Going cultural: Star trek, state action, and popular culture

Millenium

Volumn 28, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 117-134

  Weldes, Jutta ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 11544334260     PISSN: 03058298     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/03058298990280011201     Document Type: Article

References (106)

1. Yosef Lapid and Friedrich Kratochwil, eds., The Returxn of Culture and Identity in International Relations Theory (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1996).
2. Samuel Huntington, 'The Clash of Civilizations?' Foreign Affairs 73, no. 3 (1993): 22-49.
3. See, for example, Mark Juergensmeyer, The New Cold War? Religious Nationalism Confronts the Secular State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Ted R. Gurr, 'Peoples Against States', International Studies Quarterly 38, no. 3 (1994): 347-377; Adam Roberts, 'Communal Conflict as a Challenge to International Organization', Review of International Studies 21, no. 4 (1995): 389-410.
4. See, for example, Mark Juergensmeyer, The New Cold War? Religious Nationalism Confronts the Secular State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Ted R. Gurr, 'Peoples Against States', International Studies Quarterly 38, no. 3 (1994): 347-377; Adam Roberts, 'Communal Conflict as a Challenge to International Organization', Review of International Studies 21, no. 4 (1995): 389-410.
5. See, for example, Mark Juergensmeyer, The New Cold War? Religious Nationalism Confronts the Secular State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Ted R. Gurr, 'Peoples Against States', International Studies Quarterly 38, no. 3 (1994): 347-377; Adam Roberts, 'Communal Conflict as a Challenge to International Organization', Review of International Studies 21, no. 4 (1995): 389-410.
6. See Audie Klotz, 'Norms Reconstituting Interests', International Organization 49, no. 3 (1995): 451-78; Judith Goldstein and Robert O. Keohane eds., Ideas and Foreign Policy (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993); 'Knowledge, Power, and International Policy Coordination', Special Issue of International Organization 46, no. 1 (1992); Alastair lain Johnston, 'Cultural Realism and Strategy in Maoist China', in The Culture of National Security, ed. Peter J. Katzenstein (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 216-68.
7. See Audie Klotz, 'Norms Reconstituting Interests', International Organization 49, no. 3 (1995): 451-78; Judith Goldstein and Robert O. Keohane eds., Ideas and Foreign Policy (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993); 'Knowledge, Power, and International Policy Coordination', Special Issue of International Organization 46, no. 1 (1992); Alastair lain Johnston, 'Cultural Realism and Strategy in Maoist China', in The Culture of National Security, ed. Peter J. Katzenstein (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 216-68.
8. See Audie Klotz, 'Norms Reconstituting Interests', International Organization 49, no. 3 (1995): 451-78; Judith Goldstein and Robert O. Keohane eds., Ideas and Foreign Policy (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993); 'Knowledge, Power, and International Policy Coordination', Special Issue of International Organization 46, no. 1 (1992); Alastair lain Johnston, 'Cultural Realism and Strategy in Maoist China', in The Culture of National Security, ed. Peter J. Katzenstein (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 216-68.
9. See Audie Klotz, 'Norms Reconstituting Interests', International Organization 49, no. 3 (1995): 451-78; Judith Goldstein and Robert O. Keohane eds., Ideas and Foreign Policy (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993); 'Knowledge, Power, and International Policy Coordination', Special Issue of International Organization 46, no. 1 (1992); Alastair lain Johnston, 'Cultural Realism and Strategy in Maoist China', in The Culture of National Security, ed. Peter J. Katzenstein (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 216-68.
10. I retain the popular term 'popular culture' although 'mass culture' is perhaps more accurate. In cultural studies, 'popular culture' is often reserved for those cultural artefacts actually produced by 'the people', and specifically by subordinated classes. In contrast, 'mass culture' designates those artefacts that, while consumed by 'the people', arc not produced by them. See Tony Bennett, 'The Politics of the "Popular" and popular culture', in Popular Culture and Social Relations, eds. Tony Bennett, Colin Mercer, and Janet Woollacott (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1986), 1-21.
11. Of course, popular culture also provides a site for the potential contestation of official state narratives. In this analysis, however, I am explicitly interested in processes of reproduction.
12. Raymond Williams, Keywords (London: Fontana, 1983), 160.
13. John Tomlinson, Cultural Imperialism (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), 7.
14. Stuart Hall, 'Signification, Representation, Ideology', Critical Studies in Mass Communication 2, no. 2(1985): 105.
15. See the introduction to Cultures of Insecurity, eds. Jutta Weldes, Mark Laffey, Hugh Gusterson and Raymond Duvall (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999).
16. Jennifer Milliken, 'The Study of Discourse in International Relations' European Journal of International Relations 5, no. 2 (1999): 257-86. Exceptions can be found outside of the discipline of international relations, for instance in American studies, English, history and the humanities. See Kai Bird and Lawrence Lifschultz, eds., Hiroshima's Shadow (Stony Creek, CT: Pamphleteer's Press, 1998); Martin Evans and Ken Lunn eds., War and Memory in the Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997); Amy Kaplan and Donald E. Pease, eds., Cultures of United States Imperialism (Durham: Duke University Press, 1993).
17. Jennifer Milliken, 'The Study of Discourse in International Relations' European Journal of International Relations 5, no. 2 (1999): 257-86. Exceptions can be found outside of the discipline of international relations, for instance in American studies, English, history and the humanities. See Kai Bird and Lawrence Lifschultz, eds., Hiroshima's Shadow (Stony Creek, CT: Pamphleteer's Press, 1998); Martin Evans and Ken Lunn eds., War and Memory in the Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997); Amy Kaplan and Donald E. Pease, eds., Cultures of United States Imperialism (Durham: Duke University Press, 1993).
18. Jennifer Milliken, 'The Study of Discourse in International Relations' European Journal of International Relations 5, no. 2 (1999): 257-86. Exceptions can be found outside of the discipline of international relations, for instance in American studies, English, history and the humanities. See Kai Bird and Lawrence Lifschultz, eds., Hiroshima's Shadow (Stony Creek, CT: Pamphleteer's Press, 1998); Martin Evans and Ken Lunn eds., War and Memory in the Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997); Amy Kaplan and Donald E. Pease, eds., Cultures of United States Imperialism (Durham: Duke University Press, 1993).
19. Jennifer Milliken, 'The Study of Discourse in International Relations' European Journal of International Relations 5, no. 2 (1999): 257-86. Exceptions can be found outside of the discipline of international relations, for instance in American studies, English, history and the humanities. See Kai Bird and Lawrence Lifschultz, eds., Hiroshima's Shadow (Stony Creek, CT: Pamphleteer's Press, 1998); Martin Evans and Ken Lunn eds., War and Memory in the Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997); Amy Kaplan and Donald E. Pease, eds., Cultures of United States Imperialism (Durham: Duke University Press, 1993).
20. Carol Cohn, 'Sex and Death in the Rational World of Defense Intellectuals', Signs 12, no. 4 (1987): 687-718.
21. Roxanne Doty, Imperial Encounters (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996), 2.
22. Jutta Weldes, Constructing National Interests (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999).
23. See Jutta Weldes, 'Constructing National Interests', European Journal of International Relations 2, no. 3 (1996): 275-318; See also Jutta Weldes and Diana Saco, 'Making State Action Possible', Millennium: Journal of International Studies 25, no. 2 (1996): 361-95.
24. See Jutta Weldes, 'Constructing National Interests', European Journal of International Relations 2, no. 3 (1996): 275-318; See also Jutta Weldes and Diana Saco, 'Making State Action Possible', Millennium: Journal of International Studies 25, no. 2 (1996): 361-95.
25. Richard Drinnon, Facing West (New York: Schocken Books, 1990).
26. Michael Hunt, Ideology and US Foreign Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), 18.
27. Stuart Hall, 'The Rediscovery of "Ideology"', in Culture, Society and the Media, eds. Michael Gurevitch, Tony Bennett, James Curran, and Janet Woollacott (London: Methuen, 1982), 56-90.
28. John Storey, Cultural Studies and the Study of Popular Culture (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1996), 9.
29. Robert C. Allen, introduction to Channels of Discourse. Reassembled, 2d ed., ed. Robert C. Allen (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 1.
30. Star Trek is not simply a television series but is rather part of an extensive intertext that spans a variety of media, including television, film, books, and conventions. It also encompasses the genres within which Star Trek is read, such as science fiction and the Western. And it extends beyond the realm of fiction, including even NASA in its ambit. See Constance Penley, NASA/Trek (London: Verso, 1997). Although, as John Fiske notes, 'studying a text's intertextual relations can provide us with valuable clues to the readings that a particular culture or subculture is likely to produce from it' (Television Culture (London: Routledge, 1987), 108). For reasons of space I limit my investigation here to TOS and TNG, mentioning genre and other elements of Star Trek's intertext only sparingly.
31. Star Trek is not simply a television series but is rather part of an extensive intertext that spans a variety of media, including television, film, books, and conventions. It also encompasses the genres within which Star Trek is read, such as science fiction and the Western. And it extends beyond the realm of fiction, including even NASA in its ambit. See Constance Penley, NASA/Trek (London: Verso, 1997). Although, as John Fiske notes, 'studying a text's intertextual relations can provide us with valuable clues to the readings that a particular culture or subculture is likely to produce from it' (Television Culture (London: Routledge, 1987), 108). For reasons of space I limit my investigation here to TOS and TNG, mentioning genre and other elements of Star Trek's intertext only sparingly.
32. Although TOS consisted of just 79 episodes and aired for only three seasons, from 1966 through 1968, it has since run in syndication in about 145 US markets and the reruns have been shown in over 100 countries (Jefferson Graham, 'Onward, "Voyager"', USA Today (11 January 1995): ID). TNG aired for seven seasons, from 1987 to 1994, and became the most highly rated syndicated show 'in TV history' (Richard Zoglin, 'Trekking Onward', Time (28 November 1994): 74). Deep Space Nine began in January 1993 and is now completing its sixth season; Voyager first aired in January 1995 and has run for four seasons.
33. Although TOS consisted of just 79 episodes and aired for only three seasons, from 1966 through 1968, it has since run in syndication in about 145 US markets and the reruns have been shown in over 100 countries (Jefferson Graham, 'Onward, "Voyager"', USA Today (11 January 1995): ID). TNG aired for seven seasons, from 1987 to 1994, and became the most highly rated syndicated show 'in TV history' (Richard Zoglin, 'Trekking Onward', Time (28 November 1994): 74). Deep Space Nine began in January 1993 and is now completing its sixth season; Voyager first aired in January 1995 and has run for four seasons.
34. The first seven of these films had, by 1995, grossed 'more than $700 million in box office and video rentals' (Graham, 'Onward', 1D).
35. The United Federation of Planets, headquartered in San Francisco, is 'an alliance of approximately 150 planetary governments and colonies', including Earth, that have joined together 'for mutual trade, exploratory, scientific, cultural, diplomatic and defensive endeavors' (Michael Okuda, Denise Okuda, and Debbie Merck, The Star Trek Encyclopedia (New York: Pocket Books, 1994). 358-61). Starfleel is the 'deep-space exploratory, scientific, diplomatic, and defensive agency' of the Federation (idem, 316). The U.S.S. Enterprise was the flagship of Starlleet in TOS; the U.S.S. Enterprise-D succeeded to that role in TNG.
36. The Klingons, in some respects a savage and aggressive warrior race, are the Federation's main enemy in TOS and develop as an uneasy ally in TNG. The Romulans, another arrogant and aggressive warrior race, are generally suspicious of and hostile toward the Federation. The Borg are 'an immensely powerful race' of cybemetically enhanced humanoids interconnected in a hive-like collective entity that assimilates life forms unfortunate enough to encounter it. (Okuda, The Star Trek Encyclopedia, 160-161, 282-83, 33).
37. Rick Worland, 'Captain Kirk: Cold Warrior', Journal of Popular Film and Television 16, no. 3 (1988): 116-17.
38. Such a reading is offered in Worland.
39. See, as examples, 'The High Ground' on terrorism, 'Angel One' on apartheid, 'Home Soil' on environmental decay, 'Legacy' on gang warfare, 'Symbiosis' on drugs, 'The Arsenal of Freedom' on the arms trade, and 'The Best of Both Worlds' on collectivism.
40. George Bush, 'Address Before the 45th Session of the United Nations General Assembly', (New York, 1 October 1990), Public Papers of the Presidents: George Bush, 1990, vol. 2 (Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office, 1991), 1333.
41. George Bush, 'Address Before the 45th Session of the United Nations General Assembly', (New York, 1 October 1990), Public Papers of the Presidents: George Bush, 1990, vol. 2 (Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office, 1991), 1333.
42. William Shatner, quoted in Henry Jenkins, Textual Poachers (New York: Routledge, 1992), 30.
43. Mimi White, 'Ideological Analysis and Television', in Allen, Channels of Discourse, 173.
44. For more detail see, for example, Roxanne Doty, 'Foreign Policy as Social Construction', International Studies Quarterly 37, no. 3, (1993): 297-320, or Milliken's discussion of predicate, metaphorical, and narrative analyses, 'The Study of Discourse', 263-68.
45. For more detail see, for example, Roxanne Doty, 'Foreign Policy as Social Construction', International Studies Quarterly 37, no. 3, (1993): 297-320, or Milliken's discussion of predicate, metaphorical, and narrative analyses, 'The Study of Discourse', 263-68.
46. On interpellation, see Louis Althusser, 'Ideology and the Ideological State Apparatuses', in his Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays, trans. Ben Brewster (London: New Left Books, 1971), 127-86; see also Jutta Weldes, 'Constructing National Interests', 287-89.
47. On interpellation, see Louis Althusser, 'Ideology and the Ideological State Apparatuses', in his Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays, trans. Ben Brewster (London: New Left Books, 1971), 127-86; see also Jutta Weldes, 'Constructing National Interests', 287-89.
48. White, 'Ideological Analysis', 182.
49. David Morley, The 'Nationwide' Audience (London: British Film Institute, 1980), 139.
50. Catherine Lutz and Jane Collins, Reading National Geographic (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993) nicely illustrates such a comprehensive analysis.
51. On TNG this was updated to the more gender-neutral 'where no one has gone before'.
52. This metaphor reveals Star Trek's debt to the American frontier myth (e.g., Frederick Jackson Turner, 'The Significance of the Frontier in American History', in History, Frontier, and Section (Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 1993), 59-92). See also William Blake Tyrrell, Star Trek as Myth and Television as Myth Maker', Journal of Popular Culture 10, no. 4 ( 1977): 711-19.
53. This metaphor reveals Star Trek's debt to the American frontier myth (e.g., Frederick Jackson Turner, 'The Significance of the Frontier in American History', in History, Frontier, and Section (Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 1993), 59-92). See also William Blake Tyrrell, Star Trek as Myth and Television as Myth Maker', Journal of Popular Culture 10, no. 4 ( 1977): 711-19.
54. Whitfield and Roddenberry. The Making of Star Trek (New York: Ballentine Books, 1968), 203. In selling TOS to the networks in the 1960s, Roddenberry originally characterized Star Trek as 'Wagon Train to the Stars' (idem, 22), drawing explicitly on the similarities between Star Trek and conventional American television Westerns.
55. David Mogen, Wilderness Visions, 2d ed. (San Bernardino, CA: The Borgo Press, 1993), 40.
56. Ibid., 40.
57. The Vulcans, an advanced humanoid race who have repudiated emotions and based their society entirely on logic, are members of the Federation. See Okuda, Star Trek Encyclopaedia, 370.
58. Star Trek's much vaunted multiculturalism has clear limits, however. Gay or lesbian characters, for example, have been all but absent from all four series. Nonetheless, as Harrison, et al., argue, 'Star Trek's visible attempts at ethnic and gender diversity (what we might call a liberal chic) superficially validate liberal perspectives on multiculturalism and feminism'. See the introduction to Enterprise Zones, eds. Taylor Harrison, Sarah Projansky, Kent A. Ono, and Elyce Rae Helford (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996), 1. Criticisms of Star Trek's liberal multiculturalism can be found in Daniel Leonard Bernardi, Star Trek and History (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1998); in the essays by Katrina Boyd, Sarah Projansky, and Leah Vande Berg, in Harrison, Enterprise Zones; and in Rhonda Wilcox, 'Shifting Roles and Synthetic Women in "Star Trek: The Next Generation"', Studies in Popular Culture 13, no. 2 (1991): 53-65.
59. Star Trek's much vaunted multiculturalism has clear limits, however. Gay or lesbian characters, for example, have been all but absent from all four series. Nonetheless, as Harrison, et al., argue, 'Star Trek's visible attempts at ethnic and gender diversity (what we might call a liberal chic) superficially validate liberal perspectives on multiculturalism and feminism'. See the introduction to Enterprise Zones, eds. Taylor Harrison, Sarah Projansky, Kent A. Ono, and Elyce Rae Helford (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996), 1. Criticisms of Star Trek's liberal multiculturalism can be found in Daniel Leonard Bernardi, Star Trek and History (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1998); in the essays by Katrina Boyd, Sarah Projansky, and Leah Vande Berg, in Harrison, Enterprise Zones; and in Rhonda Wilcox, 'Shifting Roles and Synthetic Women in "Star Trek: The Next Generation"', Studies in Popular Culture 13, no. 2 (1991): 53-65.
60. Star Trek's much vaunted multiculturalism has clear limits, however. Gay or lesbian characters, for example, have been all but absent from all four series. Nonetheless, as Harrison, et al., argue, 'Star Trek's visible attempts at ethnic and gender diversity (what we might call a liberal chic) superficially validate liberal perspectives on multiculturalism and feminism'. See the introduction to Enterprise Zones, eds. Taylor Harrison, Sarah Projansky, Kent A. Ono, and Elyce Rae Helford (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996), 1. Criticisms of Star Trek's liberal multiculturalism can be found in Daniel Leonard Bernardi, Star Trek and History (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1998); in the essays by Katrina Boyd, Sarah Projansky, and Leah Vande Berg, in Harrison, Enterprise Zones; and in Rhonda Wilcox, 'Shifting Roles and Synthetic Women in "Star Trek: The Next Generation"', Studies in Popular Culture 13, no. 2 (1991): 53-65.
61. Star Trek's much vaunted multiculturalism has clear limits, however. Gay or lesbian characters, for example, have been all but absent from all four series. Nonetheless, as Harrison, et al., argue, 'Star Trek's visible attempts at ethnic and gender diversity (what we might call a liberal chic) superficially validate liberal perspectives on multiculturalism and feminism'. See the introduction to Enterprise Zones, eds. Taylor Harrison, Sarah Projansky, Kent A. Ono, and Elyce Rae Helford (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996), 1. Criticisms of Star Trek's liberal multiculturalism can be found in Daniel Leonard Bernardi, Star Trek and History (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1998); in the essays by Katrina Boyd, Sarah Projansky, and Leah Vande Berg, in Harrison, Enterprise Zones; and in Rhonda Wilcox, 'Shifting Roles and Synthetic Women in "Star Trek: The Next Generation"', Studies in Popular Culture 13, no. 2 (1991): 53-65.
62. Okuda, Star Trek Encyclopaedia, 261. The Prime Directive was not invented for Star Trek. According to John Pierce, L. Sprague de Camp introduced the 'fictional device' of the 'nonintervention policy' in his viagens Interplanetarias series, from whence it became a staple of modern science fiction; See Pierce's Foundations of Science Fiction (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987), 120.
63. Okuda, Star Trek Encyclopaedia, 261. The Prime Directive was not invented for Star Trek. According to John Pierce, L. Sprague de Camp introduced the 'fictional device' of the 'nonintervention policy' in his viagens Interplanetarias series, from whence it became a staple of modern science fiction; See Pierce's Foundations of Science Fiction (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987), 120.
64. Although I do not have space to pursue the argument here, IDIC and its attendant multiculturalism are limited, and even undermined, by the constraints of a narrowly understood liberal individualism.
65. April Selley, 'Transcendentalism in "Star Trek: The Next Generation'", Journal of American Culture 13,no. 1 (1990): 34.
66. An extensive discussion of 'we the US' as it is constituted in the post-war US security imaginary can be found in Weldes, Constructing National Interests.
67. US National Security Council, 'United States Objectives and Programs for National Security' (NSC 68), 14 April 1950, reprinted in Containment, eds. Thomas H. Etzold and John Lewis Gaddis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), 387-88.
68. US National Security Council, 'United States Objectives and Programs for National Security' (NSC 68), 14 April 1950, reprinted in Containment, eds. Thomas H. Etzold and John Lewis Gaddis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), 387-88.
69. Dwight D. Eisenhower, 'Address Before a Joint Session of the Congress of Brazil' (24 February 1960). Public Papers of the Presidents. Dwight D. Eisenhower. 1960-61 (Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office, 1960). 220.
70. Ronald Regan, quoted in Geir Lundestad, 'Moralism, Presentism, Exceptionalism, Provincialism, and other Extravagances in American Writings on the Early Cold War', Diplomatic History 13, no. 4 (1989): 527-28.
71. John F. Kennedy, 'Address to the 39th Annual Convention of the National Association of Broadcasters', (8 May 1961), Public Papers of the Presidents. John F. Kennedy, 1961 (Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office, 1962), 369.
72. John F. Kennedy, 'Special Message to Congress on Urgent National Needs', (25 May 1961), Public Papers, 396, 397.
73. Dwight D. Eisenhower, 'National Strength is a Necessity', Address to the American Legion National Commanders, (Chicago, 20 November 1945), Vital Speeches of the Day, (1 December 1945): 109.
74. See Weldes, Constructing National Interests and Weldes and Saco, 'Making State Action'.
75. See Weldes, Constructing National Interests and Weldes and Saco, 'Making State Action'.
76. On the hierarchy of races underpinning US foreign policy, see Drinnon, Facing West and Hunt, Ideology.
77. On the hierarchy of races underpinning US foreign policy, see Drinnon, Facing West and Hunt, Ideology.
78. On US interventionism, see United States House Committee on International Relations, Subcommittee on International Security and Scientific Affairs, Background Information on the Use of US Armed Forces in foreign Countries (Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office, 1975) and Gabriel Kolko, Confronting the Third World (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980).
79. On US interventionism, see United States House Committee on International Relations, Subcommittee on International Security and Scientific Affairs, Background Information on the Use of US Armed Forces in foreign Countries (Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office, 1975) and Gabriel Kolko, Confronting the Third World (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980).
80. On the internal militarization of US society, see the essays by Peter Karsten and Paul Koistinen in John R. Gillis, ed., The Militarization of the Western World (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1989). On the external militarization of post-war US foreign policy, see, among others, George Kennan, 'American Diplomacy and the Military,' in his American Diplomacy, expanded edition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984). 168-79. See also Michael Klare, 'East-West versus North-South,' in Gillis, 141-165. Both forms of militarization are also discussed in Cynthia Enloe, The Morning After (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).
81. On the internal militarization of US society, see the essays by Peter Karsten and Paul Koistinen in John R. Gillis, ed., The Militarization of the Western World (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1989). On the external militarization of post-war US foreign policy, see, among others, George Kennan, 'American Diplomacy and the Military,' in his American Diplomacy, expanded edition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984). 168-79. See also Michael Klare, 'East-West versus North-South,' in Gillis, 141-165. Both forms of militarization are also discussed in Cynthia Enloe, The Morning After (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).
82. On the internal militarization of US society, see the essays by Peter Karsten and Paul Koistinen in John R. Gillis, ed., The Militarization of the Western World (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1989). On the external militarization of post-war US foreign policy, see, among others, George Kennan, 'American Diplomacy and the Military,' in his American Diplomacy, expanded edition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984). 168-79. See also Michael Klare, 'East-West versus North-South,' in Gillis, 141-165. Both forms of militarization are also discussed in Cynthia Enloe, The Morning After (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).
83. On the internal militarization of US society, see the essays by Peter Karsten and Paul Koistinen in John R. Gillis, ed., The Militarization of the Western World (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1989). On the external militarization of post-war US foreign policy, see, among others, George Kennan, 'American Diplomacy and the Military,' in his American Diplomacy, expanded edition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984). 168-79. See also Michael Klare, 'East-West versus North-South,' in Gillis, 141-165. Both forms of militarization are also discussed in Cynthia Enloe, The Morning After (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).
84. See William Connolly, Identity/Difference (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991).
85. Ibid., 64.
86. See. for example, Arturo Escobar, Encountering Development (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995).
87. See Adlai Stevenson, 'U.N. Security Council Hears US Charges of Soviet Military Buildup in Cuba', Statement of 23 October 1960, Department of State Bulletin (12 November 1962): 723-34.
88. Ibid., 726.
89. Ibid., 726.
90. Doty. Imperial Encounters, 132.
91. But see Mark Lagon, 'We Owe It To Them To Interfere', Extrapolation 34, no. 3 (1993).
92. Clyde Wilcox, 'To Boldly Return Where Others Have Gone Before', Extrapolation 33, no. 1 (1992): 94.
93. See, for instance, the TNG episdoes 'Justice', 'Too Short a Season', 'Pen Pals', 'Who Watches the Watchers?' and 'Devils Due'.
94. This theme, again, is not unique to Star Trek. It is characteristic of a sub-genre of science fiction based on H.G. Well's theory that 'mankind's rise' was due to 'the struggle for survival in a dangerous environment' (Pierce, Foundations of Science fiction, 86). On this view, stagnation and decay are the inevitable consequences for human beings if all adversity is successfully overcome.
95. Gabriel Almond, introduction to The Politics of Developing Areas, eds. Gabriel Almond and James S. Coleman (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1960), 64.
96. Alexander Haig, 'Address Before the Berlin Press Association', (West Berlin, 13 September 1981) Department of State Bulletin (November 1981): 44.
97. Henry Kissinger, quoted in Roger Morris, Uncertain Greatness (New York: Harper and Row, 1977), 240-41.
98. Valerie Fulton, 'An Other Frontier', Postmodern Culture 4, no. 3 (1994) (electronic journal) [pmc@unity.ncsu.edu].
99. Tyrrell, '"Star Trek" as Myth', 717.
100. On the politics of constituting such 'empty lands', see Robert F. Berkhofer, Jr., The White Man's Burden (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978); Edward W. Said, The Question of Palestine (New York: Random House, 1979).
101. On the politics of constituting such 'empty lands', see Robert F. Berkhofer, Jr., The White Man's Burden (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978); Edward W. Said, The Question of Palestine (New York: Random House, 1979).
102. Wilcox, 'To Boldly Return', 92-3.
103. Klare.'East-West', 141.
104. See, for example, Adam Yarmolinsky, 'The Military Establishment (Or How Political Problems Become Military Problems)', Foreign Policy 1 (1970/71): 78-97.
105. Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality. Volume 1 (New York: Vintage Books, 1980), 17.
106. On articulation see Hall, 'Signification' and Weldes, 'Constructing National Interests'.