 21:65-102.
78. Chandler JM, Hadley EC. Exercise to improve physiologic and functional performance in old age. Clin Geriatr Med 1996; 12:761-784.
79. Evans WJ. Exercise strategies should be designed to increase muscle power. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2000; 55:M309-310.
80. Rhea MR, Alvar BA, Burkett LN, Ball SD. A meta-analysis to determine the dose response for strength development. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003; 35:456-464. An excellent review on the appropriate prescription for maximizing strength gains in the untrained elderly population. Several studies are examined in terms of frequency and intensity and volume of training.
81. Peterson MD, Rhea MR, Alvar BA. Maximizing strength development in athletes: a meta-analysis to determine the dose-response relationship. J Strength Cond Res 2004; 18:377-382. Another excellent review on the appropriate prescription for maximizing strength gains in athletes. Several studies are examined in terms of frequency and intensity and volume of training.
82. Baechle TR, Earle RW, Wathan D. Resistance training. In: Baechle TR, Earle RW, editors. Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning. 2nd ed. Human Kinetics; 2000:395-425.
83. Day ML, McGuigan MR, Brice G, Foster C. Monitoring exercise intensity during resistance training using the session RPE scale. J Strength Cond Res 2004; 18:353-358.
84. Rennie MJ. Grandad, it ain't what you eat, it depends when you eat it - that's how muscles grow! J Physiol 2001; 535:2.
85. Esmarck B, Andersen JL, Olsen S, et al. Timing of postexercise protein intake is important for muscle hypertrophy with resistance training in elderly humans. J Physiol 2001; 535:301-311.
86. Bunout B, Barrera G, de la Maza P, et al. Effects of nutritional supplementation and resistance training on muscle strength in free living elders: results of one year follow up. J Nutr Health Aging 2004; 8:68-75.
87. Hargreaves M. Pre-exercise nutritional strategies: effects on metabolism and performance. Can J Appl Physiol 2001; 26 (Suppl):S64-S70.