Turner syndrome: A review of genetic and hormonal influences on neuropsychological functioning

Child Neuropsychology

Volumn 10, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 262-279

  Rovet, Joanne ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

^b HOSPITAL FOR SICK CHILDREN   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANDROGEN; ESTROGEN; GROWTH HORMONE;

BRAIN DEVELOPMENT; BRAIN FUNCTION; CHILD; CLINICAL FEATURE; COGNITION; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; GENE EXPRESSION; GENETIC ANALYSIS; HORMONE ACTION; HUMAN; NEUROPSYCHOLOGY; REVIEW; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; TURNER SYNDROME; X CHROMOSOME ABERRATION;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; BRAIN; CHILD; COGNITION DISORDERS; EDUCATIONAL STATUS; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY; FEMALE; HORMONES; HUMANS; LEARNING DISORDERS; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS; POSITRON-EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT; TURNER SYNDROME;

EID: 11844280261     PISSN: 09297049     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09297040490909297     Document Type: Review

References (115)

1. Abd, S.E., Turk, J., & Hill, P. (1995). Psychological characteristics of Turner syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36, 1109-1125.
2. Abd, S.E., Wilson, L., Howlin, P., Patton, M.A., Wintgens, A.M., & Wilson, R. (1997). Agenesis of the corpus callosum in Turner syndrome with ring X. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 39, 119-124.
3. Alexander, D., & Money, J. (1966). Turner's syndrome and Gernstmann's syndrome: Neuropsychologic comparisons. Neuropsychologia, 4, 265-273.
4. Alexander, D., Walker, H., & Money, J. (1964). Studies in direction sense. Archives of General Psychiatry, 10, 337-339.
5. Barlow, D.P. (1995). Gametic imprinting in mammals. Science, 270, 1610-1613.
6. Berch, D.B., & Kirkendall, K.L. (1986). Spatial information processing in 45,X children. Presented at the American Association for the Advancement of Science meeting, Philadelphia, PA.
7. Binder, G., Eggermann, T., Enders, H., Ranke, M.B., & Dufke, A. (2001). Tall stature, gonadal dysgenesis, and stigmata of Turner's syndrome caused by a structurally altered X chromosome. Journal of Pediatrics, 138, 285-287.
8. Binder, G., Schwarze, C.P., & Ranke, M.B. (2000). Identification of short stature caused by SHOX defects and therapeutic effect of recombinant human growth hormone. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 85, 245-249.
9. Bishop, D.V., Canning, E., Elgar, K., Morris, E., Jacobs, P.A., & Skuse, D.H. (2000). Distinctive patterns of memory function in subgroups of females with Turner syndrome: Evidence for imprinted loci on the X-chromosome affecting neurodevelopment. Neuropsychologia, 38, 712-721.
10. Brown, W.E., Kesler, S.R., Eliez, S., Warofsky, I.S., Haberecht, M., Patwardhan, A., Ross, J.L., Neely, E.K., Zeng, S.M., Yankowitz, J., & Reiss, A.L. (2002). Brain development in Turner syndrome: A magnetic resonance imaging study. Psychiatric Research, 116, 187-196.
11. Brun, A., & Skold, G. (1968). CNS malformations in Turner's syndrome: An integral part of the syndrome? Acta Neuropathologica, 10, 159-161.
12. Buchanan, L., Pavlovic, J., & Rovet, J.F. (1998). A reexamination of visuospatial deficit in Turner Syndrome: Contributions of working memory. Developmental Neuropsychology, 14, 341-367.
13. Clark, C., Klonoff, H., & Hayden, M. (1990). Regional cerebral glucose metabolism in Turner syndrome. Canadian Journal of Neurological Science, 17, 140-144.
14. Clement-Jones, M., Schiller, S., Rao, E., Blaschke, R.J., Zuniga, A., Zeller, R., Robson, S.C., Binder, G., Glass, I., Strachan, T., Lindsay, S., & Rappold, G.A. (2000). The short stature homeobox gene SHOX is involved in skeletal abnormalities in Turner syndrome. Human Molecular Genetics, 9, 695-702.
15. Cornoldi, C., Marconi, F., & Vecchi, T. (2001). Visuospatial working memory in Turner's syndrome. Brain and Cognition, 4, 90-94.
16. Dávalos, I.P., Rivera, H., Vasquez, A.I., Gutierrez-Angulo, M., Hernandez-Vazquez, M.C., Cortina-Luna, P.A., Wong-Ley, L.E., & Dominguez-Quezada, M.G. (2002). A 45,X sterile male with Yp disguised as 21p. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 111, 202-204.
17. Donnai, D., & Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2000). William Syndrome: From genotype through to the cognitive phenotype. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 97, 164-171.
18. Downey, J., Elkin, E.J., Ehrhardt, A.A., Meyer-Bahlburg, H.F.L., Bell, J.J., & Morishima, A. (1991). Cognitive ability and everyday functioning in women with Turner syndrome. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24, 32-39.
19. Elgar, K., Campbell, R., & Skuse, D. (2002). Are you looking at me? Accuracy in processing line-of-sight in Turner syndrome. Proceedings Royal Society of London, Basic Biological Science, 269, 2415-2422.
20. Fernández, R., Méndez, J., & Pásaro, E. (1996). Turner syndrome: A study of chromosomal mosaicism. Human Genetics, 98, 29-35.
21. Ford, C.E., Jones, K.W., & Polani, P.E. (1959). A sex chromosome anomaly in a case of gonadal dysgenesis (Turner's syndrome). Lancet (i), 711-713.
22. Garron, D.C. (1977). Intelligence among persons with Turner's syndrome. Behavior Genetics, 7, 147-152.
23. Good, C.D., Lawrence, K., Thomas, N.S., Price, C.J., Ashburner, J., Friston, K.J., Frackowiak, R.S.J., Oreland, L., & Skuse, D.H., Dosage-sensitive X-linked locus influences the development of amygdala and orbitalfrontal cortex, and fear recognition in humans. Brain, 126, 2431-2446.
24. Gravholt, C.H., Svenstrup, B., Bennett, P., & Christiansen, J.S. (1999). Reduced androgen levels in adult Turner syndrome: Influence of female sex steroids and growth hormone status. Clinical Endocrinology, 50, 791-800.
25. Haberecht, M.F., Menon, V., Warsofsky, I.S., White, C.D., Dyer-Friedman, J., Glover, G.H., Neely, E.K., & Reiss, A.L. (2001). Functional neuroanatomy of visuo-spatial working memory in Turner syndrome. Human Brain Mapping, 14, 96-107.
26. Haddad, H., & Willkins, L. (1959). Congenital abnormalities associated with gonadal aplasia: Review of 55 cases. Pediatrics, 23, 885-902.
27. Hall, J.G. (1997). Genomic imprinting: Nature and clinical relevance. Annual Review of Medicine, 48, 35-44.
28. Hepworth, S., & Rovet, J. (2001). Visuospatial integration difficulties in a female with Turner Syndrome. Impact on Verbal abilities. Child Neuropsychology, 6, 262-273.
29. Inozemstseva, O., Matute, E., Zarabozo, D., & Ramirez-Duenas, L. (2002). Syntactic processing in Turner's syndrome. Journal of Child Neurology, 17, 668-672.
30. Jacobs, P., Dalton, P., James, R., Mosse, K., Power, M., Robinson, D., & Skuse, D. (1997). Turner syndrome: A cytogenetic and molecular study. Annals of Human Genetics, 61, 471-483.
31. Johnson, R.R. (1995). Event-related potential indications of altered brain development in Turner syndrome. In J. Rovet (Ed.), Turner syndrome across the lifespan (pp. 97-101). Markham, Ont., Canada: Klein Graphics.
32. Johnson, R.R., Rohrbaugh, J.W., & Ross, J.L. (1993). Altered brain development in Turner's syndrome. Neurology, 43, 801-808.
33. Kagan-Krieger, A. (1998). Women with Turner syndrome: A maturational and developmental perspective. Journal of Adult Development, 5, 125-135.
34. Kagan-Krieger, S., Selby, P., Vohra, S., & Koren, G. (2002). Paternal alcohol exposure and Turner syndrome. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 37, 613-617.
35. Kosho, T., Muroya, K., Nagai, T., Fujimoto, M., Yokoya, S., Sakamoto, H., Hirano, T., Teresaki, H., Ohashi, H., Nishimura, G., Sato, S., Matsuo, N., & Ogata, T. (1999). Skeletal features and growth patterns in 14 patients with haploinsufficiency of SHOX: Implications for the development of Turner syndrome. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology Metabolism, 84, 4613-4621.
36. Kuntsi, J., Skuse, D., Elgar, K., Morris, E., & Turner, C. (2000). Ring-X chromosomes: Their cognitive and behavioural phenotype. Annals of Human Genetics, 64, 295-305.
37. Lahn, B.T., & Page, D.C. (1999). Retroposition of autosomal mRNA yielded testis-specific gene family on human Y chromosome. Nature Genetics, 21, 429-433.
38. Lahood, B.J., & Bacon, G.E. (1985). Cognitive abilities of adolescent Turner's syndrome patients. Journal of Adolescent Health Care, 6, 358-364.
39. Lawrence, K., Kuntsi, J., Coleman, M., Campbell, R., & Skuse, D. (2003). Face and emotion recognition deficits in Turner syndrome: A possible role for X-linked genes in amygdala development. Neuropsychology, 17, 39-49.
40. Lesniak-Karpiak, K., Mazzocco, M.M.M., & Ross, J.L. (2003). Behavioral assessment of social anxiety in females with Turner or Fragile X syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 33, 55-67.
41. Lewandownski, L., Costenbader, V., & Richman, R. (1985). Neuropsychological aspects of Turner syndrome. International Journal of Neuropsychology, 1, 144-147.
42. Loesch, D.Z., Huggins, R.M., Bui, Q.M., Taylor, A.K., & Hagerman, R.S. (2003). Relationship of deficits of FRM1 gene specific protein with physical phenotype of fraxX males and females in pedigrees. A new picture. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 118, 127-134.
43. Lyon, M.F. (1962). Sex chromatin and gene action in the mammalian X-chromosome. American Journal of Human Genetics, 14, 135-148.
44. Mambelli, M.C., Perulli, L., Casella, S., Leventaki, R., Perini, C., Gozzi, G., Panizzolo, C., Rigon, F., & Condini, A. (1995). Difficulties and experiences in dealing with the needs of patients with Turner syndrome and their families: The usefulness of a multidisciplinary approach. In J. Rovet (Ed.), Turner syndrome: Across the lifespan (pp. 108-112). Markham, Ont.: Klein Graphics.
45. Mazzocco, M.M.M. (1998). A process approach to describing mathematics difficulties in girls with Turner syndrome. Pediatrics, 102, 492-496.
46. Mazzocco, M.M.M., Baumgardner, T., Freund, L.S., & Reiss, A.L. (1998). Social functioning among girls with fragile X or Turner syndrome and their sisters. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 28, 509-517.
47. McCauley, E., Feuillan, P., Kushner, H., & Ross, J.L. (2001). Psychosocial development in adolescents with Turner syndrome. Journal of Developmental Behavioral Pediatrics, 22, 360-365.
48. McCauley, E., Ito, J., & Kay, T. (1986). Psychosocial functioning in girls with Turner's syndrome and short stature: Social skills, behavior problems, and self concept. Journal of American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 25, 105-112.
49. McCauley, E., Kay, T., Ito, J., & Treder, R. (1987). The Turner's syndrome: Cognitive deficits, affective discrimination and behavior problems. Child Development, 58, 4644-4673.
50. McCauley, E., Sybert, V., & Ehrhardt, A. (1986). Psychosocial adjustment of adult women with Turnery syndrome. Clinical Genetics, 29, 284-290.
51. McGlone, J. (1985). Can spatial deficits in Turner's syndrome be explained by focal CNS dysfunction or atypical speech lateralization? Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 7, 375-394.
52. Migeon, B.R., Ausems, M., Giltay, J., Hasley-Royster, C., Kazi, E., Lydon, T.J., Engelen, J.J., & Raymond, G.V. (2000). Severe phenotypes associated with inactive ring X chromosomes. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 93, 52-57.
53. Money, J. (1963). Cyntogenetic and psychosexual incongruities with a note on space-form blindness. American Journal of Psychiatry, 119, 820-827.
54. Money, J., & Alexander, D. (1966). Turner's syndrome: Further demonstration of the presence of specific cognitional deficiencies. Journal of Medical Genetics, 3, 47-48.
55. Murphy, D., Allen, G., Haxby, J., Largay, K.A., Daly, E., White, B.J., Powell, C.M., & Schapiro, M.B. (1994). The effects of sex steroids, and the X chromosome, on female brain function: A study of the neuropsychology of adult Turner syndrome. Neuropsychologia, 32, 1309-1323.
56. Murphy, D., DeCarli, C., Daly, E., Haxby, J.V., Allen, G., White, B.J., McIntosh, A.R., Powell, C.M., Horwitz, B., Rapoport, S.I., & Schapiro, M.B. (1993). X-chromosome effects on female brain: A magnetic resonance imaging study of Turner's syndrome. The Lancet, 342, 1197-2000.
57. Murphy, D., Mentis, M.J., Pietrini, P., Grady, C., Daly, E., Haxby, J.V., De La Granja, M., Allen, G., Largay, K., White, B.J., Powell, C.M., Horwitz, B., Rapaport, S.I., & Schapiro, M.B. (1997). A PET study of Turner's syndrome: Effects of sex steroids and the X chromosome on the brain. Biological Psychiatry, 41, 285-298.
58. Netley, C., & Rovet, J. (1982). Atypical hemispheric lateralization in Turner syndrome subjects. Cortex, 18, 377-384.
59. Nielsen, J., Nyborg, H., & Dahl, G. (1977). Turner's syndrome: A psychiatric-psychological study of 45 women with Turner's syndrome, compared with their sisters and women with normal karyotypes, growth retardations, and primary amenorrhea. Acta Jutlandica, 45, 190.
60. Nyborg, H. (1990). Sex hormones, brain development, and spatio-perceptual strategies in Turner syndrome. In D. Berch & B. Bender (Eds.), Sex chromosome abnormalities and human behavior: Psychological studies (pp. 100-129). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
61. O'Neill, S., Ghelani, K., Rovet, J., & Chitayat, D. (2000). Physical and psychological development of individuals prenatally diagnosed with 45,X/46,XX. American Society of Human Genetics Meeting, Philadelphia, 2000.
62. Palm, D., Pfeiffer, R.A., Ammermann, M., & Schulte, H. (1973). EEG-Befunde bei Turner-Syndrome. Mschr. Kinderheilk, 121, 289-292.
63. Pasquino, A.M., Passeri, F., Pucarelli, I., Segni, M., & Municchi, G. (1997). Spontaneous pubertal development in Turner's syndrome. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 82, 1810-1813.
64. Paul, B.M., Stiles, J., Passarotti, A., Bavar, N., & Bellugi, U. (2002). Face and place processing in William Syndrome. Evidence for a dorsal-ventral dissociation. Neuroreport, 13, 1115-1119.
65. Pavlidis, K., McCauley, E., & Sybert, V. (1993). Psychosocial and sexual functioning in women with Turner syndrome. Clinical Genet, 47, 85-89.
66. Pears, C. (1805). The case of a full grown woman in whom the ovaria are deficient. Philosophical Transactions Royal Society of London, 95, 225-227.
67. Poenaru, S., Stanesco, V., Poenaru, L., & Stoian, D. (1970). EEG dans le syndrome de Turner. Acta Neurologica Belgica, 70, 509-522.
68. Polani, P.E., Lessof, M.H., & Bishop, P.M.F. (1956). Colour-blindness in "ovarian agenesis" (gonadal dysplasia). Lancet, 2, 118-119.
69. Rao, E., Weiss, B., Fukami, M., Rump, A., Niesler, B., Mertz, A., Muroya, K., Binder, G., Kirsch, S., Winkelmann, M., Nordsiek, G., Heinrich, U., Breuning, M.H., Ranke, M.B., Rosenthal, A., Ogata, T., & Rappold, G.A. (1997). Pseudoautosomal deletions encompassing a novel homeobox gene cause growth failure in idiopathic short stature and Turner syndrome. Nature Genetics, 16, 54-63.
70. Reiss, A.L., Eliez, S., Schmitt, J.E., Patwardhan, A., & Haberecht, M. (2000). Brain imaging in neurogenetic conditions: Realizing the potential of behavioral neurogenetics research. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Review, 6, 186-197.
71. Reiss, A.L., Freund, L., Plotnick, L., Baumgardner, T., Green, K., Sozer, A.C., Reader, M., Boehm, C., & Denckla, M.B. (1993). The effects of X monosomy on brain development: Monozygotic twins discordant for Turner's syndrome. Annals of Neurology, 34, 95-107.
72. Reiss, A.L., Mazzocco, M.M., Greenlaw, R., Freund, L.S., & Ross, J.L. (1995). Neurodevelopmental effects of X monosomy: A volumetric imaging study. Annals of Neurology, 38, 731-738.
73. Reske-Nielsen, E., Christensen, A.L., & Nielsen, J. (1982). A neuropathological and neuropsychological study of Turner's syndrome. Cortex, 18, 181-190.
74. Robinson, A., Bender, B., Borelli, J., Puck, M., Salbenblatt, J., & Winter, J. (1986). Sex chromosomal aneuploidy: Prospective and longitudinal studies. In S. Ratcliffe & N. Paul (Eds.), Prospective studies on children with sex chromosome aneuploidy (pp. 23-73). New York: Liss.
75. Romans, S.M., Roeltgen, D., Kushner, H., & Ross, J.L. (1997). Executive function in girls with Turner's Syndrome. Developmental Neuropsychology, 13, 23-40.
76. Romans, S.M., Stefanatos, G., Roeltgen, O.P., Kushner, H., & Ross, J.L. (1998). Transition to young adulthood in Ullrich-Turner syndrome: Neurodevelopmental changes. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 79, 140-147.
77. Ross, J.L. (1996). Estrogen therapy in the treatment of Turner syndrome. In J. Rovet (Ed.). Turner syndrome across the lifespan (pp. 93-96). Markham, Ont.: Klein Graphics.
78. Ross, J.L., Feuillan, P., Kushner, H., Roeltgen, D., & Cutler, G.B. (1997). Absence of growth hormone effects on cognitive function in girls with Turner syndrome. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 82, 1814-1817.
79. Ross, J.L., Kushner, H., & Zinn, A.R. (1997). Discriminant analysis of the Ullrich-Turner syndrome neurocognitive profile. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 72, 275-280.
80. Ross, J.L., Long, L.M., Loriaux, D.L., & Cutler, G.B. Jr. (1985). Growth hormone secretory dynamics in Turner syndrome. Journal of Pediatrics, 106, 202-206.
81. Ross, J.L., Roeltgen, D., & Cutler, G.B. (1995). The neurodevelopmental transition between childhood and adolescence in girls with Turner syndrome. In K.A. Albertsson-Wikland & M.B. Ranke (Eds.), Turner syndrome in a life span perspective: Research and clinical aspects (pp. 296-308). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
82. Ross, J.L., Roeltgen, D., Feuillan, P., Kushner, H., & Cutler, G.B. (1998). Estrogen effects on nonverbal processing speed and motor function in girls with Turner syndrome. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 83, 3198-3204.
83. Ross, J.L., Roeltgen, D., Feuillan, P., Kushner, H., & Cutler, G.B. (2000). Use of estrogen in young girls with Turner syndrome: Effects on memory. Neurology, 54, 164-170.
84. Ross, J.L., Roeltgen, D., Kushner, H., Wei, F., & Zinn, A.R. (2000). The Turner syndrome-associated neurocognitive phenotype maps to distal Xp. American Journal of Human Genetics, 67, 672-681.
85. Ross, J.L., Roeltgen, D., Stefanatos, G.A., Feuillan, P., Kushner, H., Bondy, C., & Cutler, G.B. (2003). Angrogen-responsive aspects of cognition in girls with Turner syndrome. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 88, 292-296.
86. Ross, J.L., Scott, C., Marttila, P., Kowal, K., Nass, A., Papenhausen, P., Abboudi, J., Osterman, L., Kushner, H., Carter, P., Ezaki, M., Elder, F., Wei, F., Chen, H., & Zinn, A.R. (2001). Phenotypes associated with SHOX deficiency. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 86, 5674-5680.
87. Ross, J.L., Stefanatos, G.A., Kushner, H., Zinn, A., Bondy, C., & Roeltgen, D. (2002). Persistent cognitive deficits in adult women with Turner syndrome. Neurology, 58, 218-225.
88. Ross, J., Zinn, A., & McCauley, E. (2000). Neurodevelopmental and psychosocial aspects of Turner syndrome. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Review, 6, 135-141.
89. Rovet, J. (1990). The cognitive and neuropsychological characteristics of females with Turner syndrome. In D.B. Berch & B.C. Bender (Eds.), Sex chromosome abnormalities and human behavior (pp. 38-77). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
90. Rovet, J.F. (1993). The psychoeducational characteristics of children with Turner syndrome. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 26, 333-341.
91. Rovet, J.F. (1995). Turner syndrome. In B.P. Rourke (Ed.), Syndrome of nonverbal learning disabilities: Neurodevelopmental manifestations (Chapter 13, pp. 351-371). New York: Guilford Publications.
92. Rovet, J., & Ireland, L. (1994). Behavioral phenotype in children with Turner syndrome. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 19, 779-790.
93. Rovet, J., & Netley, C. (1982). Processing deficits in turner's syndrome. Developmental Psychology, 18, 77-94.
94. Rovet, J., Szekely, C., & Hockenberry, M.N. (1994). Specific arithmetic calculation deficits in children with Turner syndrome. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 16, 820-839.
95. Schaffer, J.W. (1962). A specific cognitive deficit observed in gonadal aplasia (Turner syndrome). Journal of Clinical Psychology, 18, 15-36.
96. Schucard, D.W., Shucard, J.L., Clopper, R.R., & Schachter, M. (1992). Electrophysiological and neuropsychological indices of cognitive processing deficits in Turner syndrome. Developmental Neuropsychology, 8, 299-323.
97. Siegel, P.T., Clopper, R., & Stabler, B. (1998). The psychological consequences of Turner syndrome and review of the National Cooperative Growth Study psychological substudy. Pediatrics, 1998, 102, 488-491.
98. Silbert, A., Wolff, PH., & Lilienthal, J. (1977). Spatial and temporal processing in patients with Turner's syndrome. Behavior Genetics, 7, 11-21.
99. Skuse, D.H., Good, C.D., Elgar, K., Thomas, N.S., & Morris, J.S. (2001). Gene-brain mechanisms in Turner syndrome. Paper presented at the Genesis conference.
100. Skuse, D.H., James, R.S., Bishop, D.V., Coppin, B., Dalton, P., Aamodt-Leeper, G., Bacarese-Hamilton, M., Creswell, C., McGurk, R., & Jacobs, PA. (1997). Evidence from Turner's syndrome of an imprinted X-linked locus affecting cognitive function. Nature, 387, 705-708.
101. Stabler, B. (1995). Behavior change in patients with Turner syndrome undergoing growth hormone therapy. In J. Rovet (Ed.), Turner syndrome across the lifespan (pp. 81-90). Markham, Ont., Canada: Klein Graphics.
102. Stenberg, A.E., Nylén, O., Windh, M., & Hultcrantz, M. (1998). Otological problems in children with Turner's syndrome. Hearing Research, 124, 85-90.
103. Tamm, L., Menon, V., & Reiss, A.L. (2003). Abnormal prefrontal cortex function during response inhibition in Turner syndrome: Functional magnetic resonance imaging evidence. Biological Psychiatry, 53, 107-111.
104. Temple, C.M. (2002). Oral fluency and narrative production in children with Turner's syndrome. Neuropsychologia, 40, 1419-1427.
105. Temple, C.M., & Carney, R.A. (1995). Patterns of spatial functioning in Turner's syndrome. Cortex, 31, 109-118.
106. Temple, C.M., Carney, R.A., & Mullarkey, S. (1996). Frontal lobe function and executive skills in children with Turner's Syndrome. Developmental Neuropsychology, 12, 343-363.
107. Temple, C.M., & Marriott, A.J. (1998). Arithmetical ability and disability in Turner's syndrome: A cognitive neuropsychological analysis. Developmental Neuropsychology, 14, 47-67.
108. Tereo, Y., Hashimoto, K., Nukina, N., Mannen, T., & Shinohara, T. (1996). Cortical dysgenesis in a patient with Turner mosaicism. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 38, 455-466.
109. Tsuboi, R., & Nielsen, J. (1976). Electroencephalographic examination of 50 women with Turner's syndrome. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 54, 359-365.
110. Turner, H. (1938). A syndrome of infantilism, congenital webbed neck, and cubitus valgus. Endocrinology, 23, 566.
111. Ullrich, O. (1930). Ber typische komginationshbilder multipler Abartung. Zeitschfrift für Kinderheilkunde, 49, 271-276.
112. Waber, O.P. (1979). Neuropsychological aspects of Turner's syndrome. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 21, 58-70.
113. Williams, J., Richman, L., & Yarbrough, D. (1991). A comparison of memory and attention in Turner syndrome and learning disability. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 16, 585-593.
114. Zinn, A.R., & Ross, J.L. (1998). Turner syndrome and haploinsufficiency. Current Opinion in Genetics Development, 8, 322-327.
115. Zinn, A.R., Tonk, V.S., Chen, Z., Flejter, W.L., Gardner, H.A., Guerra, R., Kushner, H., Schwartz, S., Sybert, V.P., Van Dyke, D.L., & Ross, J.L. (1998). Evidence for a Turner syndrome locus or loci at Xp11.2-p22.1. American Journal of Human Genetics, 63, 1757-1766.