The effect of antiepileptic drugs on visual performance

Seizure

Volumn 13, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 113-128

  Roff Hilton, Emma J ^a   Hosking, Sarah L ^a   Betts, Tim ^b  

^a ASTON UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Antiepileptic drugs; Colour perception; Contrast sensitivity; GABA; Visual fields

Indexed keywords

4 AMINOBUTYRATE AMINOTRANSFERASE INHIBITOR; 4 AMINOBUTYRIC ACID; ACETAZOLAMIDE; ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; CARBAMAZEPINE; CLOBAZAM; CLONAZEPAM; DIAZEPAM; ETHOSUXIMIDE; ETIRACETAM; FELBAMATE; GABAPENTIN; LAMOTRIGINE; OXCARBAZEPINE; PHENOBARBITAL; PHENYTOIN; PRIMIDONE; SODIUM CHANNEL; TIAGABINE; TOPIRAMATE; VALPROIC ACID; VIGABATRIN;

ALLERGIC CONJUNCTIVITIS; CLOSED ANGLE GLAUCOMA; COLOR VISION DEFECT; CONTRAST SENSITIVITY; DIPLOPIA; DRUG OVERDOSE; DYSKINESIA; EPILEPSY; EYE DISEASE; GABAERGIC TRANSMISSION; HUMAN; INTRAOCULAR PRESSURE ABNORMALITY; MYOPIA; NEUROTOXICITY; NONHUMAN; NYSTAGMUS; OPHTHALMOPLEGIA; OPTIC NERVE DISEASE; OSCILLOPSIA; PHOTOPHOBIA; PHOTOSENSITIVITY DISORDER; PRESCRIPTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RETINA DISEASE; RETINA MACULOPATHY; REVIEW; VISUAL DISORDER; VISUAL FIELD; VISUAL FIELD DEFECT; VISUAL IMPAIRMENT;

EID: 1242319350     PISSN: 10591311     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1059-1311(03)00082-7     Document Type: Article

References (161)

1. Betts, T. Anti-epileptic drugs. In: Epilepsy, Psychiatry and Learning Difficulty. London, Martin Dunitz Ltd, 1998: pp. 83-98.
2. Wilson, E. A. and Brodie, M. J. New antiepileptic drugs. In: Modern Management of Epilepsy. Baillieres Clinical Ophthalmology (Eds M. J. Brodie and D. M. Trieman). London, Bailliere-Tindall, 1996: pp. 723-748.
3. Ludwig, B. L. and Marsan, C. A. Clinical ictal patterns in epileptic patients with occipital electroencephalographic foci. Neurology 1975; 25: 463-471.
4. Steinhoff, B., Freudenthaler, N. and Paulus, W. The influence of established and new antiepileptic drugs on visual perception. I. A placebo-controlled, double blind, single-dose study in healthy volunteers. Epilepsy Research 1997; 29: 35-47.
5. Slaughter, M. M. and Bai, S. H. Baclofen's suppression of epileptiform-like activity: a retinal model. Neuroscience Research 1988; 8: S217-S229.
6. Borden, L. A. GABA transporter heterogeneity: pharmacology and cellular localization. Neurochemistry International 1996; 29: 335-356.
7. Leach, J. P. and Brodie, M. J. Tiagabine. Lancet 1998; 351: 203-207.
8. Crooks, J. and Kolb, H. Localisation of GABA, glycine and tryrosine-hydroxylase in the human retina. Journal of Comparative Neurology 1992; 315: 287-302.
9. Barnstable, C. J. Glutamate and GABA in retinal circuitry. Current Opinion in Neurobiology 1993; 3: 520-525.
10. Djamgoz, M. B. A. Diversity of GABA receptors in the vertebrate outer retina. Trends in Neurosciences 1995; 18: 118-120.
11. Man-Kit Lam, D. Neurotransmitters in the vertebrate retina. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 1997; 38: 553-556.
12. Euler, T. and Wassle, H. Different contributions of GABAa and GABAc receptors to rod and cone bipolar cells in a rat retinal slice preparation. Neurophysiology 1998; 79: 1384-1395.
13. - channels in the rat retina. Progress in Retinal Eye Research 1998; 17: 99-126.
14. Enz, R., Brandsatter, J. H., Wassle, H. and Bormann, J. Immunocytochemical localisation of the GABAc receptor rho subunits in the mammalian retina. Journal of Neuroscience 1996; 16: 4479-4490.
15. Ruiz, M., Egal, H., Sarthy, V. et al. Cloning, expression and localisation of a mouse retinal γ-aminobutyric acid transporter. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 1994; 35: 4039-4048.
16. Hu, M., Bruun, A. and Ehinger, B. Expression of GABA transporter subtypes (GAT1, GAT3) in the adult rabbit retina. Acta Ophthalmologica Scandinavica 1999; 77: 255-260.
17. Hammond, E. J. and Wilder, B. J. Gamma-vinyl GABA. General Pharmacology 1985; 16: 441-447.
18. Wild, J. M., Martinez, C., Reinshagen, G. and Harding, G. F. A. Characteristics of a unique visual field defect attributed to vigabatrin. Epilepsia 1999; 40: 1784-1794.
19. Rizzo, J. F. and Lessells, S. Tobacco amblyopia. American Journal of Ophthalmology 1993; 15: 84-87.
20. Daneshvar, H., Racette, L., Coupland, S. G. et al. Symptomatic and asymptomatic visual loss in patients taking vigabatrin. Ophthalmology 1999; 106: 1792-1798.
21. Sorri, I. Effects of antiepileptic drugs on visual function, with special reference to vigabatrin. Acta Ophthalmologica Scandinavica 2002; 80: 343-344.
22. Miller, N. R., Johnson, M. A., Paul, S. R., Girkin, C. A. et al. Visual dysfunction in patients receiving vigabatrin - clinical and electrophysiologic findings. Neurology 1999; 53: 2082-2087.
23. Kalviainen, R., Nousiainen, I., Mantyjarvi, M. et al. Vigabatrin, a GABAergic antiepileptic drug, causes concentric visual field defects. Neurology 1999; 53: 922-926.
24. Pelosse, B., Momtchilova, M., Roubergue, A. et al. Visual field study in children treated with vigabatrin. Journal Francais D Ophtalmologie 2001; 24: 1075-1080.
25. Besch, D., Kurtenbach, A., Apfelstedt-sylla, E. et al. Visual field constriction and electrophysiological changes associated with vigabatrin. Documenta Ophthalmologica 2002; 104: 151-170.
26. Malmgren, K., Ben-Menachem, E. and Frisen, L. Vigabatrin visual toxicity: evolution and dose dependence. Epilepsia 2001; 42: 609-615.
27. Newman, W. D., Tocher, K. and Acheson, J. F. Vigabatrin associated visual field loss: a clinical audit to study prevalence, drug history and effects of drug withdrawal. Eye 2002; 16: 567-571.
28. Vanhatalo, S., Nousiainen, I., Eriksson, K. et al. Visual field constriction in 91 Finnish children treated with vigabatrin. Epilepsia 2002; 43: 748-756.
29. Hardus, P., Verduin, W. M., Postma, G. et al. Concentric contraction of the visual field in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy and its association with the use of vigabatrin medication. Epilepsia 2000; 41: 581-587.
30. Eke, T., Talbot, J. F. and Lawden, M. C. Severe persistent visual field constriction associated with vigabatrin. British Medical Journal 1997; 314: 180-181.
31. Wong, I. C. K., Mawer, G. E. and Sander, J. Severe persistent visual field constriction associated with vigabatrin - reaction might be dose dependent. British Medical Journal 1997; 314: 1693-1694.
32. Hardus, P., Verduin, W. M., Engelsman, M. et al. Visual field loss associated with vigabatrin: quantification and relation to dosage. Epilepsia 2001; 42: 262-267.
33. Nousiainen, I., Mantyjarvi, M. and Kalviainen, R. No reversion in vigabatrin-associated visual field defects. Neurology 2001; 57: 1916-1917.
34. Paul, S. R., Krauss, G. L., Miller, N. R. et al. Visual function is stable in patients who continue long-term vigabatrin therapy: implications for clinical decision making. Epilepsia 2001; 42: 525-530.
35. Vanhatalo, S., Alen, R., Riikonen, R. et al. Reversed visual field constrictions in children after vigabatrin withdrawal - true retinal recovery or improved test performance only? Seizure 2001; 10: 508-511.
36. Toggweiler, S. and Wieser, H. G. Concentric visual field restriction under vigabatrin therapy: extent depends on the duration of drug intake. Seizure 2001; 10: 420-423.
37. Schmitz, B., Schmidt, T., Jokiel, B. et al. Visual field constriction in epilepsy patients treated with vigabatrin and other antiepileptic drugs: a prospective study. Journal of Neurology 2002; 249: 469-475.
38. Van der Toren, K., Graniewski-wijnands, H. S. and Polak, B. C. Visual field and electrophysiological abnormalities due to vigabatrin. Documenta Ophthalmologica 2002; 104: 181-188.
39. Roff Hilton, E. J., Cubbidge, R. P., Betts, T. et al. Patients treated with vigabatrin exhibit central visual function loss. Epilepsia 2002; 43: 1351-1359.
40. Arndt, C. E, Salle, M., Derambure, P. H. et al. The effect on vision of associated treatments in patients taking vigabatrin: carbamazepine versus valproate. Epilepsia 2002; 43: 812-817.
41. Hisama, F. M., Mattson, R. H., Lee, H. H. et al. GABA and the ornithine delta-aminotransferase gene in vigabatrin-associated visual field defects. Seizure 2001; 10: 505-507.
42. Hosking, S. L., Roff Hilton, E. J., Embleton, S. J. and Gupta, A. K. Epilepsy patients treated with vigabatrin exhibit reduced ocular blood flow. British Journal of Ophthalmology 2002; 87: 96-100.
43. Roff Hilton, E. J., Hosking, S. L. and Betts, T. Epilepsy patients treated with anti-epileptic drug therapy exhibit compromised ocular perfusion characteristics. Epilepsia 2002; 43: 1346-1350.
44. Hosking, S. L. and Roff Hilton, E. J. Neurotoxic effects of GABA transaminase inhibitors in the treatment of epilepsy: ocular perfusion and performance. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics 2002; 22: 440-447.
45. Krauss, G. L., Johnson, M. A. and Miller, N. R. Vigabatrin-associated retinal cone system dysfunction - electroretinogram and ophthalmologic findings. Neurology 1998; 50: 614-618.
46. Manuchehri, K., Goodman, S., Siviter, L. and Nightingale, S. A controlled study of vigabatrin and visual abnormalities. British Journal of Ophthalmology 2000; 84: 499-505.
47. Nousiainen, I., Kalviainen, R. and Mantyjarvi, M. Colour vision in epilepsy patients treated with vigabatrin or carbamazepine monotherapy. Ophthalmology 2000; 107: 884-888.
48. Mecarelli, O., Rinalduzzi, S. and Accornero, N. Changes in colour vision after a single dose of vigabatrin or carbamazepine in healthy volunteers. Clinical Neuropharmacology 2001; 24: 23-26.
49. Steinhoff, B. J., Freudenthaler, N. and Paulus, W. The influence of established and new antiepileptic drugs on visual perception. II. A controlled study in patients with epilepsy under long-term antiepileptic medication. Epilepsy Research 1997; 29: 49-58.
50. Nousiainen, I., Kalviainen, R. and Mantyjarvi, M. Contrast and glare sensitivity in epilepsy patients treated with vigabatrin or carbamazepine monotherapy compared with healthy volunteers. British Journal of Ophthalmology 2000; 84: 622-625.
51. Perron, A. M., Westall, C. A., Mirabella, G. et al. Contrast sensitivity changes in children prescribed the anti-epileptic drug vigabatrin. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 2001; 42: 2091.
52. Westall, C. A., Smith, K., Logan, W. J. et al. Longitudinal investigation of ERGs in children on vigabatrin therapy. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 2000; 41: B181.
53. Hudson, C., Flanagan, J. G., Turner, G. S. et al. Short-wavelength sensitive visual field loss in patients with clinically significant diabetic macular oedema. Diabetalogia 1998; 41: 918-928.
54. Yarrington, J. T., Gibson, J. P., Dillberger, J. E. et al. Sequential neuropathology of dogs treated with vigabatrin, a GABA-transaminase inhibitor. Toxicologic Pathology 1993; 21: 480-489.
55. Qiao, M., Malisza, K. L., Del Bigio, M. R. et al. Effect of long-term vigabatrin administration on the immature rat brain. Epilepsia 2000; 41: 655-665.
56. Cohen, J. A., Fisher, R. S., Brigell, M. G. et al. The potential for vigabatrin-induced intramyelinic edema in humans. Epilepsia 2000; 41: 148-157.
57. Crofts, K., Brennan, R., Oconnor, G. and Kearney, P. Vigabatrin-induced optic neuropathy. Journal of Neurology 1997; 244: 666-667.
58. Lawden, M. C., Eke, T., Degg, C. et al. Visual field defects associated with vigabatrin therapy. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 1999; 67: 716-722.
59. Ravindran, J., Blumbergs, P., Crompton, J. et al. Visual field loss associated with vigabatrin: pathological correlations. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 2001; 70: 787-789.
60. Coupland, S. G., Zackon, D. H., Leonard, B. C. and Ross, T. M. Vigabatrin effect on inner retinal function. Ophthalmology 2001; 108: 1493-1496.
61. Harding, G. F. A., Robertson, K. A., Edson, A. S. B., Barnes, P. and Wild, J. Visual electrophysiological effect of a GABA transaminase blocker. Documenta Ophthalmologica 1999; 97: 179-188.
62. Harding, G. F. A., Wild, J. M., Robertson, K. A. et al. Electro-oculography, electroretinography, visual evoked potentials, and multifocal electroretinography in patients with vigabatrin-attributed visual field constriction. Epilepsia 2000; 41: 1420-1431.
63. Kalviainen, R. and Nousiainen, I. Visual field defects with vigabatrin - epidemiology and therapeutic implications. CNS Drugs 2001; 15: 217-230.
64. Johnson, M. A., Krauss, G. L., Miller, N. R. et al. Visual function loss from vigabatrin - effect of stopping the drug. Neurology 2000; 55: 40-45.
65. Ponjavic, V. and Andreasson, S. Multifocal ERG and full-field ERG in patients on long-term vigabatrin medication. Documenta Ophthalmologica 2001; 102: 63-72.
66. Westall, C. A., Logan, W. J., Smith, K. et al. The hospital for sick children, Toronto, longitudinal ERG study of children on vigabatrin. Documenta Ophthalmologica 2002; 104: 133-149.
67. Hardus, P., Verduin, W. M., Berendschott, T. T. et al. The value of electrophysiology results in patients with epilepsy and vigabatrin-associated visual field loss. Acta Ophthalmologica 2001; 79: 169-174.
68. Harding, G. F. A., Spencer, E. L., Wild, J. M., Conway, M. et al. Field-specific visual-evoked potentials - identifying field defects in vigabatrin-treated children. Neurology 2002; 58: 1261-1265.
69. 2+-induced seizure discharges in cultured hippocampal neurons. Epilepsia 1995; 36 (Suppl.): S38.
70. Brown, S. D., Wolf, H. H., Swinyard, E. A. et al. The novel anticonvulsant topiramate enhances GABA-mediated chloride flux. Epilepsia 1993; 34 (Suppl): S122-S123.
71. White, H. S., Brown, S. D., Skeen, G. A. and Twyman, R. E. The investigational anticonvulsant topiramate potentiates GABA-evoked currents in mouse cortical neurones. Epilepsia 1995; 36 (Suppl.): S34.
72. Severt, L., Coulter, D. A., Sombarti, S. and DeLorenzo, R. J. Topiramate selectively blocks kainate currents in cultured hippocampal neurons. Epilepsia 1995; 36 (Suppl.): S38.
73. Sankar, P. S., Pasquale, L. R. and Grosskreutz, C. L. Uveal effusion and secondary angle-closure glaucoma associated with topiramate use. Archives of Ophthalmology 2001; 119: 1210-1211.
74. Perucca, E. A pharmacological and clinical review on topiramate, a new antiepileptic drug. Pharmacological Research 1997; 35: 241-256.
75. Rhee, D. J., Godberg, M. J. and Parrish, R. K. Bilateral angle-closure glaucoma and ciliary body swelling from topiramate. Archives of Ophthalmology 2001; 119: 1721-1723.
76. Thambi, L., Kapcala, L. P., Chambers, W. et al. Topiramate-associated secondary angle-closure glaucoma: a case series. Archives of Ophthalmology 2002; 120: 1210-1211.
77. Mozayani, A., Carter, J. and Nix, R. Distribution of topiramate in a medical examiner's case. Journal of Analytical Toxicology 1999; 23: 556-558.
78. Leppik, I. E., Gram, L., Deaton, R. and Sommerville, K. W. Safety of tiagabine: summary of 53 trials. Epilepsy Research 1999; 33: 235-246.
79. Fakhoury, T., Uthman, B. and Abou-Khalil, B. Safety of long-term treatment with tigabine. Seizure 2000; 9: 431-435.
80. Sills, G. J., Patsalos, P. N., Butler, E. et al. Concentration-related pharmacodynamic study of vigabatrin and tiagabine in rat and brain eye. Epilepsia 1999; 40 (Suppl.): 244.
81. Collins, S. D., Brun, S., Kirstein, Y. G. and Sommerville, K. Absence of visual field defects in patients taking tiagabine (Cabitril). Epilepsia 1998; 39: S146-S147.
82. Beran, R. G., Hung, A., Plunkett, M. et al. Predictability of visual field defects in patients exposed to GABAergic agents, vigabatrin, or tiagabine. Neurology 1999; 52: A249.
83. Miller, N. R. Using the electroretinogram to detect and monitor the retinal toxicity of anticonvulsants. Neurology 2000; 55: 333-334.
84. Kalviainen, R., Nousiainen, I., Mantyjarvi, M. and Riekkinen, P. P. J. Absence of concentric visual field defects in patients with initial tiagabine monotherapy. Epilepsia 1999; 40: 259.
85. Kalviainen, R., Nousiainen, I., Mantyjarvi, M. and Riekkinen, P. P. J. Absence of concentric visual field defects in patients with long-term tiagabine monotherapy. Neurology 1999; 52: A236.
86. Nousiainen, I., Mantyjarvi, M. and Kalviainen, R. Visual function in patients treated with the GABAergic anticonvulsant drug tiagabine. Clinical Drug Investigation 2000; 20: 393-400.
87. Fakhoury, T. A., Abou-Khalil, B., Lavin, P. et al. Lack of visual field defects with long-term use of tiagabine. Neurology 2000; 54 (Suppl.): A309.
88. Krauss, G. L. Using the electroretinogram to detect and monitor the retinal toxicity of anticonvulsants. Neurology 2001; 56: 140.
89. Kaufman, K. R., Lepore, F. E. and Keyser, B. J. Visual fields and tiagabine: a quandary. Seizure 2001; 10: 525-529.
90. Perlman, I. and Normann, R. A. The effects of GABA and related drugs on the horizontal cells in the isolated turtle retina. Visual Neuroscience 1990; 5: 469-477.
91. Arnarsson, A. and Eysteinsson, T. The role of GABA in modulating the Xenopus electroretinogram. Visual Neuroscience 1997; 14: 1143-1152.
92. Loscher, W. Valproate-induced changes in GABA metabolism at the subcellular level. Biochemical Pharmacology 1981; 30: 1363-1366.
93. McLean, M. J. and MacDonald, R. L. Sodium valproate, but not ethosuximide, produces use- and voltage-dependent limitation of high frequency repetitive firing of action potentials of mouse central neurons in cell culture. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 1986; 237: 1001-1011.
94. Paulus, W., Schwarz, G. and Steinhoff, B. J. The effect of anti-epileptic drugs on visual perception in patients with epilepsy. Brain 1996; 119: 539-549.
95. Bayer, A. U., Thiel, H. J., Zrenner, E., Schmidt, D. et al. Colour vision test for the early detection of antiepileptic drug toxicity. Neurology 1997; 48: 1394-1397.
96. Lopez, L., Thomson, A. and Rabinowicz, A. L. Assessment of colour vision in epileptic patients exposed to single-drug therapy. European Neurology 1999; 41: 201-205.
97. Myslobodsky, M. S. and Morag, M. Suppression by sodium valproate of gamma-vinyl GABA-induced facilitation of visual evoked-potentials in rats. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 1981; 52: 445-450.
98. Myslobodsky, M. S. and Morag, M. Pharmacologic analysis of sodium valproate-induced suppression of secondary components of visual evoked-potentials in albino-rats. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behaviour 1981; 15: 681-685.
99. Frank, Y., Mintz, M. and Myslobodsky, M. S. A single dose of sodium valproate in epileptic children - the effect on visual evoked-potentials. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 1985; 60: 19.
100. Verrotti, A., Trotta, D., Cutarella, R., Pascarella, R. et al. Effects of antiepileptic drugs on evoked potentials in epileptic children. Pediatric Neurology 2000; 23: 397-402.
101. Ozkul, Y., Gurler, B., Uckardes, A. and Bozlar, S. Visual functions in epilepsy patients on valproate monotherapy. Journal of Clinical Neuroscience 2002; 9: 247-250.
102. Jung, P. and Doussard-Lefaucheux, S. Visual field defect in a patient given sodium valproate than carbamazepine: possible effect of aminotransferase inhibition. Revue Neurologique (Paris) 2002; 158: 477-479.
103. Wallace, S. J. Newer antiepileptic drugs: advantages and disadvantages. Brain and Development 2001; 23: 277-283.
104. Palmer, K. J. and McTavish, D. Felbamate - a review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties, and therapeutic efficacy in epilepsy. Drugs 1993; 45: 1041-1065.
105. Hwang, T. L., Still, C. N. and Jones, J. E. Reversible down-beat nystagmus and ataxia in felbamate intoxication. Neurology 1995; 45: 846.
106. Korpi, E. R., Mattila, M. J., Wisden, W. and Luddens, H. GABAA-receptor subtypes: clinical efficacy and selectivity of benzodiazepine site ligands. Annals of Medicine 1997; 29: 275-282.
107. Robbins, J. and Ikeda, H. Benzodiazepines and the mammalian retina. Brain Research 1989; 479: 313-322.
108. Zarbin, M. A. and Anholt, R. R. Benzodiazepine receptors in the eye. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 1991; 32: 2579-2587.
109. Cochin, J. P., Hannequin, D., Domarcolino, C. et al. Intermittent see-saw nystagmus abolished by clonazepam. Revue Neurologique 1995; 151: 60-62.
110. Khouzam, H. R. and Highet, V. S. A review of clonazepam use in neurology. Neurobiologist 1997; 3: 120-127.
111. Pockberger, H., Petsche, H. and Rappelsberger, P. The effect of clonazepam on visual evoked-potentials of the rabbit. Eeg-Emg-Zeitschrift Fur Elektroenzephalographie Elektromyographie Und Verwandte Gebiete 1981; 12: 14-20.
112. Declerck, A. C., Oei, L. T., Arnoldussen, W. and Tedorsthorst, M. Alterations in transient visual-evoked potentials induced by clonazepam and sodium valproate. Neuropsychobiology 1985; 14: 39-41.
113. Rockstroh, B., Elbert, T., Lutzenberger, W. and Altenmuller, E. Effects of the anticonvulsant benzodiazepine clonazepam on event-related brain potentials in humans. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 1991; 78: 142-149.
114. Stafanous, S. N., Clarke, M. P., Ashton, H. and Mitchell, K. W. The effect of long-term use of benzodiazepines on the eye and retina. Documenta Ophthalmologica 1999; 99: 55-68.
115. Jaffe, M. J., Hommer, D. W., Caruso, R. C. et al. Attenuating effects of diazepam on the electroretinogram of normal humans. Retina - The Journal of Retinal and Vitreous Diseases 1989; 9: 216-225.
116. Jaffe, M. J., Hommer, D., Caruso, R. C. et al. Effects of diazepam on the human ganzfeld electroretinogram. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 1986; 27: 232 (abstract).
117. Hudnell, H. K. and Boyes, W. K. The comparability of rat and human visual-evoked potentials. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 1991; 15: 159-164.
118. Bartel, P., Blom, M., van der Meydon, C. and Sommers, D. K. Effects of single doses of diazepam, chlorpromazine, imipamine and trihexyphenidyl on visual-evoked potentials. Neuropsychobiology 1988; 20: 212-217.
119. Muller, W. and Haase, E. Fragen zur Beeinflussung des Electrooculogramms durch Diazepam. Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology 1975; 197: 159-164.
120. Manners, T. D. and Clarke, M. P. Maculopathy associated with diazepam. Eye 1995; 9: 660-662.
121. Hyams, S. W. and Keroub, C. Glaucoma due to diazepam. American Journal of Psychiatry 1997; 134: 447-448.
122. Elmar, G. and Lutz, M. Allergic conjunctivitis due to diazepam. American Journal of Psychiatry 1975; 132: 548.
123. Elder, M. J. Diazepam and its effects on visual-fields. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Ophthalmology 1992; 20: 267-270.
124. Ishikawa, M., Kudo, Y. and Fukuda, H. The effect of diazepam on nystagmus induced by stimulation of the lateral geniculate-body in the rabbit. Neuropharmacology 1981; 20: 435-439.
125. MacDonald, R. L. and Sculz, D. W. Barbiturate enhancement of GABA-mediated inhibition and activation of chloride ion conductance: correlation with anticonvulsant and anaesthetic actions. Brain Research 1981; 209: 117-188.
126. Heyer, E. S. and MacDonald, R. L. Barbiturate reduction of calcium-dependent action potentials: correlation with anaesthetic action. Brain Research 1982; 236: 157-171.
127. Schwankhaus, J. D., Kattah, J. C., Lux, W. E. et al. Primidone phenobarbital-induced periodic alternating nystagmus. Annals of Ophthalmology 1989; 21: 230-232.
128. Nordmann, J. P., Baulac, M. and Van Egroo, C. Visual field constriction as a side effect of GABA-mimetic antiepileptic agent. Journal Francais d'Ophtalmologie 1999; 22: 418-422.
129. Nordmann, J. P., Baulac, M. and Van Egroo, C. Severe visual field constriction associated with progabide and phenobarbital: a role of GABA-mimetic antiepileptic agents. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 1999; 40: 3662.
130. Brinciotti, M. Effects of chronic high serum levels of phenobarbital on evoked-potentials in epileptic children. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 1994; 92: 11-16.
131. Swartz, D. J. and Grigat, G. Phenytoin and carbamazepine: potential- and frequency-dependent block of Na currents in mammalian myelinated nerve fibres. Epilepsia 1989; 30: 286-294.
132. Noachtar, S., von Maydell, B., Fuhry, L. and Buttner, U. Gabapentin and carbamazepine affect eye movements and posture control differently: a placebo-controlled investigation of acute CNS side effects in healthy volunteers. Epilepsy Research 1998; 31: 47-57.
133. Chrousos, G. A., Cowdry, R., Schuelein, M. et al. Two cases of downbeat nystagmus and oscillopsia associated with carbamazepine. American Journal of Ophthalmology 1987; 103: 221-224.
134. Mecarelli, O., Rinalduzzi, S. and Accornero, N. Changes in colour vision after a single dose of vigabatrin or carbamazepine in healthy volunteers. Clinical Neuropharmacology 2001; 24: 23-26.
135. Sartucci, F., Massetani, R., Galli, R. et al. Visual contrast sensitivity in carbamazepine-resistant epileptic patients receiving vigabatrin as add-on therapy. Journal of Epilepsy 1997; 10: 7-11.
136. Nielsen, N. and Syversen, K. Possible retinotoxic effect of carbamazepine. Acta Ophthalmologica 1986; 64: 287-290.
137. Tear Fahnehjelm, K., Wide, K., Ygge, J. et al. Visual and ocular outcome in children after prenatal exposure to antiepileptic drugs. Acta Ophthalmologica 1999; 77: 530-535.
138. Kalis, M. M. and Huff, N. A. Oxcarbazepine, an antiepileptic agent. Clinical Therapeutics 2001; 23: 680-700.
139. Fisher, R. S., Eskola, J., Blum, D. et al. Open label pilot study of oxcarbazepine for inpatients under evaluation for epilepsy surgery. Drug Development Research 1996; 38: 43-49.
140. Zaccara, G., Gangemi, P. F., Messori, A. et al. Effects of oxcarbazepine and carbamazepine on the central-nervous-system - computerized analysis of saccadic and smooth-pursuit eye-movements. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 1992; 85: 425-429.
141. Herranz, J. L., Sol, J. M. and Hernandez, G. Gabapentin used in 559 patients with partial seizures. A multicentric observational study. Revista De Neurologia 2000; 30: 1141-1145.
142. Cordova, R., Castro, E., Noboa, C. and Carpio, A. Gabapentin, a new antiepileptic: first clinical experience in Ecuador. Revista Ecuatoriana De Neurologia 1997; 6: 8-11.
143. Koehler, J., Thomke, F., Tettenborn, B. et al. Changes in VEP and electroretinogram under anticonvulsive therapy. Aktuelle Neurologie 2000; 27: 484-489.
144. Stahl, J. S., Rottach, K. G., AverbuchHeller, L. et al. A pilot study of gabapentin as treatment for acquired nystagmus. Neuro-Ophthalmology 1996; 16: 107-113.
145. Kori, A. A., Robin, N. H., Jacobs, J. B. et al. Pendular nystagmus in patients with peroxisomal assembly disorder. Archives of Neurology 1998; 55: 554-558.
146. Bandini, F., Castello, E., Mazzella, L. et al. Gabapentin but not vigabatrin is effective in the treatment of acquired nystagmus in multiple sclerosis: how valid is the GABAergic hypothesis? Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 2001; 71: 107-110.
147. Hogan, R. E., Collins, S. D., Reed, R. C. and Remler, B. F. Neuro ophthalmological signs during rapid intravenous administration of phenytoin. Journal of Clinical Neuroscience 1999; 6: 494-497.
148. Sandyk, R. Total external ophthalmoplegia induced by phenytoin - a case report. South African Medical Journal 1984; 65: 141-142.
149. Hood, D. C., Benimoff, N. L. and Greenstein, V. C. The response range of the blue-cone pathways: a source of vulnerability to disease. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 1984; 25: 864-867.
150. Leach, M. J., Lees, G. and Riddall, D. R. Lamotrigine: mechanisms of action. In: Antiepileptic Drugs (Eds R. H. Levy et al.). New York, Raven Press, 1995: pp. 861-869.
151. Besag, F. M. C., Berry, D. J., Pool, F. et al. Carbamazepine toxicity with lamotrigine: pharmacokinetic or pharmacodynamic interaction? Epilepsia 1998; 39: 183-187.
152. Loiseau, P. Tolerability of newer and older anticonvulsants - a comparative review. CNS Drugs 1996; 6: 148-166.
153. Matsuo, F., Gay, P., Madsen, J. et al. Lamotrigine high-dose tolerability and safety in patients with epilepsy: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, eleven-week study. Epilepsia 1996; 37: 857-862.
154. Messenheimer, J. A., Giorgi, L. and Risner, M. E. The tolerability of lamotrigine in children. Drug Safety 2000; 22: 303-312.
155. Arzimanoglou, A., Kulak, I., Bidaut-Mazel, C. and Baldy-Moulinier, M. Optimal use of lamotrigine in clinical practice: results of an open multicenter trial in refractory epilepsy. Revue Neurologique 2001; 157: 525-536.
156. O'Donnell, J. and Bateman, D. N. Lamotrigine overdose in an adult. Journal of Toxicology - Clinical Toxicology 2000; 38: 659-660.
157. Hamilton, M. J., Cohen, A. F., Yuen, A. W. C. et al. Carbamazepine and lamotrigine in healthy volunteers-relevance to early tolerance and clinical-trial dosage. Epilepsia 1993; 34: 166-173.
158. van Wieringen, A., Binnie, C. D., Meijer, J. W. et al. Comparison of the effects of lamotrigine and phenytoin on the EEG power spectrum and cortical and brainstem-evoked responses of normal human volunteers. Neuropsychobiology 1989; 21: 157-169.
159. Wohlrab, G., Boltschauser, E., Schmitt, B. et al. Visual field constriction is not limited to children treated with vigabatrin. Neuropediatrics 1999; 30: 130-132.
160. Bialer, M., Johannessen, S. I., Kupferberg, H. J. et al. Progress report on new antiepileptic drugs: a summary of the sixth EILAT conference. Epilepsy Research 2002; 51: 31-71.
161. Krakow, K., Walker, M., Otoul, C. and Sander, J. W. A. S. Long-term continuation of levetiracetam in patients with refractory epilepsy. Neurology 2001; 56: 1772-1774.