"We had no desire to be set apart": Forced segregation of black students in Canada west public schools and myths of british egalitarianism

Histoire Sociale

Volumn 37, Issue 73, 2004, Pages 27-50

  McLaren, Kristin ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OTTAWA   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 13344282720     PISSN: 00182257     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (172)

1. See, for example, The CRB Foundation Heritage Project: 60th Minute Commemorative Video: The Underground Railroad, CRB Foundation, 1998, videocassette; Canada: A People's History, episode 8, videocassette A, The Great Enterprise, prod, and dir. John Williamson, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 2001. The black population in the mid-nineteenth century was considerably more diverse than popular estimations suggest, consisting of a mix of fugitive slaves and free immigrants, as well as former Upper Canadian slaves and long-established loyalists who had lived in the province since the late eighteenth century. In 1852 the Anti-Slavery Society of Canada estimated that the black population of Canada West was 30,000. Cited in Benjamin Drew, A Northside View of Slavery. The Refugee: or the Narrative of Fugitive Slaves in Canada. Related by Themselves, with an Account of the History and Condition of the Colored Population of Upper Canada (1856; Toronto: Coles, 1972), p. v. In 1855 Samuel Ringgold Ward suggested that there were between 35,000 and 40,000 blacks in the province; see Ward, Autobiography of a Fugitive Negro (London: John Snow, 1855), p. 154. Recently, Michael Wayne has argued that the population has been overestimated and was likely between 22,500 and 23,000 in 1861; see Wayne, "The black population of Canada west on the eve of the American civil war: A reassessment based on the manuscript census of 1861", Histoire sociale/Social History, vol. 28, no. 56 (November 1995), p. 470.
2. See, for example, The CRB Foundation Heritage Project: 60th Minute Commemorative Video: The Underground Railroad, CRB Foundation, 1998, videocassette; Canada: A People's History, episode 8, videocassette A, The Great Enterprise, prod, and dir. John Williamson, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 2001. The black population in the mid-nineteenth century was considerably more diverse than popular estimations suggest, consisting of a mix of fugitive slaves and free immigrants, as well as former Upper Canadian slaves and long-established loyalists who had lived in the province since the late eighteenth century. In 1852 the Anti-Slavery Society of Canada estimated that the black population of Canada West was 30,000. Cited in Benjamin Drew, A Northside View of Slavery. The Refugee: or the Narrative of Fugitive Slaves in Canada. Related by Themselves, with an Account of the History and Condition of the Colored Population of Upper Canada (1856; Toronto: Coles, 1972), p. v. In 1855 Samuel Ringgold Ward suggested that there were between 35,000 and 40,000 blacks in the province; see Ward, Autobiography of a Fugitive Negro (London: John Snow, 1855), p. 154. Recently, Michael Wayne has argued that the population has been overestimated and was likely between 22,500 and 23,000 in 1861; see Wayne, "The black population of Canada west on the eve of the American civil war: A reassessment based on the manuscript census of 1861", Histoire sociale/Social History, vol. 28, no. 56 (November 1995), p. 470.
3. See, for example, The CRB Foundation Heritage Project: 60th Minute Commemorative Video: The Underground Railroad, CRB Foundation, 1998, videocassette; Canada: A People's History, episode 8, videocassette A, The Great Enterprise, prod, and dir. John Williamson, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 2001. The black population in the mid-nineteenth century was considerably more diverse than popular estimations suggest, consisting of a mix of fugitive slaves and free immigrants, as well as former Upper Canadian slaves and long-established loyalists who had lived in the province since the late eighteenth century. In 1852 the Anti-Slavery Society of Canada estimated that the black population of Canada West was 30,000. Cited in Benjamin Drew, A Northside View of Slavery. The Refugee: or the Narrative of Fugitive Slaves in Canada. Related by Themselves, with an Account of the History and Condition of the Colored Population of Upper Canada (1856; Toronto: Coles, 1972), p. v. In 1855 Samuel Ringgold Ward suggested that there were between 35,000 and 40,000 blacks in the province; see Ward, Autobiography of a Fugitive Negro (London: John Snow, 1855), p. 154. Recently, Michael Wayne has argued that the population has been overestimated and was likely between 22,500 and 23,000 in 1861; see Wayne, "The black population of Canada west on the eve of the American civil war: A reassessment based on the manuscript census of 1861", Histoire sociale/Social History, vol. 28, no. 56 (November 1995), p. 470.
4. See, for example, The CRB Foundation Heritage Project: 60th Minute Commemorative Video: The Underground Railroad, CRB Foundation, 1998, videocassette; Canada: A People's History, episode 8, videocassette A, The Great Enterprise, prod, and dir. John Williamson, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 2001. The black population in the mid-nineteenth century was considerably more diverse than popular estimations suggest, consisting of a mix of fugitive slaves and free immigrants, as well as former Upper Canadian slaves and long-established loyalists who had lived in the province since the late eighteenth century. In 1852 the Anti-Slavery Society of Canada estimated that the black population of Canada West was 30,000. Cited in Benjamin Drew, A Northside View of Slavery. The Refugee: or the Narrative of Fugitive Slaves in Canada. Related by Themselves, with an Account of the History and Condition of the Colored Population of Upper Canada (1856; Toronto: Coles, 1972), p. v. In 1855 Samuel Ringgold Ward suggested that there were between 35,000 and 40,000 blacks in the province; see Ward, Autobiography of a Fugitive Negro (London: John Snow, 1855), p. 154. Recently, Michael Wayne has argued that the population has been overestimated and was likely between 22,500 and 23,000 in 1861; see Wayne, "The black population of Canada west on the eve of the American civil war: A reassessment based on the manuscript census of 1861", Histoire sociale/Social History, vol. 28, no. 56 (November 1995), p. 470.
5. See, for example, The CRB Foundation Heritage Project: 60th Minute Commemorative Video: The Underground Railroad, CRB Foundation, 1998, videocassette; Canada: A People's History, episode 8, videocassette A, The Great Enterprise, prod, and dir. John Williamson, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 2001. The black population in the mid-nineteenth century was considerably more diverse than popular estimations suggest, consisting of a mix of fugitive slaves and free immigrants, as well as former Upper Canadian slaves and long-established loyalists who had lived in the province since the late eighteenth century. In 1852 the Anti-Slavery Society of Canada estimated that the black population of Canada West was 30,000. Cited in Benjamin Drew, A Northside View of Slavery. The Refugee: or the Narrative of Fugitive Slaves in Canada. Related by Themselves, with an Account of the History and Condition of the Colored Population of Upper Canada (1856; Toronto: Coles, 1972), p. v. In 1855 Samuel Ringgold Ward suggested that there were between 35,000 and 40,000 blacks in the province; see Ward, Autobiography of a Fugitive Negro (London: John Snow, 1855), p. 154. Recently, Michael Wayne has argued that the population has been overestimated and was likely between 22,500 and 23,000 in 1861; see Wayne, "The black population of Canada west on the eve of the American civil war: A reassessment based on the manuscript census of 1861", Histoire sociale/Social History, vol. 28, no. 56 (November 1995), p. 470.
6. Following current practice, I use the terms "African Canadian" and "black" interchangeably to refer to the historic community of immigrants of African heritage (the vast majority of whom came from the United States) and their descendants in Canada. See James W. St. G. Walker, "African Canadians", in Paul Robert Magocsi, ed., Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples (Toronto: University of Troonto Press, 1999), pp. 139-176. Many of these people were of mixed descent and were identified as "Negroes", "coloured" people, "blacks", or "Africans" in nineteenth-century Canada West. I examine the relationships between these people and the dominant British-Canadian population in Canada West. The term "British Canadian" refers to Canadians of British descent, who arrived directly from the British Isles or who were descended from these emigrants and came to the Quebec colony (and later Upper Canada) via the Thirteen Colonies (later the United States). These people were racialized as "white". On racialization, see Timothy J. Stanley, "Why I killed Canadian history: Towards an anti-racist history in Canada", Histoire sociale/Social History, vol. 33, no. 65 (May 2000), pp. 95-103.
7. Following current practice, I use the terms "African Canadian" and "black" interchangeably to refer to the historic community of immigrants of African heritage (the vast majority of whom came from the United States) and their descendants in Canada. See James W. St. G. Walker, "African Canadians", in Paul Robert Magocsi, ed., Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples (Toronto: University of Troonto Press, 1999), pp. 139-176. Many of these people were of mixed descent and were identified as "Negroes", "coloured" people, "blacks", or "Africans" in nineteenth-century Canada West. I examine the relationships between these people and the dominant British-Canadian population in Canada West. The term "British Canadian" refers to Canadians of British descent, who arrived directly from the British Isles or who were descended from these emigrants and came to the Quebec colony (and later Upper Canada) via the Thirteen Colonies (later the United States). These people were racialized as "white". On racialization, see Timothy J. Stanley, "Why I killed Canadian history: Towards an anti-racist history in Canada", Histoire sociale/Social History, vol. 33, no. 65 (May 2000), pp. 95-103.
8. Robin Winks, The Blacks in Canada: A History, 2nd ed. (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1997); Walker, "African Canadians", p. 159; Claudette Knight, "Black parents speak: Education in mid-nineteenth-century Canada west", Ontario History, vol. 89 (December 1997), p. 275; Susan E. Houston and Alison Prentice, Schooling and Scholars in Nineteenth-Century Ontario (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1988); J. Donald Wilson, "The ryerson years in Canada west", in J. Donald Wilson, Robert M. Stamp, and Louis Philippe Audet, eds., Canadian Education: A History (Scarborough, Ont.: Prentice-Hall, 1970), pp. 232-233; Donald G. Simpson, "Negroes in Ontario from Early Times to 1870" (PhD dissertation, University of Western Ontario, 1971).
9. Robin Winks, The Blacks in Canada: A History, 2nd ed. (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1997); Walker, "African Canadians", p. 159; Claudette Knight, "Black parents speak: Education in mid-nineteenth-century Canada west", Ontario History, vol. 89 (December 1997), p. 275; Susan E. Houston and Alison Prentice, Schooling and Scholars in Nineteenth-Century Ontario (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1988); J. Donald Wilson, "The ryerson years in Canada west", in J. Donald Wilson, Robert M. Stamp, and Louis Philippe Audet, eds., Canadian Education: A History (Scarborough, Ont.: Prentice-Hall, 1970), pp. 232-233; Donald G. Simpson, "Negroes in Ontario from Early Times to 1870" (PhD dissertation, University of Western Ontario, 1971).
10. Robin Winks, The Blacks in Canada: A History, 2nd ed. (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1997); Walker, "African Canadians", p. 159; Claudette Knight, "Black parents speak: Education in mid-nineteenth-century Canada west", Ontario History, vol. 89 (December 1997), p. 275; Susan E. Houston and Alison Prentice, Schooling and Scholars in Nineteenth-Century Ontario (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1988); J. Donald Wilson, "The ryerson years in Canada west", in J. Donald Wilson, Robert M. Stamp, and Louis Philippe Audet, eds., Canadian Education: A History (Scarborough, Ont.: Prentice-Hall, 1970), pp. 232-233; Donald G. Simpson, "Negroes in Ontario from Early Times to 1870" (PhD dissertation, University of Western Ontario, 1971).
11. Robin Winks, The Blacks in Canada: A History, 2nd ed. (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1997); Walker, "African Canadians", p. 159; Claudette Knight, "Black parents speak: Education in mid-nineteenth-century Canada west", Ontario History, vol. 89 (December 1997), p. 275; Susan E. Houston and Alison Prentice, Schooling and Scholars in Nineteenth-Century Ontario (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1988); J. Donald Wilson, "The ryerson years in Canada west", in J. Donald Wilson, Robert M. Stamp, and Louis Philippe Audet, eds., Canadian Education: A History (Scarborough, Ont.: Prentice-Hall, 1970), pp. 232-233; Donald G. Simpson, "Negroes in Ontario from Early Times to 1870" (PhD dissertation, University of Western Ontario, 1971).
12. Robin Winks, The Blacks in Canada: A History, 2nd ed. (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1997); Walker, "African Canadians", p. 159; Claudette Knight, "Black parents speak: Education in mid-nineteenth-century Canada west", Ontario History, vol. 89 (December 1997), p. 275; Susan E. Houston and Alison Prentice, Schooling and Scholars in Nineteenth-Century Ontario (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1988); J. Donald Wilson, "The ryerson years in Canada west", in J. Donald Wilson, Robert M. Stamp, and Louis Philippe Audet, eds., Canadian Education: A History (Scarborough, Ont.: Prentice-Hall, 1970), pp. 232-233; Donald G. Simpson, "Negroes in Ontario from Early Times to 1870" (PhD dissertation, University of Western Ontario, 1971).
13. Robin Winks, The Blacks in Canada: A History, 2nd ed. (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1997); Walker, "African Canadians", p. 159; Claudette Knight, "Black parents speak: Education in mid-nineteenth-century Canada west", Ontario History, vol. 89 (December 1997), p. 275; Susan E. Houston and Alison Prentice, Schooling and Scholars in Nineteenth-Century Ontario (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1988); J. Donald Wilson, "The ryerson years in Canada west", in J. Donald Wilson, Robert M. Stamp, and Louis Philippe Audet, eds., Canadian Education: A History (Scarborough, Ont.: Prentice-Hall, 1970), pp. 232-233; Donald G. Simpson, "Negroes in Ontario from Early Times to 1870" (PhD dissertation, University of Western Ontario, 1971).
14. On notions of cultural purity in Canada, see Jennifer Reid, " 'A society made by history': The mythic source of identity in Canada", Canadian Review of American Studies, vol. 27 (1997), pp. 1-19.
15. William Westfall suggests that a shared attachment to a British Protestant moral code was the main basis for social stability in Victorian Canada West. Westfall, Two Worlds: The Protestant Culture of Nineteenth-Century Ontario (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1989), p. 201.
16. See Gerald M. Craig, Upper Canada: The Formative Years, 1784-1841 (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1963); Ontario Historical Society, Profiles of a Province: Studies in the History of Ontario. A Collection of Essays Commissioned by the Ontario Historical Society to Commemorate the Centennial of Ontario (Toronto: Ontario Historical Society, 1967). Several histories romanticize the Loyalist heritage of the province. See Loyal She Remains: A Pictorial History of Ontario (Toronto: United Empire Loyalists' Association of Canada, 1984); Charles J. Humber, ed., Allegiance: The Ontario Story (Mississauga, Ont.: Heirloom, 1991).
17. See Gerald M. Craig, Upper Canada: The Formative Years, 1784-1841 (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1963); Ontario Historical Society, Profiles of a Province: Studies in the History of Ontario. A Collection of Essays Commissioned by the Ontario Historical Society to Commemorate the Centennial of Ontario (Toronto: Ontario Historical Society, 1967). Several histories romanticize the Loyalist heritage of the province. See Loyal She Remains: A Pictorial History of Ontario (Toronto: United Empire Loyalists' Association of Canada, 1984); Charles J. Humber, ed., Allegiance: The Ontario Story (Mississauga, Ont.: Heirloom, 1991).
18. See Gerald M. Craig, Upper Canada: The Formative Years, 1784-1841 (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1963); Ontario Historical Society, Profiles of a Province: Studies in the History of Ontario. A Collection of Essays Commissioned by the Ontario Historical Society to Commemorate the Centennial of Ontario (Toronto: Ontario Historical Society, 1967). Several histories romanticize the Loyalist heritage of the province. See Loyal She Remains: A Pictorial History of Ontario (Toronto: United Empire Loyalists' Association of Canada, 1984); Charles J. Humber, ed., Allegiance: The Ontario Story (Mississauga, Ont.: Heirloom, 1991).
19. See Gerald M. Craig, Upper Canada: The Formative Years, 1784-1841 (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1963); Ontario Historical Society, Profiles of a Province: Studies in the History of Ontario. A Collection of Essays Commissioned by the Ontario Historical Society to Commemorate the Centennial of Ontario (Toronto: Ontario Historical Society, 1967). Several histories romanticize the Loyalist heritage of the province. See Loyal She Remains: A Pictorial History of Ontario (Toronto: United Empire Loyalists' Association of Canada, 1984); Charles J. Humber, ed., Allegiance: The Ontario Story (Mississauga, Ont.: Heirloom, 1991).
20. Mircea Eliade, Myth and Reality, trans. Willard R. Trask (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1963), p. 5.
21. Arthur R. M. Lower, cited in Welf H. Heick, ed., History and Myth: Arthur Lower and the Making of Canadian Nationalism (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1975), p. 1.
22. Westfall, Two Worlds, p. 5. According to British missionary Samuel Wilberforce, the British Empire was a gift of God destined to spread across the earth: "what works of God might not be worked through it!" Wilberforce also described the Empire as timeless, in that it would live eternally through the Christian nations it founded and nurtured. See "Sermon by William Wilberforce, "The conditions of missionary success', 1850", in John Wolffe, ed., Religion in Victorian Britain, vol. 5: Culture and Empire (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1997), pp. 306-307.
23. Westfall, Two Worlds, p. 5. According to British missionary Samuel Wilberforce, the British Empire was a gift of God destined to spread across the earth: "what works of God might not be worked through it!" Wilberforce also described the Empire as timeless, in that it would live eternally through the Christian nations it founded and nurtured. See "Sermon by William Wilberforce, "The conditions of missionary success', 1850", in John Wolffe, ed., Religion in Victorian Britain, vol. 5: Culture and Empire (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1997), pp. 306-307.
24. Address to Lord Dufferin, cited in J. George Hodgins, Documentary History of Education in Upper Canada, from the Passing of the Constitutional Act of 1791, to the Close of Reverend Doctor Ryerson's Administration of the Education Department in 1876. Volume XXIV: 1872 (Toronto: Warwick and Rutter, 1908), p. 70. Ryerson expressed a similar sentiment in 1846 in his "Report on a System of Public Instruction"; see Hodgins, Documentary History, Volume VI: 1846 (1899), p. 142.
25. Address to Lord Dufferin, cited in J. George Hodgins, Documentary History of Education in Upper Canada, from the Passing of the Constitutional Act of 1791, to the Close of Reverend Doctor Ryerson's Administration of the Education Department in 1876. Volume XXIV: 1872 (Toronto: Warwick and Rutter, 1908), p. 70. Ryerson expressed a similar sentiment in 1846 in his "Report on a System of Public Instruction"; see Hodgins, Documentary History, Volume VI: 1846 (1899), p. 142.
26. Ryerson to George Hendry, Superintendent of Common Schools for Brock District, February 1, 1847, in Hodgins, Documentary History, Volume VI: 1846, p. 284.
27. Cited in Clara Thomas, Ryerson of Upper Canada (Toronto: Ryerson Press, 1969), p. 99.
28. Chatham-Kent Black Historical Society, Heritage Room, "Correspondence between the Hon. Malcolm Cameron and the colored stock holders of the Elgin Association", February 21, 1850.
29. Ward, Autobiography of a Fugitive Negro, p. 158.
30. Provincial Freeman, September 10, 1851.
31. Mary Ann Shadd, A Plea for Emigration Or, Notes of Canada West, ed. Richard Almonte (1852; Toronto: Mercury, 1998), pp. 29, 74.
32. See note 1 for population estimates.
33. For an analysis of 1861 census data, see Wayne, "The Black Population of Canada West", p. 473.
34. Archives of Ontario [hereafter AO], Ontario Department of Education, Incoming Correspondence [hereafter Incoming Education Correspondence], RG 2-12, vol. 26, Committee for the Colored People of Windsor to Ryerson, March 2, 1859.
35. "The western district council on the common school act of 1846" in Hodgins, Documentary History, Volume VII: 1847, 48 (1900), pp. 123, 124.
36. Cited in Simpson, "Negroes in Ontario", p. 335.
37. McCrae also argued that, when the British Empire abolished slavery, it proved itself as a moral example to all nations on earth. McCrae, "Address to the inhabitants of Canada", recorded proceedings of "A public meeting being held in Chatham", Chatham Chronicle, November 1849 [Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions, #43356].
38. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 12, Chair, Board of School Trustees, Chatham to Ryerson, March 30, 1852.
39. "Re: Dennis hill v. the school trustees of camden and zone", Upper Canada Queen's Bench Reports, vol. 11, p. 578 [hereafter Hill v. Camden and Zone].
40. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 18, Philip Smith to Ryerson, August 1, 1854.
41. London Free Press, July 22, 1861.
42. Daniel G. Hill, The Freedom Seekers: Blacks in Early Canada (Agincourt, Ont.: Book Society of Canada, 1981), p. 158.
43. AO, Outgoing Education Correspondence, RG 2-8, vol. 7, Ryerson to Dennis Hill, November 30, 1852.
44. Daniel G. Hill, "Negroes in Toronto, 1793-1865", Ontario History, vol. 55, no. 2 (June 1963), pp. 76-84.
45. S. G. Howe, The Refugees from Slavery in Canada West: Report to the Freedmen's Inquiry Commission (1864; New York: Arno Press and the New York Times, 1969), p. 45.
46. Adrienne Shadd, Afua Cooper, and Karolyn Smardz Frost, The Underground Railroad: Next Stop, Toronto! (Toronto: Natural Heritage Books, 2002), p. 33.
47. According to Benjamin Drew, the peak population of blacks in Toronto was 1,000 out of a total population of 47,000 in 1854. In Amherstburg there were approximately 400 to 500 blacks out of a total population of 2,000; in Colchester, 450 blacks out of a total population of 1,500; and in Chatham, 800 blacks out of a total population of 4,000. Drew, A Northside View of Slavery, pp. 94, 234,348, 367.
48. This was common practice in Hamilton and in West Flamboro before black children were excluded from the town's common schools altogether. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 4, Patrick Thornton to Alexander McNab, November 26, 1844; vol. 20, James Douglas to Ryerson, February 3, 1856; vol. 25, Jefferson Lightfoot to Ryerson, October 5, 1858.
49. This was common practice in Hamilton and in West Flamboro before black children were excluded from the town's common schools altogether. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 4, Patrick Thornton to Alexander McNab, November 26, 1844; vol. 20, James Douglas to Ryerson, February 3, 1856; vol. 25, Jefferson Lightfoot to Ryerson, October 5, 1858.
50. Isaac Rice et al. to Egerton Ryerson, cited in Hodgins, Documentary History, Volume VI: 1846, p. 294.
51. AO, J. George Hodgins Fonds, F1207, London Auxiliary Bible Society to William H. Draper, March 27, 1847.
52. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 4, John Cowan (Sandwich) to Alexander McNab, October 15, 1845; Harrow and Colchester South Township School Area Board, A Story of Public Schools in Colchester South Township (Harrow: School Board, 1966), p. 8.
53. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 4, John Cowan (Sandwich) to Alexander McNab, October 15, 1845; Harrow and Colchester South Township School Area Board, A Story of Public Schools in Colchester South Township (Harrow: School Board, 1966), p. 8.
54. An Act for the Establishment and Maintenance of Common Schools in Upper Canada, section 44, clause 7, in Hodgins, Documentary History, Volume IV: 1841-1843 (1897), p. 258.
55. AO, Outgoing Education Correspondence, RG 2-8, vol. 3, Ryerson to Isaac Rice et al., March 5, 1846.
56. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 2, Petition of the Coloured Inhabitants of Hamilton to Sir Charles Metcalfe, October 15, 1843; Outgoing Education Correspondence, RG 2-8, vol. 1, Robert Murray to George S. Tiffany, October 19, 1843; Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 2, Tiffany to Murray, November 9, 1843.
57. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 2, Petition of the Coloured Inhabitants of Hamilton to Sir Charles Metcalfe, October 15, 1843; Outgoing Education Correspondence, RG 2-8, vol. 1, Robert Murray to George S. Tiffany, October 19, 1843; Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 2, Tiffany to Murray, November 9, 1843.
58. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 2, Petition of the Coloured Inhabitants of Hamilton to Sir Charles Metcalfe, October 15, 1843; Outgoing Education Correspondence, RG 2-8, vol. 1, Robert Murray to George S. Tiffany, October 19, 1843; Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 2, Tiffany to Murray, November 9, 1843.
59. Howe, The Refugees from Slavery, pp. 42-43.
60. AO, J. George Hodgins Fonds, F1207, p. 12, Ryerson to W. H. Draper, April 12,1847.
61. AO, Outgoing Education Correspondence, RG 2-8, vol. 2, Alexander McNab to John Cowan, Novembers, 1845.
62. National Archives of Canada, Colonial Office 42/478, Original Correspondence, Secretary of State, Upper Canada: Dispatches, E. de St-Remy to Lord Sydenham, April 5, 1841.
63. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 5, Rice et al. to Ryerson, January 23, 1846; Peden to Ryerson, February 23, 1846; Outgoing Education Correspondence, RG 2-8, vol. 3, Ryerson to Peden, March 5, 1846.
64. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 5, Rice et al. to Ryerson, January 23, 1846; Peden to Ryerson, February 23, 1846; Outgoing Education Correspondence, RG 2-8, vol. 3, Ryerson to Peden, March 5, 1846.
65. Afua Cooper, "Black Teachers in Canada West, 1850-1870: A History" (MA thesis, University of Toronto, 1991), pp. 29-45, and "Black women and work in nineteenth century Canada west: Black woman teacher Mary Bibb", in Peggy Bristow, ed., "We're Rooted Here and They Can't Pull Us Up": Essays in African Canadian Women's History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994), pp. 143-170.
66. Afua Cooper, "Black Teachers in Canada West, 1850-1870: A History" (MA thesis, University of Toronto, 1991), pp. 29-45, and "Black women and work in nineteenth century Canada west: Black woman teacher Mary Bibb", in Peggy Bristow, ed., "We're Rooted Here and They Can't Pull Us Up": Essays in African Canadian Women's History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994), pp. 143-170.
67. Cooper, "Black Teachers", pp. 64-92.
68. Hildreth Houston Spencer, "To Nestle in the Mane of the British Lion: A History of Canadian Black Education, 1820 to 1870" (PhD dissertation, Northwestern University, 1970), pp. 159-177; William H. Pease and Jane H. Pease, Black Utopia: Negro Communal Experiments in America (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1963), p. 64.
69. Hildreth Houston Spencer, "To Nestle in the Mane of the British Lion: A History of Canadian Black Education, 1820 to 1870" (PhD dissertation, Northwestern University, 1970), pp. 159-177; William H. Pease and Jane H. Pease, Black Utopia: Negro Communal Experiments in America (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1963), p. 64.
70. Christopher Bruce Elliott, "Black Education in Canada West: A Parochial Solution to a Secular Problem, Rev. M. M. Dillon and the Colonial Church and School Society" (MA thesis, Wilfrid Laurier University, 1989), pp. 42-47, 80; Spencer, "To Nestle in the Mane of the British Lion", p. 126.
71. Christopher Bruce Elliott, "Black Education in Canada West: A Parochial Solution to a Secular Problem, Rev. M. M. Dillon and the Colonial Church and School Society" (MA thesis, Wilfrid Laurier University, 1989), pp. 42-47, 80; Spencer, "To Nestle in the Mane of the British Lion", p. 126.
72. Harriett Chatters, "Negro Education in Kent County to 1890" (MA thesis, Howard University, 1956), p. 3; Victor Lauriston, "Early schools were bunched", Chatham Daily News, May 1, 1963.
73. Harriett Chatters, "Negro Education in Kent County to 1890" (MA thesis, Howard University, 1956), p. 3; Victor Lauriston, "Early schools were bunched", Chatham Daily News, May 1, 1963.
74. The Provincial Freeman called for the black population to boycott mission schools in 1854: "Keep your children away from the colored African school and the plan must fail." Provincial Freeman, September 16 and 23, 1854.
75. "Schools in Canada", Voice of the Fugitive, July 18, 1852; Victor Ullman, Look to the North Star: A Life of William King (Boston: Beacon Press, 1969), pp. 148-149.
76. "Schools in Canada", Voice of the Fugitive, July 18, 1852; Victor Ullman, Look to the North Star: A Life of William King (Boston: Beacon Press, 1969), pp. 148-149.
77. Mary Bibb to Horace Mann, January 20, 1853, cited in Cooper, "Black Teachers", p. 38.
78. Drew, A Northside View of Slavery, pp. 321-322.
79. Shadd, A Plea for Immigration, p. 66. Several white students attended the schools at which Shadd taught. Hill, The Freedom Seekers, p. 156.
80. Shadd, A Plea for Immigration, p. 66. Several white students attended the schools at which Shadd taught. Hill, The Freedom Seekers, p. 156.
81. J. George Hodgins, Historical and Other Papers and Documents Illustrative of the Educational System of Ontario, 1853-1868 (Toronto: L. K. Cameron, 1911), p. 213.
82. For example, Afua Cooper argues that historical understandings of Canada's black community have over-emphasized a segregationist/integrationist dichotomy and, as a result, have misinterpreted certain African-Canadian motivations. Cooper, "'Doing Battle in Freedom's Cause': Henry Bibb, Abolitionism, Race Uplift, and Black Manhood, 1842-1854" (PhD dissertation, University of Toronto, 2000), pp. 22-27.
83. Winks, The Blacks in Canada, p. 366.
84. Houston and Prentice, Schooling and Scholars, pp. 298-300.
85. Wilson, "The Ryerson years in Canada west", in Wilson, Stamp, and Audet, eds., Canadian Education, p. 232.
86. Voice of the Fugitive, January 1, 1852.
87. Bibb suggested that the law allowing for separate schools was requested by some of "the colored people and the Catholics". While it is true that, after legislation for separate denominational schools was originally introduced in 1841, Catholics in Canada West did lay claim to their right to establish these schools, Protestants were actually the most vocal supporters of the original legislation. See Wilson, "Education in upper Canada: Sixty years of change", in Wilson, Stamp, and Audet, eds., Canadian Education, pp. 210-211. While Bibb acknowledged that some black people requested separate schools for whatever reason (perhaps because they "were made tools of), it does not necessarily follow that the separate racial schools legislation of 1850 was introduced at the request of blacks. As he was incorrect in his assumption about Catholics, perhaps he was also incorrect in assuming that the law regarding separate racial schools came about as a response to black requests.
88. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 5, Peden to Ryerson, February 23, 1846.
89. AO, J. George Hodgins Fonds, F1207, London Auxiliary Bible Society to William H. Draper, March 27, 1847.
90. George Bullock, Warden of Western District Council to Ryerson, February 7, 1848, in Hodgins, Documentary History, Volume VII: 1847, 48, p. 124.
91. Harrow and Colchester South Township School Area Board, A Story of Public Schools, p. 11.
92. AO, J. George Hodgins Fonds, F1207, p. 12, Ryerson to W. H. Draper, April 12, 1847.
93. Egerton Ryerson, "Explanation of the provisions of a proposed school bill of 1849", in Hodgins, Documentary History, Vol. VIII: 1848-49 (1901), p. 91.
94. I b i d.
95. Hill v. Camden and Zone, p. 578.
96. Toronto Globe, June 25, 1850.
97. "Objections to the provision for separate schools for coloured children", in Hodgins, Documentary History, Volume IX: 1850-51 (1902), p. 26.
98. Dumfries Teachers' Association remarks, in Hodgins, Documentary History, Volume IX: 1850-51, p. 64.
99. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12.
100. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 11, Petition of colored inhabitants of Simcoe, December 12, 1851.
101. AO, Outgoing Education Correspondence, RG 2-8, vol. 6, Ryerson to George Duck, April 7, 1852. Ryerson made a similar recommendation to trustees in St. Catharines; see vol. 19, Ryerson to James S. Currie, June 16, 1857.
102. Simpson, "Negroes in Ontario", pp. 597-598.
103. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 21, Samuel Atkin (Maiden) to Ryerson, December 29, 1856; vol. 23, Henry Brent et al. (Sandwich), to Ryerson, March 9, 1858; vol. 27, Duncan Campbell (Harwich) to Ryerson, March 14, 1862.
104. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 21, Samuel Atkin (Maiden) to Ryerson, December 29, 1856; vol. 23, Henry Brent et al. (Sandwich), to Ryerson, March 9, 1858; vol. 27, Duncan Campbell (Harwich) to Ryerson, March 14, 1862.
105. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 4, John Cowan (Sandwich) to McNab, October 5, 1845; Washington v. the Trustees of School Number 14, in the Township of Charlotteville, Upper Canada Queen's Bench Reports, vol. 11, pp. 569-573 [hereafter Washington v. Charlotteville]; AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 20, James Douglas (West Flamboro) to Ryerson, February 3, 1856.
106. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 4, John Cowan (Sandwich) to McNab, October 5, 1845; Washington v. the Trustees of School Number 14, in the Township of Charlotteville, Upper Canada Queen's Bench Reports, vol. 11, pp. 569-573 [hereafter Washington v. Charlotteville]; AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 20, James Douglas (West Flamboro) to Ryerson, February 3, 1856.
107. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 4, John Cowan (Sandwich) to McNab, October 5, 1845; Washington v. the Trustees of School Number 14, in the Township of Charlotteville, Upper Canada Queen's Bench Reports, vol. 11, pp. 569-573 [hereafter Washington v. Charlotteville]; AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 20, James Douglas (West Flamboro) to Ryerson, February 3, 1856.
108. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 14, Dennis Hill to Egerton Ryerson, November 22, 1852.
109. AO, Outgoing Education Correspondence, RG 2-8, vol. 7. Ryerson to Hill, November 30, 1852.
110. Hill v. Camden and Zone, p. 575.
111. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 20, William P. Newman to Ryerson, January 13, 1856; Peter B. Smith et al. to Ryerson, June 29, 1856.
112. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 20, William P. Newman to Ryerson, January 13, 1856; Peter B. Smith et al. to Ryerson, June 29, 1856.
113. Anti-Slavery Society of Canada, First Annual Report of the Anti-Slavery Society of Canada (Toronto, March 24, 1852).
114. Drew, A Northside View of Slavery.
115. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 26, Clayborn Harris to William Horton, February 16, 1859.
116. Provincial Freeman, May 24, 1856; AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 23, Daniel Jones et al. to Ryerson, January 24, 1853.
117. Provincial Freeman, May 24, 1856; AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 23, Daniel Jones et al. to Ryerson, January 24, 1853.
118. AO, Alvin D. McCurdy Papers, F 2076-11-0-1, container 53, Public School Trustees Minutes with reference to King St. School and Coloured School Teachers, April 1, 1851.
119. Drew, A Northside View of Slavery, p. 348. As further testament to their destitute situation, schools for blacks in Amherstburg and Colchester received grants from the Education Department's Poor School Fund after petitions to Ryerson. AO, Outgoing Education Correspondence, RG 2-8, vol. 19, Ryerson to James Kevill, March 13, 1857; vol. 21, Ryerson to F. G. Elliot, December 3, 1857.
120. Drew, A Northside View of Slavery, p. 348. As further testament to their destitute situation, schools for blacks in Amherstburg and Colchester received grants from the Education Department's Poor School Fund after petitions to Ryerson. AO, Outgoing Education Correspondence, RG 2-8, vol. 19, Ryerson to James Kevill, March 13, 1857; vol. 21, Ryerson to F. G. Elliot, December 3, 1857.
121. Hill v. Camden and Zone, p. 578.
122. AO, AMA manuscripts, F19-F1 S42, 1846-1860, Hotchkiss to Whipple, March 4, 1851.
123. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 11, Charles Joiner to Ryerson, January 8, 1852.
124. AO, Outgoing Education Correspondence, RG 2-8, vol. 12, Ryerson to J. G. Henton, May 20, 1855.
125. Washington v. Charlotteville.
126. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 6, William Clarke to Ryerson, June 2, 1849; vol. 18, Philip Smith to Ryerson, August 1, 1854; vol. 19, J. G. Henton to Ryerson, May 25, 1855; Outgoing Education Correspondence, RG 2-8, vol. 4, Ryerson to William Clarke, n.d., 1849; vol. 10, Ryerson to Henton, May 20, 1855.
127. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 6, William Clarke to Ryerson, June 2, 1849; vol. 18, Philip Smith to Ryerson, August 1, 1854; vol. 19, J. G. Henton to Ryerson, May 25, 1855; Outgoing Education Correspondence, RG 2-8, vol. 4, Ryerson to William Clarke, n.d., 1849; vol. 10, Ryerson to Henton, May 20, 1855.
128. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 6, William Clarke to Ryerson, June 2, 1849; vol. 18, Philip Smith to Ryerson, August 1, 1854; vol. 19, J. G. Henton to Ryerson, May 25, 1855; Outgoing Education Correspondence, RG 2-8, vol. 4, Ryerson to William Clarke, n.d., 1849; vol. 10, Ryerson to Henton, May 20, 1855.
129. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 6, William Clarke to Ryerson, June 2, 1849; vol. 18, Philip Smith to Ryerson, August 1, 1854; vol. 19, J. G. Henton to Ryerson, May 25, 1855; Outgoing Education Correspondence, RG 2-8, vol. 4, Ryerson to William Clarke, n.d., 1849; vol. 10, Ryerson to Henton, May 20, 1855.
130. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 6, William Clarke to Ryerson, June 2, 1849; vol. 18, Philip Smith to Ryerson, August 1, 1854; vol. 19, J. G. Henton to Ryerson, May 25, 1855; Outgoing Education Correspondence, RG 2-8, vol. 4, Ryerson to William Clarke, n.d., 1849; vol. 10, Ryerson to Henton, May 20, 1855.
131. In 1854 the school trustees of Windsor voted to erect three such schools (Simpson, "Negroes in Ontario", p. 641). Colchester had a similar system in place since 1846 (Harrow and Colchester South Township School Area Board, A Story of Public Schools, p. 11).
132. Walker, "African Canadians", p. 159.
133. Jason H. Silverman, Unwelcome Guests: Canada West's Response to American Fugitive Slaves, 1800-1865 (Millwood, N.Y.: Associated Faculty Press, 1985), p. 132.
134. Simpson, "Negroes in Ontario", p. 493.
135. Winks, The Blacks in Canada, p. 365.
136. Ibid., n. 5.
137. James W. St. G. Walker, A History of Blacks In Canada: A Study Guide for Teachers and Students (Hull: Minister of Supply and Services Canada, 1980), pp. 135, 151.
138. Walker, "African Canadians", p. 159; see also Claudette Knight, "Black Parents Speak: Education in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Canada West", Ontario History, vol. 89 (December 1997), p. 275.
139. Walker, "African Canadians", p. 159; see also Claudette Knight, "Black Parents Speak: Education in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Canada West", Ontario History, vol. 89 (December 1997), p. 275.
140. No public education was available to blacks in Windsor until 1859, and petitions to Ryerson expressed strong opposition to the establishment of a segregated school. In letters to blacks and whites in Windsor, Ryerson suggested that white trustees should establish separate schools in spite of black opposition. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 26, Clayborn Harris to William Horton, February 15, 1859; "Re: Colored Inhabitants of Windsor", February 16, 1859; Outgoing Education Correspondence, RG 2-9, vol. 12, Ryerson to W. Horton, February 21, 1859; Ryerson to Rev. A. R. Green, March 10, 1859. White trustees in Colchester had set up segregated schools in the 1840s (Harrow and Colchester South Township School Area Board, A Story of Public Schools, pp. 8-11); blacks in Chatham wrote Ryerson in 1852 claiming that they had never requested a separate school and appealing for admission into a common school (AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 12, Committee of the Colored Citizens of Chatham to Ryerson, March 7, 1852).
141. No public education was available to blacks in Windsor until 1859, and petitions to Ryerson expressed strong opposition to the establishment of a segregated school. In letters to blacks and whites in Windsor, Ryerson suggested that white trustees should establish separate schools in spite of black opposition. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 26, Clayborn Harris to William Horton, February 15, 1859; "Re: Colored Inhabitants of Windsor", February 16, 1859; Outgoing Education Correspondence, RG 2-9, vol. 12, Ryerson to W. Horton, February 21, 1859; Ryerson to Rev. A. R. Green, March 10, 1859. White trustees in Colchester had set up segregated schools in the 1840s (Harrow and Colchester South Township School Area Board, A Story of Public Schools, pp. 8-11); blacks in Chatham wrote Ryerson in 1852 claiming that they had never requested a separate school and appealing for admission into a common school (AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 12, Committee of the Colored Citizens of Chatham to Ryerson, March 7, 1852).
142. No public education was available to blacks in Windsor until 1859, and petitions to Ryerson expressed strong opposition to the establishment of a segregated school. In letters to blacks and whites in Windsor, Ryerson suggested that white trustees should establish separate schools in spite of black opposition. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 26, Clayborn Harris to William Horton, February 15, 1859; "Re: Colored Inhabitants of Windsor", February 16, 1859; Outgoing Education Correspondence, RG 2-9, vol. 12, Ryerson to W. Horton, February 21, 1859; Ryerson to Rev. A. R. Green, March 10, 1859. White trustees in Colchester had set up segregated schools in the 1840s (Harrow and Colchester South Township School Area Board, A Story of Public Schools, pp. 8-11); blacks in Chatham wrote Ryerson in 1852 claiming that they had never requested a separate school and appealing for admission into a common school (AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 12, Committee of the Colored Citizens of Chatham to Ryerson, March 7, 1852).
143. No public education was available to blacks in Windsor until 1859, and petitions to Ryerson expressed strong opposition to the establishment of a segregated school. In letters to blacks and whites in Windsor, Ryerson suggested that white trustees should establish separate schools in spite of black opposition. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 26, Clayborn Harris to William Horton, February 15, 1859; "Re: Colored Inhabitants of Windsor", February 16, 1859; Outgoing Education Correspondence, RG 2-9, vol. 12, Ryerson to W. Horton, February 21, 1859; Ryerson to Rev. A. R. Green, March 10, 1859. White trustees in Colchester had set up segregated schools in the 1840s (Harrow and Colchester South Township School Area Board, A Story of Public Schools, pp. 8-11); blacks in Chatham wrote Ryerson in 1852 claiming that they had never requested a separate school and appealing for admission into a common school (AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 12, Committee of the Colored Citizens of Chatham to Ryerson, March 7, 1852).
144. No public education was available to blacks in Windsor until 1859, and petitions to Ryerson expressed strong opposition to the establishment of a segregated school. In letters to blacks and whites in Windsor, Ryerson suggested that white trustees should establish separate schools in spite of black opposition. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 26, Clayborn Harris to William Horton, February 15, 1859; "Re: Colored Inhabitants of Windsor", February 16, 1859; Outgoing Education Correspondence, RG 2-9, vol. 12, Ryerson to W. Horton, February 21, 1859; Ryerson to Rev. A. R. Green, March 10, 1859. White trustees in Colchester had set up segregated schools in the 1840s (Harrow and Colchester South Township School Area Board, A Story of Public Schools, pp. 8-11); blacks in Chatham wrote Ryerson in 1852 claiming that they had never requested a separate school and appealing for admission into a common school (AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 12, Committee of the Colored Citizens of Chatham to Ryerson, March 7, 1852).
145. Winks, The Blacks in Canada, p. 366.
146. Constitution and By Laws of the Wilberforce Lyceum Educating Society. For Mental and Moral Improvement (Amherstburg, 1850).
147. Walker, "African Canadians", p. 160.
148. Act to Incorporate the Association for the Education and Elevation of the Coloured People in Canada, Statutes of Upper Canada (1859), cap. 124.
149. Winks, The Blacks in Canada, p. 366.
150. Bibb, "Schools in Canada", Voice of the Fugitive, July 15, 1852.
151. H. F. Douglass, "The Duties of Colored Man in Canada", Provincial Freeman, March 28, 1857.
152. Simpson, "Negroes in Ontario", p. 576. Simpson refers to Levi Foster's petition that his children be included in the white-run common school, and cites assertions by both Isaac Rice and district super-intendent Robert Peden that black people in Amherstburg were opposed to the establishment of separate schools. See AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 5, Isaac Rice et al. to Ryerson, January 23, 1846; Robert Peden to Ryerson, February 23, 1846.
153. Simpson, "Negroes in Ontario", p. 576. Simpson refers to Levi Foster's petition that his children be included in the white-run common school, and cites assertions by both Isaac Rice and district super-intendent Robert Peden that black people in Amherstburg were opposed to the establishment of separate schools. See AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 5, Isaac Rice et al. to Ryerson, January 23, 1846; Robert Peden to Ryerson, February 23, 1846.
154. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 11, Inhabitants of color now residing in Simcoe and surrounding county to Ryerson, December 12, 1851.
155. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 26, "Re. Colored Inhabitants of Windsor", Clayborn Harris to William Horton, February 15,1859; Thomas Jones et al. Committee for the Colored People, Windsor, to Ryerson, March 2, 1859.
156. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 26, "Re. Colored Inhabitants of Windsor", Clayborn Harris to William Horton, February 15,1859; Thomas Jones et al. Committee for the Colored People, Windsor, to Ryerson, March 2, 1859.
157. Silverman, Unwelcome Guests, pp. 134, 138.
158. Colonial Church and School Society, Mission to the Fugitive Slaves, Annual Report (1863-1864), pp. 11-12.
159. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 26, Jones et al. to Ryerson, March 2, 1859.
160. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 23, Henry Brent et al. (Sandwich) to Ryerson, March 9, 1858.
161. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 26, Jones et al. to Ryerson, March 2, 1859; vol. 20, Peter B. Smith (Dresden) to Hodgins, June 29, 1856; vol. 23, Henry Brent et al. to Ryerson, March 9, 1858; vol. 25, Jefferson
162. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 26, Jones et al. to Ryerson, March 2, 1859; vol. 20, Peter B. Smith (Dresden) to Hodgins, June 29, 1856; vol. 23, Henry Brent et al. to Ryerson, March 9, 1858; vol. 25, Jefferson Lightfoot (West Flamboro) to Ryerson, October 5, 1858; vol. 26, Clayborn Harris (Windsor) to William Horton, February 16, 1859.
163. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 26, Jones et al. to Ryerson, March 2, 1859; vol. 20, Peter B. Smith (Dresden) to Hodgins, June 29, 1856; vol. 23, Henry Brent et al. to Ryerson, March 9, 1858; vol. 25, Jefferson Lightfoot (West Flamboro) to Ryerson, October 5, 1858; vol. 26, Clayborn Harris (Windsor) to William Horton, February 16, 1859.
164. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 26, Jones et al. to Ryerson, March 2, 1859; vol. 20, Peter B. Smith (Dresden) to Hodgins, June 29, 1856; vol. 23, Henry Brent et al. to Ryerson, March 9, 1858; vol. 25, Jefferson Lightfoot (West Flamboro) to Ryerson, October 5, 1858; vol. 26, Clayborn Harris (Windsor) to William Horton, February 16, 1859.
165. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 26, Jones et al. to Ryerson, March 2, 1859; vol. 20, Peter B. Smith (Dresden) to Hodgins, June 29, 1856; vol. 23, Henry Brent et al. to Ryerson, March 9, 1858; vol. 25, Jefferson Lightfoot (West Flamboro) to Ryerson, October 5, 1858; vol. 26, Clayborn Harris (Windsor) to William Horton, February 16, 1859.
166. Howe, The Refugees from Slavery, p. 51-52.
167. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 4, John Cowan (Sandwich) to Rev. McNab, October 15, 1845; vol. 20, James Douglas (West Flamboro) to Ryerson, February 3, 1856.
168. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 4, John Cowan (Sandwich) to Rev. McNab, October 15, 1845; vol. 20, James Douglas (West Flamboro) to Ryerson, February 3, 1856.
169. AO, Incoming Education Correspondence, RG 2-12, vol. 12, George Duck (Chatham) to Ryerson, March 7, 1852.
170. Harrow and Colchester South Township School Area Board, A Story of Public Schools, p. 12.
171. Winks, The Blacks in Canada, p. 367.
172. Victor Lauriston, "Chatham Vetoed Co-education in 1856", London Free Press, June 3, 1950.