The gender politics of criminal insanity: "Order-in-Council" women in British Columbia, 1888-1950

Histoire Sociale

Volumn 31, Issue 62, 1998, Pages 239-279

  Menzies, Robert ^a   Chunn, Dorothy E ^a,b  

^a SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

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EID: 11544250892     PISSN: 00182257     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (160)

1. Gillian Mezey, (1990), cited in Ann Lloyd, Doubly Deviant, Doubly Damned: Society's Treatment of Violent Women (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin, 1995), p. 146.
2. British Columbia Archives and Records Service (hereafter BCARS), GR 496, Box 38, File 6, E. E. Winch, MLA (Bumaby), Speech to the Legislature of British Columbia, November, 1945.
3. Pseudonyms for patients are used throughout the paper, and place names and other details are altered whenever necessary to ensure confidentiality.
4. Province of British Columbia, Insane Asylums Act, 1873 (36 Vict., chap. 28).
5. The Public Hospital for the Insane (PHI) had opened in 1878, at which time the province's population of mental patients was transferred from the Victoria Lunatic Asylum to the New Westminster setting. The PHI, later renamed the Woodlands School, operated on this site until its final closure in 1996. See Val Adolph, The History of Woodlands (Victoria, B.C.: Mental Health Branch, 1978); Mary-Ellen Kelm, " 'The only place to do her any good': The Admission of Women to British Columbia's Provincial Hospital for the Insane", BC Studies, no. 66 (1992), pp. 66-89.
6. The Public Hospital for the Insane (PHI) had opened in 1878, at which time the province's population of mental patients was transferred from the Victoria Lunatic Asylum to the New Westminster setting. The PHI, later renamed the Woodlands School, operated on this site until its final closure in 1996. See Val Adolph, The History of Woodlands (Victoria, B.C.: Mental Health Branch, 1978); Mary-Ellen Kelm, " 'The only place to do her any good': The Admission of Women to British Columbia's Provincial Hospital for the Insane", BC Studies, no. 66 (1992), pp. 66-89.
7. Orders-in-Council were special regulatory directives issued by the provincial cabinet and authorized by the Lieutenant-Governor under the authority of the Crown. They were usually signed by the Attorney-General and Premier on behalf of cabinet. Empowered by the federal Criminal Code, they provided for the indeterminate confinement "at the pleasure of the Lieutenant-Governor" of persons found not guilty by reason of insanity or unfit to stand trial and those transferred from provincial jails (typically under Mental Hospital Act certificates) or from federal prisons (under the Penitentiary Act) as insane. These indefinite psychiatric sentences (later referred to as Lieutenant-Governor's Warrants, LGWs or WLGs) were abolished in 1992, following the passage by Parliament of Bill C-30 (R.S.C., 1991, chap. 43, s. 4).
8. On the life, times, and political involvements of Victoria's most renowned nineteenth-century physician, refer to Dorothy Blakey Smith, The Reminiscences of Doctor John Sebastian Helmcken (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1976).
9. Unless otherwise indicated, all documents enlisted in these case studies are extracted from patient medical files held in record group GR 2880 of the BCARS and the Riverview East Lawn Clinical Records Service.
10. The Provincial Mental Hospital (PMII), Essondale, located on a 1,000-acre tract of land on the Coquitlam River, received its first patients on April 1, 1913. It was named after then Provincial Secretary Henry Esson Young. Since 1964 it has been known as Riverview Hospital. See, inter alia, Megan Jean Davies, "The Patients' World: British Columbia's Mental Health Facilities, 1910-1935" (M.A. thesis, Department of History, University of Waterloo, 1989); Richard Foulkes, "British Columbia's Mental Health Services: Historical Perspectives to 1961", The Leader, vol. 20 (1961), pp. 25-34.
11. The Provincial Mental Hospital (PMII), Essondale, located on a 1,000-acre tract of land on the Coquitlam River, received its first patients on April 1, 1913. It was named after then Provincial Secretary Henry Esson Young. Since 1964 it has been known as Riverview Hospital. See, inter alia, Megan Jean Davies, "The Patients' World: British Columbia's Mental Health Facilities, 1910-1935" (M.A. thesis, Department of History, University of Waterloo, 1989); Richard Foulkes, "British Columbia's Mental Health Services: Historical Perspectives to 1961", The Leader, vol. 20 (1961), pp. 25-34.
12. Oakalla Prison Farm was opened in 1912. It remained the Lower Mainland's main carceral institution for eight decades until its closure in 1991. See Earl Anderson, Hard Place to Do Time: The Story of Oakalla Prison, 1912-1991 (New Westminster, B.C.: Hillpointe Publishing, 1993).
13. MLA Ernest E. Winch and Miss Kay Lowdon founded the New Vista Society in 1943. In January 1944 the Society opened a halfway home on the west side of Vancouver for women recently released from Essondale. The province took over the services in 1947 and ten years later instituted a similar facility for men called Venture. BCARS, GR 542, Box 12, File 2; GR 377, Box 2, File 2, F. G. Tucker to A. E. Davidson, June 17, 1964.
14. Korsakoff s Psychosis, no longer included in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association (DSM-IV), ws considered an advanced form of dementia occasioned by long-term alcohol abuse.
15. The canonical general histories of the province are Jean Barman, The West Beyond the West: A History of British Columbia, 2nd ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996); George Bowering, Bowering's B.C.: A Swashbuckling History (Toronto: Penguin, 1996); Margaret A. Ormsby, British Columbia: A History (Toronto: Macmillan, 1958); George Woodcock, British Columbia: A History of the Province (Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 1980).
16. The canonical general histories of the province are Jean Barman, The West Beyond the West: A History of British Columbia, 2nd ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996); George Bowering, Bowering's B.C.: A Swashbuckling History (Toronto: Penguin, 1996); Margaret A. Ormsby, British Columbia: A History (Toronto: Macmillan, 1958); George Woodcock, British Columbia: A History of the Province (Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 1980).
17. The canonical general histories of the province are Jean Barman, The West Beyond the West: A History of British Columbia, 2nd ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996); George Bowering, Bowering's B.C.: A Swashbuckling History (Toronto: Penguin, 1996); Margaret A. Ormsby, British Columbia: A History (Toronto: Macmillan, 1958); George Woodcock, British Columbia: A History of the Province (Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 1980).
18. The canonical general histories of the province are Jean Barman, The West Beyond the West: A History of British Columbia, 2nd ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996); George Bowering, Bowering's B.C.: A Swashbuckling History (Toronto: Penguin, 1996); Margaret A. Ormsby, British Columbia: A History (Toronto: Macmillan, 1958); George Woodcock, British Columbia: A History of the Province (Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 1980).
19. On the history of the welfare state in British Columbia and Canada, for example, see Allan Irving, "The Development of a Provincial Welfare State: British Columbia, 1900-1939", in Allan Moscovitch and Jim Albert, eds., The Benevolent State: The Growth of Welfare in Canada (Toronto: Garamond Press, 1987); Alvin Finkel, "Origins of the Welfare State in Canada", in Leo Panitch, ed., The Canadian State (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1977); Jane Ursel, Private Lives, Public Policy: 100 Years of State Intervention in the Family (Toronto: Women's Press, 1992).
20. On the history of the welfare state in British Columbia and Canada, for example, see Allan Irving, "The Development of a Provincial Welfare State: British Columbia, 1900-1939", in Allan Moscovitch and Jim Albert, eds., The Benevolent State: The Growth of Welfare in Canada (Toronto: Garamond Press, 1987); Alvin Finkel, "Origins of the Welfare State in Canada", in Leo Panitch, ed., The Canadian State (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1977); Jane Ursel, Private Lives, Public Policy: 100 Years of State Intervention in the Family (Toronto: Women's Press, 1992).
21. On the history of the welfare state in British Columbia and Canada, for example, see Allan Irving, "The Development of a Provincial Welfare State: British Columbia, 1900-1939", in Allan Moscovitch and Jim Albert, eds., The Benevolent State: The Growth of Welfare in Canada (Toronto: Garamond Press, 1987); Alvin Finkel, "Origins of the Welfare State in Canada", in Leo Panitch, ed., The Canadian State (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1977); Jane Ursel, Private Lives, Public Policy: 100 Years of State Intervention in the Family (Toronto: Women's Press, 1992).
22. In fiscal year 1888 the total provincial asylum budget was $17,960, including $9,400 in salaries for the 13 employees. By 1950 there were 63 medical, administrative, and clerical staff alone, and the gross cost of the three institutions was just under $4.8 million, of which $2 million went to the purchase of goods and services from the private sector. See Public Accounts for the Province of British Columbia, 1 July 1887 to 30 June 1888 and Annual Report of the Asylum For the Insane, New Westminster, 1888, British Columbia Sessional Papers (hereafter BCSP), 1889, Third Session, Fifth Parliament, 52 Vic., pp.18, 404; Annual Report. Mental Hospitals of British Columbia (ARMHBC), 1949-50, BCSP, 1951, Second Session, 22nd Parliament, pp.V9, 10, 73-76; Public Accounts of the Province of British Columbia, BCSP, 1951, Second Session, 22nd Parliament, pp. EE260-272.
23. In fiscal year 1888 the total provincial asylum budget was $17,960, including $9,400 in salaries for the 13 employees. By 1950 there were 63 medical, administrative, and clerical staff alone, and the gross cost of the three institutions was just under $4.8 million, of which $2 million went to the purchase of goods and services from the private sector. See Public Accounts for the Province of British Columbia, 1 July 1887 to 30 June 1888 and Annual Report of the Asylum For the Insane, New Westminster, 1888, British Columbia Sessional Papers (hereafter BCSP), 1889, Third Session, Fifth Parliament, 52 Vic., pp.18, 404; Annual Report. Mental Hospitals of British Columbia (ARMHBC), 1949-50, BCSP, 1951, Second Session, 22nd Parliament, pp.V9, 10, 73-76; Public Accounts of the Province of British Columbia, BCSP, 1951, Second Session, 22nd Parliament, pp. EE260-272.
24. In fiscal year 1888 the total provincial asylum budget was $17,960, including $9,400 in salaries for the 13 employees. By 1950 there were 63 medical, administrative, and clerical staff alone, and the gross cost of the three institutions was just under $4.8 million, of which $2 million went to the purchase of goods and services from the private sector. See Public Accounts for the Province of British Columbia, 1 July 1887 to 30 June 1888 and Annual Report of the Asylum For the Insane, New Westminster, 1888, British Columbia Sessional Papers (hereafter BCSP), 1889, Third Session, Fifth Parliament, 52 Vic., pp.18, 404; Annual Report. Mental Hospitals of British Columbia (ARMHBC), 1949-50, BCSP, 1951, Second Session, 22nd Parliament, pp.V9, 10, 73-76; Public Accounts of the Province of British Columbia, BCSP, 1951, Second Session, 22nd Parliament, pp. EE260-272.
25. Doherty's political and social involvements are canvassed in Mary-Ellen Kelm, "Women and Families in the Asylum Practice of Charles Edward Doherty at the Provincial Hospital For the Insane, 1905-1915" (M.A. thesis, Simon Fraser University, 1990), chap. 2. For his part, J. G. McKay was an active campaigner against immigration of the "unfit", a founding member of the provincial Eugenics Board, and Associate Medical Director of the Canadian National Committee For Mental Hygiene. National Archives of Canada (hereafter NAC), RG29, Vol. 97, File 156-2-4, "Report on the Activities of the National Committee For Mental Hygiene (Canada) For the Year 1932". See also Angus McLaren, Our Own Master Race: Eugenics in Canada, 1885-1945 (Toronto: McCelland & Stewart, 1990), pp. 96, 105.
26. Doherty's political and social involvements are canvassed in Mary-Ellen Kelm, "Women and Families in the Asylum Practice of Charles Edward Doherty at the Provincial Hospital For the Insane, 1905-1915" (M.A. thesis, Simon Fraser University, 1990), chap. 2. For his part, J. G. McKay was an active campaigner against immigration of the "unfit", a founding member of the provincial Eugenics Board, and Associate Medical Director of the Canadian National Committee For Mental Hygiene. National Archives of Canada (hereafter NAC), RG29, Vol. 97, File 156-2-4, "Report on the Activities of the National Committee For Mental Hygiene (Canada) For the Year 1932". See also Angus McLaren, Our Own Master Race: Eugenics in Canada, 1885-1945 (Toronto: McCelland & Stewart, 1990), pp. 96, 105.
27. Doherty's political and social involvements are canvassed in Mary-Ellen Kelm, "Women and Families in the Asylum Practice of Charles Edward Doherty at the Provincial Hospital For the Insane, 1905-1915" (M.A. thesis, Simon Fraser University, 1990), chap. 2. For his part, J. G. McKay was an active campaigner against immigration of the "unfit", a founding member of the provincial Eugenics Board, and Associate Medical Director of the Canadian National Committee For Mental Hygiene. National Archives of Canada (hereafter NAC), RG29, Vol. 97, File 156-2-4, "Report on the Activities of the National Committee For Mental Hygiene (Canada) For the Year 1932". See also Angus McLaren, Our Own Master Race: Eugenics in Canada, 1885-1945 (Toronto: McCelland & Stewart, 1990), pp. 96, 105.
28. On reviews of somatic "treatment" practices in other contexts, see, for example, Peter Breggin, Toxic Psychiatry, Drugs and Electroconvulsive Therapy: The Truth and the Better Alternatives (London: Harper Collins, 1993), chap. 9; Ruth McDonald, "A Policy of Privilege: The Alberta Sexual Sterilization Program, 1928-1972" (M.A. thesis, University of Victoria, 1987); Peter Schrag, Mind Control (New York: Pantheon, 1978), chap. 6; Harvey G. Simmons, "Psychosurgery and the Abuse of Psychiatric Authority in Ontario", Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law, vol. 12 (1987), pp. 537-550; Jane Ussher, Women's Madness: Misogyny or Mental Illness? (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1992), chaps. 5,6,7; Elliot Valenstein, Great and Desperate Cures: The Rise and Decline of Psychosurgery and Other Radical Treatments for Mental Illness (New York: Basic, 1986).
29. On reviews of somatic "treatment" practices in other contexts, see, for example, Peter Breggin, Toxic Psychiatry, Drugs and Electroconvulsive Therapy: The Truth and the Better Alternatives (London: Harper Collins, 1993), chap. 9; Ruth McDonald, "A Policy of Privilege: The Alberta Sexual Sterilization Program, 1928-1972" (M.A. thesis, University of Victoria, 1987); Peter Schrag, Mind Control (New York: Pantheon, 1978), chap. 6; Harvey G. Simmons, "Psychosurgery and the Abuse of Psychiatric Authority in Ontario", Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law, vol. 12 (1987), pp. 537-550; Jane Ussher, Women's Madness: Misogyny or Mental Illness? (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1992), chaps. 5,6,7; Elliot Valenstein, Great and Desperate Cures: The Rise and Decline of Psychosurgery and Other Radical Treatments for Mental Illness (New York: Basic, 1986).
30. On reviews of somatic "treatment" practices in other contexts, see, for example, Peter Breggin, Toxic Psychiatry, Drugs and Electroconvulsive Therapy: The Truth and the Better Alternatives (London: Harper Collins, 1993), chap. 9; Ruth McDonald, "A Policy of Privilege: The Alberta Sexual Sterilization Program, 1928-1972" (M.A. thesis, University of Victoria, 1987); Peter Schrag, Mind Control (New York: Pantheon, 1978), chap. 6; Harvey G. Simmons, "Psychosurgery and the Abuse of Psychiatric Authority in Ontario", Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law, vol. 12 (1987), pp. 537-550; Jane Ussher, Women's Madness: Misogyny or Mental Illness? (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1992), chaps. 5,6,7; Elliot Valenstein, Great and Desperate Cures: The Rise and Decline of Psychosurgery and Other Radical Treatments for Mental Illness (New York: Basic, 1986).
31. On reviews of somatic "treatment" practices in other contexts, see, for example, Peter Breggin, Toxic Psychiatry, Drugs and Electroconvulsive Therapy: The Truth and the Better Alternatives (London: Harper Collins, 1993), chap. 9; Ruth McDonald, "A Policy of Privilege: The Alberta Sexual Sterilization Program, 1928-1972" (M.A. thesis, University of Victoria, 1987); Peter Schrag, Mind Control (New York: Pantheon, 1978), chap. 6; Harvey G. Simmons, "Psychosurgery and the Abuse of Psychiatric Authority in Ontario", Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law, vol. 12 (1987), pp. 537-550; Jane Ussher, Women's Madness: Misogyny or Mental Illness? (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1992), chaps. 5,6,7; Elliot Valenstein, Great and Desperate Cures: The Rise and Decline of Psychosurgery and Other Radical Treatments for Mental Illness (New York: Basic, 1986).
32. On reviews of somatic "treatment" practices in other contexts, see, for example, Peter Breggin, Toxic Psychiatry, Drugs and Electroconvulsive Therapy: The Truth and the Better Alternatives (London: Harper Collins, 1993), chap. 9; Ruth McDonald, "A Policy of Privilege: The Alberta Sexual Sterilization Program, 1928-1972" (M.A. thesis, University of Victoria, 1987); Peter Schrag, Mind Control (New York: Pantheon, 1978), chap. 6; Harvey G. Simmons, "Psychosurgery and the Abuse of Psychiatric Authority in Ontario", Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law, vol. 12 (1987), pp. 537-550; Jane Ussher, Women's Madness: Misogyny or Mental Illness? (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1992), chaps. 5,6,7; Elliot Valenstein, Great and Desperate Cures: The Rise and Decline of Psychosurgery and Other Radical Treatments for Mental Illness (New York: Basic, 1986).
33. On reviews of somatic "treatment" practices in other contexts, see, for example, Peter Breggin, Toxic Psychiatry, Drugs and Electroconvulsive Therapy: The Truth and the Better Alternatives (London: Harper Collins, 1993), chap. 9; Ruth McDonald, "A Policy of Privilege: The Alberta Sexual Sterilization Program, 1928-1972" (M.A. thesis, University of Victoria, 1987); Peter Schrag, Mind Control (New York: Pantheon, 1978), chap. 6; Harvey G. Simmons, "Psychosurgery and the Abuse of Psychiatric Authority in Ontario", Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law, vol. 12 (1987), pp. 537-550; Jane Ussher, Women's Madness: Misogyny or Mental Illness? (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1992), chaps. 5,6,7; Elliot Valenstein, Great and Desperate Cures: The Rise and Decline of Psychosurgery and Other Radical Treatments for Mental Illness (New York: Basic, 1986).
34. Valenstein, Great and Desperate Cures. See also Jay Cassel, The Secret Plague: Venereal Disease in Canada, 1838-1939 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987); Dorothy E. Chunn, From Punishment to Doing Good: Family Courts and Socialized Justice in Ontario, 1880-1940 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992).
35. Valenstein, Great and Desperate Cures. See also Jay Cassel, The Secret Plague: Venereal Disease in Canada, 1838-1939 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987); Dorothy E. Chunn, From Punishment to Doing Good: Family Courts and Socialized Justice in Ontario, 1880-1940 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992).
36. Valenstein, Great and Desperate Cures. See also Jay Cassel, The Secret Plague: Venereal Disease in Canada, 1838-1939 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987); Dorothy E. Chunn, From Punishment to Doing Good: Family Courts and Socialized Justice in Ontario, 1880-1940 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992).
37. See generally: Gillian Creese and Veronica Strong-Boag, eds., British Columbia Reconsidered: Essays on Women (Vancouver: Press Gang, 1992); Barbara K. Latham and Cathy Kess, eds., In Her Own Right: Selected Essays on Women's History in B.C. (Victoria: Camosun College, 1980); Barbara K. Latham and Roberta Pazdro, eds., Not Just Pin Money: Selected Essays on the History of Women's Work in British Columbia (Victoria: Camosun College, 1984).
38. See generally: Gillian Creese and Veronica Strong-Boag, eds., British Columbia Reconsidered: Essays on Women (Vancouver: Press Gang, 1992); Barbara K. Latham and Cathy Kess, eds., In Her Own Right: Selected Essays on Women's History in B.C. (Victoria: Camosun College, 1980); Barbara K. Latham and Roberta Pazdro, eds., Not Just Pin Money: Selected Essays on the History of Women's Work in British Columbia (Victoria: Camosun College, 1984).
39. See generally: Gillian Creese and Veronica Strong-Boag, eds., British Columbia Reconsidered: Essays on Women (Vancouver: Press Gang, 1992); Barbara K. Latham and Cathy Kess, eds., In Her Own Right: Selected Essays on Women's History in B.C. (Victoria: Camosun College, 1980); Barbara K. Latham and Roberta Pazdro, eds., Not Just Pin Money: Selected Essays on the History of Women's Work in British Columbia (Victoria: Camosun College, 1984).
40. See Joan Busfield, Men, Women and Madness: Understanding Gender and Mental Disorder (New York: New York University Press, 1997), chap. 7; Ussher, Women's Madness, chap. 4.
41. See Joan Busfield, Men, Women and Madness: Understanding Gender and Mental Disorder (New York: New York University Press, 1997), chap. 7; Ussher, Women's Madness, chap. 4.
42. Before 1930 most women were confined at the PHI. Subsequently, the Women's Chronic Building at Essondale (later known as East Lawn) became the principal residence for women inpatients. By the mid-1930s the PHI was being used almost exclusively to house cognitively disabled patients.
43. From the inception of the provincial asylum system until the mid-1950s, women's representation in hospital admission statistics consistently lagged behind overall population figures. For example, the percentage of women in mental hospital admission registries and provincial census statistics were, respectively, as follows: 23% and 25.6% for 1881; 22.6% and 29.1% for 1901; 30.7% and 41.5% in 1921; 42.2% and 46.0% in 1941; and 45.7% and 48.6% in 1951. See generally Barman, The West Beyond the West, p. 385; ARMHBC, BCSP, 1881-1951.
44. From the inception of the provincial asylum system until the mid-1950s, women's representation in hospital admission statistics consistently lagged behind overall population figures. For example, the percentage of women in mental hospital admission registries and provincial census statistics were, respectively, as follows: 23% and 25.6% for 1881; 22.6% and 29.1% for 1901; 30.7% and 41.5% in 1921; 42.2% and 46.0% in 1941; and 45.7% and 48.6% in 1951. See generally Barman, The West Beyond the West, p. 385; ARMHBC, BCSP, 1881-1951.
45. See Lloyd, Doubly Deviant, pp. xvi-xxiii; Carol Smart, Women, Crime and Criminology (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1976), chap. 6.
46. See Lloyd, Doubly Deviant, pp. xvi-xxiii; Carol Smart, Women, Crime and Criminology (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1976), chap. 6.
47. Ussher, Women's Madness, p. 171.
48. Central contemporary feminist works on women in courts and prisons include Pat Carlen, Women's Imprisonment: A Study in Social Control (London: Routledge, 1983); Russell P. Dobash, R. Emerson Dobash, and Sue Gutteridge, The Imprisonment of Women (Oxford, U.K.: Basil Blackwell, 1986); Mary Eaton, Justice for Women? Family, Court and Social Control (Milton Keynes, U.K.: Open University Press, 1987); Adrian Howe, Punish and Critique: Towards a Feminist Analysis of Penality (London: Routledge, 1994); Lloyd, Doubly Deviant; Smart, Women, Crime and Criminology.
49. Central contemporary feminist works on women in courts and prisons include Pat Carlen, Women's Imprisonment: A Study in Social Control (London: Routledge, 1983); Russell P. Dobash, R. Emerson Dobash, and Sue Gutteridge, The Imprisonment of Women (Oxford, U.K.: Basil Blackwell, 1986); Mary Eaton, Justice for Women? Family, Court and Social Control (Milton Keynes, U.K.: Open University Press, 1987); Adrian Howe, Punish and Critique: Towards a Feminist Analysis of Penality (London: Routledge, 1994); Lloyd, Doubly Deviant; Smart, Women, Crime and Criminology.
50. Central contemporary feminist works on women in courts and prisons include Pat Carlen, Women's Imprisonment: A Study in Social Control (London: Routledge, 1983); Russell P. Dobash, R. Emerson Dobash, and Sue Gutteridge, The Imprisonment of Women (Oxford, U.K.: Basil Blackwell, 1986); Mary Eaton, Justice for Women? Family, Court and Social Control (Milton Keynes, U.K.: Open University Press, 1987); Adrian Howe, Punish and Critique: Towards a Feminist Analysis of Penality (London: Routledge, 1994); Lloyd, Doubly Deviant; Smart, Women, Crime and Criminology.
51. Central contemporary feminist works on women in courts and prisons include Pat Carlen, Women's Imprisonment: A Study in Social Control (London: Routledge, 1983); Russell P. Dobash, R. Emerson Dobash, and Sue Gutteridge, The Imprisonment of Women (Oxford, U.K.: Basil Blackwell, 1986); Mary Eaton, Justice for Women? Family, Court and Social Control (Milton Keynes, U.K.: Open University Press, 1987); Adrian Howe, Punish and Critique: Towards a Feminist Analysis of Penality (London: Routledge, 1994); Lloyd, Doubly Deviant; Smart, Women, Crime and Criminology.
52. Central contemporary feminist works on women in courts and prisons include Pat Carlen, Women's Imprisonment: A Study in Social Control (London: Routledge, 1983); Russell P. Dobash, R. Emerson Dobash, and Sue Gutteridge, The Imprisonment of Women (Oxford, U.K.: Basil Blackwell, 1986); Mary Eaton, Justice for Women? Family, Court and Social Control (Milton Keynes, U.K.: Open University Press, 1987); Adrian Howe, Punish and Critique: Towards a Feminist Analysis of Penality (London: Routledge, 1994); Lloyd, Doubly Deviant; Smart, Women, Crime and Criminology.
53. Central contemporary feminist works on women in courts and prisons include Pat Carlen, Women's Imprisonment: A Study in Social Control (London: Routledge, 1983); Russell P. Dobash, R. Emerson Dobash, and Sue Gutteridge, The Imprisonment of Women (Oxford, U.K.: Basil Blackwell, 1986); Mary Eaton, Justice for Women? Family, Court and Social Control (Milton Keynes, U.K.: Open University Press, 1987); Adrian Howe, Punish and Critique: Towards a Feminist Analysis of Penality (London: Routledge, 1994); Lloyd, Doubly Deviant; Smart, Women, Crime and Criminology.
54. See, for example, Dorothy E. Chunn, "A Little Sex Can Be a Dangerous Thing: Regulating Sexuality, Venereal Disease and Reproduction in British Columbia, 1919-1945", in Susan B. Boyd, ed., Challenging the Public/Private Divide: Feminism, Law and Public Policy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997), chap. 3; Joy Parr, The Gender of Breadwinners: Women, Men and Change in Two Industrial Towns, 1880-1950 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990); Diana Pedersen, " 'Keeping our good girls good': The YWCA and the 'Girl Problem', 1870-1930", Canadian Women's Studies, vol. 7 (1986), pp. 20-24; Carolyn Strange, Toronto's Girl Problem: The Perils and Pleasures of the City, 1880-1930 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1995), chaps. 2, 6, 7; Peter Ward, "Unwed Motherhood in Nineteenth-Century English Canada", Historical Papers (Canadian Historical Association) (1981), pp. 34-56.
55. See, for example, Dorothy E. Chunn, "A Little Sex Can Be a Dangerous Thing: Regulating Sexuality, Venereal Disease and Reproduction in British Columbia, 1919-1945", in Susan B. Boyd, ed., Challenging the Public/Private Divide: Feminism, Law and Public Policy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997), chap. 3; Joy Parr, The Gender of Breadwinners: Women, Men and Change in Two Industrial Towns, 1880-1950 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990); Diana Pedersen, " 'Keeping our good girls good': The YWCA and the 'Girl Problem', 1870-1930", Canadian Women's Studies, vol. 7 (1986), pp. 20-24; Carolyn Strange, Toronto's Girl Problem: The Perils and Pleasures of the City, 1880-1930 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1995), chaps. 2, 6, 7; Peter Ward, "Unwed Motherhood in Nineteenth-Century English Canada", Historical Papers (Canadian Historical Association) (1981), pp. 34-56.
56. See, for example, Dorothy E. Chunn, "A Little Sex Can Be a Dangerous Thing: Regulating Sexuality, Venereal Disease and Reproduction in British Columbia, 1919-1945", in Susan B. Boyd, ed., Challenging the Public/Private Divide: Feminism, Law and Public Policy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997), chap. 3; Joy Parr, The Gender of Breadwinners: Women, Men and Change in Two Industrial Towns, 1880-1950 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990); Diana Pedersen, " 'Keeping our good girls good': The YWCA and the 'Girl Problem', 1870-1930", Canadian Women's Studies, vol. 7 (1986), pp. 20-24; Carolyn Strange, Toronto's Girl Problem: The Perils and Pleasures of the City, 1880-1930 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1995), chaps. 2, 6, 7; Peter Ward, "Unwed Motherhood in Nineteenth-Century English Canada", Historical Papers (Canadian Historical Association) (1981), pp. 34-56.
57. See, for example, Dorothy E. Chunn, "A Little Sex Can Be a Dangerous Thing: Regulating Sexuality, Venereal Disease and Reproduction in British Columbia, 1919-1945", in Susan B. Boyd, ed., Challenging the Public/Private Divide: Feminism, Law and Public Policy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997), chap. 3; Joy Parr, The Gender of Breadwinners: Women, Men and Change in Two Industrial Towns, 1880-1950 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990); Diana Pedersen, " 'Keeping our good girls good': The YWCA and the 'Girl Problem', 1870-1930", Canadian Women's Studies, vol. 7 (1986), pp. 20-24; Carolyn Strange, Toronto's Girl Problem: The Perils and Pleasures of the City, 1880-1930 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1995), chaps. 2, 6, 7; Peter Ward, "Unwed Motherhood in Nineteenth-Century English Canada", Historical Papers (Canadian Historical Association) (1981), pp. 34-56.
58. See, for example, Dorothy E. Chunn, "A Little Sex Can Be a Dangerous Thing: Regulating Sexuality, Venereal Disease and Reproduction in British Columbia, 1919-1945", in Susan B. Boyd, ed., Challenging the Public/Private Divide: Feminism, Law and Public Policy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997), chap. 3; Joy Parr, The Gender of Breadwinners: Women, Men and Change in Two Industrial Towns, 1880-1950 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990); Diana Pedersen, " 'Keeping our good girls good': The YWCA and the 'Girl Problem', 1870-1930", Canadian Women's Studies, vol. 7 (1986), pp. 20-24; Carolyn Strange, Toronto's Girl Problem: The Perils and Pleasures of the City, 1880-1930 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1995), chaps. 2, 6, 7; Peter Ward, "Unwed Motherhood in Nineteenth-Century English Canada", Historical Papers (Canadian Historical Association) (1981), pp. 34-56.
59. Canadian studies on the psychiatrization of women include: Megan J. Davies, "Snapshots: Three Women and Psychiatry, 1920-1935", Canadian Women's Studies, vol. 8 (1987), pp. 47-48; Mary-Ellen Kelm, "A Life Apart: The Experience of Women and the Asylum Practice of Charles Doherty at British Columbia's Provincial Hospital For the Insane, 1905-15", Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, vol. 11 (1994), pp. 335-355; Wendy Mitchinson, "Hysteria and Insanity in Women: A Nineteenth Century Canadian Perspective", Journal of Canadian Studies, vol. 21 (1986) pp. 87-105, and The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991), chaps. 10, 11; Cheryl Krasnick Warsh, "The First Mrs. Rochester: Wrongful Confinement, Social Redundancy, and Commitment to the Private Asylum, 1883-1923", Historical Papers (Canadian Historical Association) (1988), pp. 145-167. For studies elsewhere, see, for example, Ellen Dwyer, Homes For the Mad: Life Inside Two Nineteenth-Century Asylums (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1987); Bronwyn Labrum, "Looking Beyond the Asylum: Gender and the Process of Committal in Auckland, 1870-1910", New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 26 (1992), pp. 125-144; Patricia E. Prestwich, "Family Strategies and Medical Power: 'Voluntary' Committal in a Parisian Asylum, 1876-1914", Journal of Social History, vol. 27 (Summer), pp. 799-818; Yannick Ripa, Women and Madness: The Incarceration of Women in Nineteenth-Century France (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity Press, 1990); Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830-1980 (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin, 1985). In the contemporary context, refer to Hilary Allen, Justice Unbalanced: Gender, Psychiatry and Judicial Decisions (Milton Keynes, U.K.: Open University Press, 1987); Busfield, Men, Women and Madness; Phyllis Chesler, Women and Madness (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972).
60. Canadian studies on the psychiatrization of women include: Megan J. Davies, "Snapshots: Three Women and Psychiatry, 1920-1935", Canadian Women's Studies, vol. 8 (1987), pp. 47-48; Mary-Ellen Kelm, "A Life Apart: The Experience of Women and the Asylum Practice of Charles Doherty at British Columbia's Provincial Hospital For the Insane, 1905-15", Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, vol. 11 (1994), pp. 335-355; Wendy Mitchinson, "Hysteria and Insanity in Women: A Nineteenth Century Canadian Perspective", Journal of Canadian Studies, vol. 21 (1986) pp. 87-105, and The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991), chaps. 10, 11; Cheryl Krasnick Warsh, "The First Mrs. Rochester: Wrongful Confinement, Social Redundancy, and Commitment to the Private Asylum, 1883-1923", Historical Papers (Canadian Historical Association) (1988), pp. 145-167. For studies elsewhere, see, for example, Ellen Dwyer, Homes For the Mad: Life Inside Two Nineteenth-Century Asylums (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1987); Bronwyn Labrum, "Looking Beyond the Asylum: Gender and the Process of Committal in Auckland, 1870-1910", New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 26 (1992), pp. 125-144; Patricia E. Prestwich, "Family Strategies and Medical Power: 'Voluntary' Committal in a Parisian Asylum, 1876-1914", Journal of Social History, vol. 27 (Summer), pp. 799-818; Yannick Ripa, Women and Madness: The Incarceration of Women in Nineteenth-Century France (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity Press, 1990); Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830-1980 (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin, 1985). In the contemporary context, refer to Hilary Allen, Justice Unbalanced: Gender, Psychiatry and Judicial Decisions (Milton Keynes, U.K.: Open University Press, 1987); Busfield, Men, Women and Madness; Phyllis Chesler, Women and Madness (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972).
61. Canadian studies on the psychiatrization of women include: Megan J. Davies, "Snapshots: Three Women and Psychiatry, 1920-1935", Canadian Women's Studies, vol. 8 (1987), pp. 47-48; Mary-Ellen Kelm, "A Life Apart: The Experience of Women and the Asylum Practice of Charles Doherty at British Columbia's Provincial Hospital For the Insane, 1905-15", Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, vol. 11 (1994), pp. 335-355; Wendy Mitchinson, "Hysteria and Insanity in Women: A Nineteenth Century Canadian Perspective", Journal of Canadian Studies, vol. 21 (1986) pp. 87-105, and The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991), chaps. 10, 11; Cheryl Krasnick Warsh, "The First Mrs. Rochester: Wrongful Confinement, Social Redundancy, and Commitment to the Private Asylum, 1883-1923", Historical Papers (Canadian Historical Association) (1988), pp. 145-167. For studies elsewhere, see, for example, Ellen Dwyer, Homes For the Mad: Life Inside Two Nineteenth-Century Asylums (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1987); Bronwyn Labrum, "Looking Beyond the Asylum: Gender and the Process of Committal in Auckland, 1870-1910", New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 26 (1992), pp. 125-144; Patricia E. Prestwich, "Family Strategies and Medical Power: 'Voluntary' Committal in a Parisian Asylum, 1876-1914", Journal of Social History, vol. 27 (Summer), pp. 799-818; Yannick Ripa, Women and Madness: The Incarceration of Women in Nineteenth-Century France (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity Press, 1990); Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830-1980 (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin, 1985). In the contemporary context, refer to Hilary Allen, Justice Unbalanced: Gender, Psychiatry and Judicial Decisions (Milton Keynes, U.K.: Open University Press, 1987); Busfield, Men, Women and Madness; Phyllis Chesler, Women and Madness (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972).
62. Canadian studies on the psychiatrization of women include: Megan J. Davies, "Snapshots: Three Women and Psychiatry, 1920-1935", Canadian Women's Studies, vol. 8 (1987), pp. 47-48; Mary-Ellen Kelm, "A Life Apart: The Experience of Women and the Asylum Practice of Charles Doherty at British Columbia's Provincial Hospital For the Insane, 1905-15", Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, vol. 11 (1994), pp. 335-355; Wendy Mitchinson, "Hysteria and Insanity in Women: A Nineteenth Century Canadian Perspective", Journal of Canadian Studies, vol. 21 (1986) pp. 87-105, and The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991), chaps. 10, 11; Cheryl Krasnick Warsh, "The First Mrs. Rochester: Wrongful Confinement, Social Redundancy, and Commitment to the Private Asylum, 1883-1923", Historical Papers (Canadian Historical Association) (1988), pp. 145-167. For studies elsewhere, see, for example, Ellen Dwyer, Homes For the Mad: Life Inside Two Nineteenth-Century Asylums (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1987); Bronwyn Labrum, "Looking Beyond the Asylum: Gender and the Process of Committal in Auckland, 1870-1910", New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 26 (1992), pp. 125-144; Patricia E. Prestwich, "Family Strategies and Medical Power: 'Voluntary' Committal in a Parisian Asylum, 1876-1914", Journal of Social History, vol. 27 (Summer), pp. 799-818; Yannick Ripa, Women and Madness: The Incarceration of Women in Nineteenth-Century France (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity Press, 1990); Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830-1980 (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin, 1985). In the contemporary context, refer to Hilary Allen, Justice Unbalanced: Gender, Psychiatry and Judicial Decisions (Milton Keynes, U.K.: Open University Press, 1987); Busfield, Men, Women and Madness; Phyllis Chesler, Women and Madness (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972).
63. Canadian studies on the psychiatrization of women include: Megan J. Davies, "Snapshots: Three Women and Psychiatry, 1920-1935", Canadian Women's Studies, vol. 8 (1987), pp. 47-48; Mary-Ellen Kelm, "A Life Apart: The Experience of Women and the Asylum Practice of Charles Doherty at British Columbia's Provincial Hospital For the Insane, 1905-15", Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, vol. 11 (1994), pp. 335-355; Wendy Mitchinson, "Hysteria and Insanity in Women: A Nineteenth Century Canadian Perspective", Journal of Canadian Studies, vol. 21 (1986) pp. 87-105, and The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991), chaps. 10, 11; Cheryl Krasnick Warsh, "The First Mrs. Rochester: Wrongful Confinement, Social Redundancy, and Commitment to the Private Asylum, 1883-1923", Historical Papers (Canadian Historical Association) (1988), pp. 145-167. For studies elsewhere, see, for example, Ellen Dwyer, Homes For the Mad: Life Inside Two Nineteenth-Century Asylums (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1987); Bronwyn Labrum, "Looking Beyond the Asylum: Gender and the Process of Committal in Auckland, 1870-1910", New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 26 (1992), pp. 125-144; Patricia E. Prestwich, "Family Strategies and Medical Power: 'Voluntary' Committal in a Parisian Asylum, 1876-1914", Journal of Social History, vol. 27 (Summer), pp. 799-818; Yannick Ripa, Women and Madness: The Incarceration of Women in Nineteenth-Century France (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity Press, 1990); Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830-1980 (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin, 1985). In the contemporary context, refer to Hilary Allen, Justice Unbalanced: Gender, Psychiatry and Judicial Decisions (Milton Keynes, U.K.: Open University Press, 1987); Busfield, Men, Women and Madness; Phyllis Chesler, Women and Madness (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972).
64. Canadian studies on the psychiatrization of women include: Megan J. Davies, "Snapshots: Three Women and Psychiatry, 1920-1935", Canadian Women's Studies, vol. 8 (1987), pp. 47-48; Mary-Ellen Kelm, "A Life Apart: The Experience of Women and the Asylum Practice of Charles Doherty at British Columbia's Provincial Hospital For the Insane, 1905-15", Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, vol. 11 (1994), pp. 335-355; Wendy Mitchinson, "Hysteria and Insanity in Women: A Nineteenth Century Canadian Perspective", Journal of Canadian Studies, vol. 21 (1986) pp. 87-105, and The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991), chaps. 10, 11; Cheryl Krasnick Warsh, "The First Mrs. Rochester: Wrongful Confinement, Social Redundancy, and Commitment to the Private Asylum, 1883-1923", Historical Papers (Canadian Historical Association) (1988), pp. 145-167. For studies elsewhere, see, for example, Ellen Dwyer, Homes For the Mad: Life Inside Two Nineteenth-Century Asylums (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1987); Bronwyn Labrum, "Looking Beyond the Asylum: Gender and the Process of Committal in Auckland, 1870-1910", New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 26 (1992), pp. 125-144; Patricia E. Prestwich, "Family Strategies and Medical Power: 'Voluntary' Committal in a Parisian Asylum, 1876-1914", Journal of Social History, vol. 27 (Summer), pp. 799-818; Yannick Ripa, Women and Madness: The Incarceration of Women in Nineteenth-Century France (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity Press, 1990); Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830-1980 (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin, 1985). In the contemporary context, refer to Hilary Allen, Justice Unbalanced: Gender, Psychiatry and Judicial Decisions (Milton Keynes, U.K.: Open University Press, 1987); Busfield, Men, Women and Madness; Phyllis Chesler, Women and Madness (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972).
65. Canadian studies on the psychiatrization of women include: Megan J. Davies, "Snapshots: Three Women and Psychiatry, 1920-1935", Canadian Women's Studies, vol. 8 (1987), pp. 47-48; Mary-Ellen Kelm, "A Life Apart: The Experience of Women and the Asylum Practice of Charles Doherty at British Columbia's Provincial Hospital For the Insane, 1905-15", Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, vol. 11 (1994), pp. 335-355; Wendy Mitchinson, "Hysteria and Insanity in Women: A Nineteenth Century Canadian Perspective", Journal of Canadian Studies, vol. 21 (1986) pp. 87-105, and The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991), chaps. 10, 11; Cheryl Krasnick Warsh, "The First Mrs. Rochester: Wrongful Confinement, Social Redundancy, and Commitment to the Private Asylum, 1883-1923", Historical Papers (Canadian Historical Association) (1988), pp. 145-167. For studies elsewhere, see, for example, Ellen Dwyer, Homes For the Mad: Life Inside Two Nineteenth-Century Asylums (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1987); Bronwyn Labrum, "Looking Beyond the Asylum: Gender and the Process of Committal in Auckland, 1870-1910", New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 26 (1992), pp. 125-144; Patricia E. Prestwich, "Family Strategies and Medical Power: 'Voluntary' Committal in a Parisian Asylum, 1876-1914", Journal of Social History, vol. 27 (Summer), pp. 799-818; Yannick Ripa, Women and Madness: The Incarceration of Women in Nineteenth-Century France (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity Press, 1990); Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830-1980 (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin, 1985). In the contemporary context, refer to Hilary Allen, Justice Unbalanced: Gender, Psychiatry and Judicial Decisions (Milton Keynes, U.K.: Open University Press, 1987); Busfield, Men, Women and Madness; Phyllis Chesler, Women and Madness (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972).
66. Canadian studies on the psychiatrization of women include: Megan J. Davies, "Snapshots: Three Women and Psychiatry, 1920-1935", Canadian Women's Studies, vol. 8 (1987), pp. 47-48; Mary-Ellen Kelm, "A Life Apart: The Experience of Women and the Asylum Practice of Charles Doherty at British Columbia's Provincial Hospital For the Insane, 1905-15", Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, vol. 11 (1994), pp. 335-355; Wendy Mitchinson, "Hysteria and Insanity in Women: A Nineteenth Century Canadian Perspective", Journal of Canadian Studies, vol. 21 (1986) pp. 87-105, and The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991), chaps. 10, 11; Cheryl Krasnick Warsh, "The First Mrs. Rochester: Wrongful Confinement, Social Redundancy, and Commitment to the Private Asylum, 1883-1923", Historical Papers (Canadian Historical Association) (1988), pp. 145-167. For studies elsewhere, see, for example, Ellen Dwyer, Homes For the Mad: Life Inside Two Nineteenth-Century Asylums (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1987); Bronwyn Labrum, "Looking Beyond the Asylum: Gender and the Process of Committal in Auckland, 1870-1910", New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 26 (1992), pp. 125-144; Patricia E. Prestwich, "Family Strategies and Medical Power: 'Voluntary' Committal in a Parisian Asylum, 1876-1914", Journal of Social History, vol. 27 (Summer), pp. 799-818; Yannick Ripa, Women and Madness: The Incarceration of Women in Nineteenth-Century France (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity Press, 1990); Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830-1980 (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin, 1985). In the contemporary context, refer to Hilary Allen, Justice Unbalanced: Gender, Psychiatry and Judicial Decisions (Milton Keynes, U.K.: Open University Press, 1987); Busfield, Men, Women and Madness; Phyllis Chesler, Women and Madness (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972).
67. Canadian studies on the psychiatrization of women include: Megan J. Davies, "Snapshots: Three Women and Psychiatry, 1920-1935", Canadian Women's Studies, vol. 8 (1987), pp. 47-48; Mary-Ellen Kelm, "A Life Apart: The Experience of Women and the Asylum Practice of Charles Doherty at British Columbia's Provincial Hospital For the Insane, 1905-15", Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, vol. 11 (1994), pp. 335-355; Wendy Mitchinson, "Hysteria and Insanity in Women: A Nineteenth Century Canadian Perspective", Journal of Canadian Studies, vol. 21 (1986) pp. 87-105, and The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991), chaps. 10, 11; Cheryl Krasnick Warsh, "The First Mrs. Rochester: Wrongful Confinement, Social Redundancy, and Commitment to the Private Asylum, 1883-1923", Historical Papers (Canadian Historical Association) (1988), pp. 145-167. For studies elsewhere, see, for example, Ellen Dwyer, Homes For the Mad: Life Inside Two Nineteenth-Century Asylums (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1987); Bronwyn Labrum, "Looking Beyond the Asylum: Gender and the Process of Committal in Auckland, 1870-1910", New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 26 (1992), pp. 125-144; Patricia E. Prestwich, "Family Strategies and Medical Power: 'Voluntary' Committal in a Parisian Asylum, 1876-1914", Journal of Social History, vol. 27 (Summer), pp. 799-818; Yannick Ripa, Women and Madness: The Incarceration of Women in Nineteenth-Century France (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity Press, 1990); Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830-1980 (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin, 1985). In the contemporary context, refer to Hilary Allen, Justice Unbalanced: Gender, Psychiatry and Judicial Decisions (Milton Keynes, U.K.: Open University Press, 1987); Busfield, Men, Women and Madness; Phyllis Chesler, Women and Madness (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972).
68. Canadian studies on the psychiatrization of women include: Megan J. Davies, "Snapshots: Three Women and Psychiatry, 1920-1935", Canadian Women's Studies, vol. 8 (1987), pp. 47-48; Mary-Ellen Kelm, "A Life Apart: The Experience of Women and the Asylum Practice of Charles Doherty at British Columbia's Provincial Hospital For the Insane, 1905-15", Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, vol. 11 (1994), pp. 335-355; Wendy Mitchinson, "Hysteria and Insanity in Women: A Nineteenth Century Canadian Perspective", Journal of Canadian Studies, vol. 21 (1986) pp. 87-105, and The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991), chaps. 10, 11; Cheryl Krasnick Warsh, "The First Mrs. Rochester: Wrongful Confinement, Social Redundancy, and Commitment to the Private Asylum, 1883-1923", Historical Papers (Canadian Historical Association) (1988), pp. 145-167. For studies elsewhere, see, for example, Ellen Dwyer, Homes For the Mad: Life Inside Two Nineteenth-Century Asylums (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1987); Bronwyn Labrum, "Looking Beyond the Asylum: Gender and the Process of Committal in Auckland, 1870-1910", New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 26 (1992), pp. 125-144; Patricia E. Prestwich, "Family Strategies and Medical Power: 'Voluntary' Committal in a Parisian Asylum, 1876-1914", Journal of Social History, vol. 27 (Summer), pp. 799-818; Yannick Ripa, Women and Madness: The Incarceration of Women in Nineteenth-Century France (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity Press, 1990); Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830-1980 (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin, 1985). In the contemporary context, refer to Hilary Allen, Justice Unbalanced: Gender, Psychiatry and Judicial Decisions (Milton Keynes, U.K.: Open University Press, 1987); Busfield, Men, Women and Madness; Phyllis Chesler, Women and Madness (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972).
69. Canadian studies on the psychiatrization of women include: Megan J. Davies, "Snapshots: Three Women and Psychiatry, 1920-1935", Canadian Women's Studies, vol. 8 (1987), pp. 47-48; Mary-Ellen Kelm, "A Life Apart: The Experience of Women and the Asylum Practice of Charles Doherty at British Columbia's Provincial Hospital For the Insane, 1905-15", Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, vol. 11 (1994), pp. 335-355; Wendy Mitchinson, "Hysteria and Insanity in Women: A Nineteenth Century Canadian Perspective", Journal of Canadian Studies, vol. 21 (1986) pp. 87-105, and The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991), chaps. 10, 11; Cheryl Krasnick Warsh, "The First Mrs. Rochester: Wrongful Confinement, Social Redundancy, and Commitment to the Private Asylum, 1883-1923", Historical Papers (Canadian Historical Association) (1988), pp. 145-167. For studies elsewhere, see, for example, Ellen Dwyer, Homes For the Mad: Life Inside Two Nineteenth-Century Asylums (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1987); Bronwyn Labrum, "Looking Beyond the Asylum: Gender and the Process of Committal in Auckland, 1870-1910", New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 26 (1992), pp. 125-144; Patricia E. Prestwich, "Family Strategies and Medical Power: 'Voluntary' Committal in a Parisian Asylum, 1876-1914", Journal of Social History, vol. 27 (Summer), pp. 799-818; Yannick Ripa, Women and Madness: The Incarceration of Women in Nineteenth-Century France (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity Press, 1990); Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830-1980 (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin, 1985). In the contemporary context, refer to Hilary Allen, Justice Unbalanced: Gender, Psychiatry and Judicial Decisions (Milton Keynes, U.K.: Open University Press, 1987); Busfield, Men, Women and Madness; Phyllis Chesler, Women and Madness (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972).
70. Canadian studies on the psychiatrization of women include: Megan J. Davies, "Snapshots: Three Women and Psychiatry, 1920-1935", Canadian Women's Studies, vol. 8 (1987), pp. 47-48; Mary-Ellen Kelm, "A Life Apart: The Experience of Women and the Asylum Practice of Charles Doherty at British Columbia's Provincial Hospital For the Insane, 1905-15", Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, vol. 11 (1994), pp. 335-355; Wendy Mitchinson, "Hysteria and Insanity in Women: A Nineteenth Century Canadian Perspective", Journal of Canadian Studies, vol. 21 (1986) pp. 87-105, and The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991), chaps. 10, 11; Cheryl Krasnick Warsh, "The First Mrs. Rochester: Wrongful Confinement, Social Redundancy, and Commitment to the Private Asylum, 1883-1923", Historical Papers (Canadian Historical Association) (1988), pp. 145-167. For studies elsewhere, see, for example, Ellen Dwyer, Homes For the Mad: Life Inside Two Nineteenth-Century Asylums (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1987); Bronwyn Labrum, "Looking Beyond the Asylum: Gender and the Process of Committal in Auckland, 1870-1910", New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 26 (1992), pp. 125-144; Patricia E. Prestwich, "Family Strategies and Medical Power: 'Voluntary' Committal in a Parisian Asylum, 1876-1914", Journal of Social History, vol. 27 (Summer), pp. 799-818; Yannick Ripa, Women and Madness: The Incarceration of Women in Nineteenth-Century France (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity Press, 1990); Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830-1980 (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin, 1985). In the contemporary context, refer to Hilary Allen, Justice Unbalanced: Gender, Psychiatry and Judicial Decisions (Milton Keynes, U.K.: Open University Press, 1987); Busfield, Men, Women and Madness; Phyllis Chesler, Women and Madness (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972).
71. Canadian studies on the psychiatrization of women include: Megan J. Davies, "Snapshots: Three Women and Psychiatry, 1920-1935", Canadian Women's Studies, vol. 8 (1987), pp. 47-48; Mary-Ellen Kelm, "A Life Apart: The Experience of Women and the Asylum Practice of Charles Doherty at British Columbia's Provincial Hospital For the Insane, 1905-15", Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, vol. 11 (1994), pp. 335-355; Wendy Mitchinson, "Hysteria and Insanity in Women: A Nineteenth Century Canadian Perspective", Journal of Canadian Studies, vol. 21 (1986) pp. 87-105, and The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991), chaps. 10, 11; Cheryl Krasnick Warsh, "The First Mrs. Rochester: Wrongful Confinement, Social Redundancy, and Commitment to the Private Asylum, 1883-1923", Historical Papers (Canadian Historical Association) (1988), pp. 145-167. For studies elsewhere, see, for example, Ellen Dwyer, Homes For the Mad: Life Inside Two Nineteenth-Century Asylums (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press,
72. Hilary Allen writes: "Unlike the florid madness of the 'typical mental case" ... these internal, neurotic, and generally female troubles occupy an ambiguous place within the criminological conception of disorder. ...[T]here is only a hazy boundary between these factors of nominally 'psychiatric' distress and all the other mitigations that may excite the sympathy and pity of the court" (Justice Unbalanced, pp. 72-73).
73. Jan Burns, "Mad or Just Plain Bad? Gender and the Work of Forensic Clinical Psychologists", in Jane M. Ussher and Paula Nicolson, eds., Gender Issues in Clinical Psychology (London: Routledge, 1992), p.120.
74. Allen, Justice Unbalanced; Dorothy E. Chunn and Robert Menzies, "Gender, Madness and Crime: The Reproduction of Patriarchal and Class Relations in a Psychiatric Court Clinic", Journal of Human Justice, vol. 1, no. 2 (Spring 1990), pp. 33-54; Ussher, Women's Madness.
75. Allen, Justice Unbalanced; Dorothy E. Chunn and Robert Menzies, "Gender, Madness and Crime: The Reproduction of Patriarchal and Class Relations in a Psychiatric Court Clinic", Journal of Human Justice, vol. 1, no. 2 (Spring 1990), pp. 33-54; Ussher, Women's Madness.
76. Allen, Justice Unbalanced; Dorothy E. Chunn and Robert Menzies, "Gender, Madness and Crime: The Reproduction of Patriarchal and Class Relations in a Psychiatric Court Clinic", Journal of Human Justice, vol. 1, no. 2 (Spring 1990), pp. 33-54; Ussher, Women's Madness.
77. Carlen, Women's Imprisonment, p. 155.
78. Ibid., p. 90.
79. It is impossible in a single article to demonstrate the complexity of the themes addressed and to elaborate on the ideological and structural changes that marked the development of the welfare state in Canada and elsewhere. Therefore, we want to emphasize that our analysis in this paper is not based on the assumption that medico-legal professionals and their women and men patients were homogeneous and unchanging groups of controllers and controlled respectively. What we have tried to illustrate is how prevailing ideas about "normal" womanhood often were more critical to decisionmaking about criminality and madness than was the actual behaviour of the women involved.
80. The BCARS clinical records are located in GR 2880 and comprise all patient files that were closed up to 1942. Registries are contained in GR 1754 and GR 3019.
81. Among the most salient BCARS holdings of psychiatric history records are GR 118, 133, 344, 496, 497, 501, 528 to 535, 542, 645, and 865. Relevant documents arc also to be found in the Saanich and Vancouver City Archives, the Riverview Hospital Library in Port Coquitlam, the British Columbia Medical Association Archives, the Special Collections Library of the University of British Columbia, the Archives on the History of Canadian Psychiatry and Mental Health Services in Toronto, and the National Archives of Canada.
82. In British Columbia, more affluent families committed members who were deemed to be mentally ill to the private Burrard and Hollywood Sanitaria, which opened in the 1890s and 1920s respectively. On the operation of a private asylum in Ontario, see Cheryl Krasnick Warsh, Moments of Unreason: The Practice of Canadian Psychiatry and the Homewood Retreat, 1883-1923 (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Qucen's University Press, 1989).
83. This gender differential was not surprising given the demographic domination in British Columbia of single, migratory, labouring males until well into the present century. See Adele Perry, " 'Oh I'm just sick of the faces of men': Gender Imbalance, Race, Sexuality and Sociability in Nineteenth-Century British Columbia", BC Studies, no. 105-106 (1995), pp. 27-44.
84. Working-class "housewives", of course, contributed to the household economy in a variety of ways including such activities as taking in boarders and laundry, doing piecework, and caring for children. See Creese and Strong-Boag, eds., British Columbia Reconsidered; Margaret Jolly and Martha MacIntyre, eds., Family and Gender in the Pacific: Domestic Contradictions and the Colonial Impact (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Latham and Kess, eds., In Her Own Right; Latham and Pazdro, Not Just Pin Money; Adele Perry, " 'Fair ones of a purer caste': White Women and Colonialism in Nineteenth-Century British Columbia", Feminist Studies, vol. 23 (1997), pp. 501-524.
85. Working-class "housewives", of course, contributed to the household economy in a variety of ways including such activities as taking in boarders and laundry, doing piecework, and caring for children. See Creese and Strong-Boag, eds., British Columbia Reconsidered; Margaret Jolly and Martha MacIntyre, eds., Family and Gender in the Pacific: Domestic Contradictions and the Colonial Impact (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Latham and Kess, eds., In Her Own Right; Latham and Pazdro, Not Just Pin Money; Adele Perry, " 'Fair ones of a purer caste': White Women and Colonialism in Nineteenth-Century British Columbia", Feminist Studies, vol. 23 (1997), pp. 501-524.
86. Working-class "housewives", of course, contributed to the household economy in a variety of ways including such activities as taking in boarders and laundry, doing piecework, and caring for children. See Creese and Strong-Boag, eds., British Columbia Reconsidered; Margaret Jolly and Martha MacIntyre, eds., Family and Gender in the Pacific: Domestic Contradictions and the Colonial Impact (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Latham and Kess, eds., In Her Own Right; Latham and Pazdro, Not Just Pin Money; Adele Perry, " 'Fair ones of a purer caste': White Women and Colonialism in Nineteenth-Century British Columbia", Feminist Studies, vol. 23 (1997), pp. 501-524.
87. Working-class "housewives", of course, contributed to the household economy in a variety of ways including such activities as taking in boarders and laundry, doing piecework, and caring for children. See Creese and Strong-Boag, eds., British Columbia Reconsidered; Margaret Jolly and Martha MacIntyre, eds., Family and Gender in the Pacific: Domestic Contradictions and the Colonial Impact (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Latham and Kess, eds., In Her Own Right; Latham and Pazdro, Not Just Pin Money; Adele Perry, " 'Fair ones of a purer caste': White Women and Colonialism in Nineteenth-Century British Columbia", Feminist Studies, vol. 23 (1997), pp. 501-524.
88. Working-class "housewives", of course, contributed to the household economy in a variety of ways including such activities as taking in boarders and laundry, doing piecework, and caring for children. See Creese and Strong-Boag, eds., British Columbia Reconsidered; Margaret Jolly and Martha MacIntyre, eds., Family and Gender in the Pacific: Domestic Contradictions and the Colonial Impact (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Latham and Kess, eds., In Her Own Right; Latham and Pazdro, Not Just Pin Money; Adele Perry, " 'Fair ones of a purer caste': White Women and Colonialism in Nineteenth-Century British Columbia", Feminist Studies, vol. 23 (1997), pp. 501-524.
89. On rare occasions in the late nineteenth century, Cabinet issued Orders-in-Council for patients who had recently arrived in British Columbia, apparently to establish legal grounds for their removal from the province. As noted above only one woman fell into this category.
90. One woman murdered her 18-month-old twin daughters.
91. For an analysis of the relationship between women's social redundancy and commitment to a private asylum in Ontario, see Warsh, Moments of Unreason, pp. 72-81.
92. Greg Marquis, "Vancouver Vice: The Police and the Negotiation of Morality, 1904-1935", in Hamar Foster and John McLaren, eds., Essays in the History of Canadian Law, Vol. VI: British Columbia and the Yukon (Toronto: Osgoode Society and University of Toronto Press, 1995), chap. 7; John McLaren, "Chasing the Social Evil: Moral Fervour and the Evolution of Canada's Prostitution Laws, 1867-1917", Canadian Journal of Law and Society, vol. 1 (1986), pp. 125-165.
93. Greg Marquis, "Vancouver Vice: The Police and the Negotiation of Morality, 1904-1935", in Hamar Foster and John McLaren, eds., Essays in the History of Canadian Law, Vol. VI: British Columbia and the Yukon (Toronto: Osgoode Society and University of Toronto Press, 1995), chap. 7; John McLaren, "Chasing the Social Evil: Moral Fervour and the Evolution of Canada's Prostitution Laws, 1867-1917", Canadian Journal of Law and Society, vol. 1 (1986), pp. 125-165.
94. One insightful historical study of crime patterns in British Columbia is James P. Huzel, "The Incidence of Crime in Vancouver During the Great Depression", BC Studies, no. 69-70 (1986), pp. 211-248. On criminal backgrounds among male forensic patients in the province, see Robert Menzies, "The Making of Criminal Insanity in British Columbia: Granby Farrant and the Provincial Mental Home, Colquitz, 1919-1933", in Foster and McLaren, eds., Essays on the History of Canadian Law, Vol. VI, chap. 8.
95. One insightful historical study of crime patterns in British Columbia is James P. Huzel, "The Incidence of Crime in Vancouver During the Great Depression", BC Studies, no. 69-70 (1986), pp. 211-248. On criminal backgrounds among male forensic patients in the province, see Robert Menzies, "The Making of Criminal Insanity in British Columbia: Granby Farrant and the Provincial Mental Home, Colquitz, 1919-1933", in Foster and McLaren, eds., Essays on the History of Canadian Law, Vol. VI, chap. 8.
96. Emil Kraepelin first "discovered" dementia praecox (DP), described as a "peculiar and fundamental want of any strong feeling of the impressions of life", in 1896. Schizophrenia, identified as a discrete disorder by Eugen Bleuler in 1911, slowly came to supplant DP in the third and fourth decades of the twentieth century. See, among others, Showalter, The Female Malady, pp. 203-205.
97. As Davies observes in her study of patient life in the province's mental hospitals during the first three decades of this century: "[E]scape was almost exclusively used as a male form of resistance. Between 1910 and 1935 a total of 112 men and four women escaped from New Westminster and Essondale." "The Patient's World", p. 53.
98. Pat Carlen, "Law, Psychiatry and Women's Imprisonment: A Sociological View", British Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 146 (1985), p. 620. On the psychiatrization of women in the civil legal system, see Judith Mosoff, " 'A jury dressed in medical white and judicial black': Mothers with Mental Health Histories in Child Welfare and Custody", in Boyd, ed., Challenging the Public/Private Divide, chap. 9.
99. Pat Carlen, "Law, Psychiatry and Women's Imprisonment: A Sociological View", British Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 146 (1985), p. 620. On the psychiatrization of women in the civil legal system, see Judith Mosoff, " 'A jury dressed in medical white and judicial black': Mothers with Mental Health Histories in Child Welfare and Custody", in Boyd, ed., Challenging the Public/Private Divide, chap. 9.
100. Roger Smith, "The Boundary Between Insanity and Criminal Responsibility in Nineteenth-Century England", in Andrew Scull, ed., Madhouses, Mad-Doctors, and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), p. 373.
101. Joe Sim, Medical Power in Prisons: The Prison Medical Service in England, 1774-1989 (Milton Keynes, U.K.: Open University Press, 1990), p. 129.
102. Dorothy E. Smith, "Women and Psychiatry", in Dorothy E. Smith and Sara J. David, eds., Women Look at Psychiatry (Vancouver: Press Gang, 1975), pp. 1-19.
103. Clearly, women professionals such as nurses and social workers also were involved in the "psychiatric practices of ruling". However, then as now, men generally sat at the top of the medico-legal hierarchy and tended to define the issues and set the mental health agenda.
104. As Ann Lloyd writes, "[W]hen women commit violent crimes they are seen to have breached two laws: the law of the land, which forbids violence, and the much more fundamental 'natural' law, which says women are passive carers, not active aggressors, and by nature morally better than the male of the species." Doubly Deviant, p. 36. See also Dorothy E. Roberts, "Motherhood and Crime", Iowa Law Review, vol. 79 (1993), pp. 95-141.
105. As Ann Lloyd writes, "[W]hen women commit violent crimes they are seen to have breached two laws: the law of the land, which forbids violence, and the much more fundamental 'natural' law, which says women are passive carers, not active aggressors, and by nature morally better than the male of the species." Doubly Deviant, p. 36. See also Dorothy E. Roberts, "Motherhood and Crime", Iowa Law Review, vol. 79 (1993), pp. 95-141.
106. Denise Russell, Women, Madness and Medicine (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity Press, 1995), p. 98; see Ania Wilczynski, "Images of Women Who Kill Their Infants: The Mad and the Bad", Women and Criminal Justice, vol. 2 (1991), pp. 71-88.
107. Denise Russell, Women, Madness and Medicine (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity Press, 1995), p. 98; see Ania Wilczynski, "Images of Women Who Kill Their Infants: The Mad and the Bad", Women and Criminal Justice, vol. 2 (1991), pp. 71-88.
108. Smith, "Women and Psychiatry", p. 13.
109. Smart, Women, Crime and Criminology, p. 11.
110. In contrast, women who killed their male partners were routinely held accountable for their actions and subjected to criminal sanction. For a selected historical bibliography on women who kill and an insightful analysis of law, ideology, gender, and ethnicity in an early twentieth-century Ontario case of "domestic" homicide by a woman, see Karen Dubinsky and Franca lacovetta, "Murder, Womanly Virtue, and Motherhood: The Case of Angelina Napolitano, 1911-1922", Canadian Historical Review, vol. 72 (1991), pp. 505-531.
111. Smart, Women, Crime and Criminology, pp. 89-109.
112. The specific sources and dates of newspaper references are withheld to protect confidentiality.
113. On April 7, 1933, British Columbia became one of only two Canadian provinces (the other being Alberta) to pass legislation mandating the sexual sterilization of mentally disordered and "feebleminded" inmates of provincial institutions (An Act Respecting Sexual Sterilization, 1933, ch. 59). See McLaren, Our Own Master Race, chap. 5; Monica Wosilius, "Eugenics, Insanity and Feeblemindedness: British Columbia's Sterilization Policy from 1933-1943" (M.A. thesis, Department of History, University of Victoria, 1992).
114. On April 7, 1933, British Columbia became one of only two Canadian provinces (the other being Alberta) to pass legislation mandating the sexual sterilization of mentally disordered and "feebleminded" inmates of provincial institutions (An Act Respecting Sexual Sterilization, 1933, ch. 59). See McLaren, Our Own Master Race, chap. 5; Monica Wosilius, "Eugenics, Insanity and Feeblemindedness: British Columbia's Sterilization Policy from 1933-1943" (M.A. thesis, Department of History, University of Victoria, 1992).
115. On April 7, 1933, British Columbia became one of only two Canadian provinces (the other being Alberta) to pass legislation mandating the sexual sterilization of mentally disordered and "feebleminded" inmates of provincial institutions (An Act Respecting Sexual Sterilization, 1933, ch. 59). See McLaren, Our Own Master Race, chap. 5; Monica Wosilius, "Eugenics, Insanity and Feeblemindedness: British Columbia's Sterilization Policy from 1933-1943" (M.A. thesis, Department of History, University of Victoria, 1992).
116. On the origins of criminal imbecility and defective delinquency as medico-legal constructs, see Nicole Hahn Rafter, Creating Born Criminals (Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1997). For Canadian studies on feeblemindedness, mental testing, and eugenics, refer to Terry L. Chapman, "Early Eugenics Movement in Western Canada", Alberta History, vol. 25 (1977), pp. 9-17; Ian Robert Dowbiggin, Keeping America Sane: Psychiatry and Eugenics in the United States and Canada, 1880-1940 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997); Kathleen J. A. McConnachie, "Science and Ideology: The Mental Hygiene and Eugenics Movements in the Inter-war Years, 1919-1939" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Toronto, 1987); McLaren, Our Own Master Race.
117. On the origins of criminal imbecility and defective delinquency as medico-legal constructs, see Nicole Hahn Rafter, Creating Born Criminals (Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1997). For Canadian studies on feeblemindedness, mental testing, and eugenics, refer to Terry L. Chapman, "Early Eugenics Movement in Western Canada", Alberta History, vol. 25 (1977), pp. 9-17; Ian Robert Dowbiggin, Keeping America Sane: Psychiatry and Eugenics in the United States and Canada, 1880-1940 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997); Kathleen J. A. McConnachie, "Science and Ideology: The Mental Hygiene and Eugenics Movements in the Inter-war Years, 1919-1939" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Toronto, 1987); McLaren, Our Own Master Race.
118. On the origins of criminal imbecility and defective delinquency as medico-legal constructs, see Nicole Hahn Rafter, Creating Born Criminals (Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1997). For Canadian studies on feeblemindedness, mental testing, and eugenics, refer to Terry L. Chapman, "Early Eugenics Movement in Western Canada", Alberta History, vol. 25 (1977), pp. 9-17; Ian Robert Dowbiggin, Keeping America Sane: Psychiatry and Eugenics in the United States and Canada, 1880-1940 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997); Kathleen J. A. McConnachie, "Science and Ideology: The Mental Hygiene and Eugenics Movements in the Inter-war Years, 1919-1939" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Toronto, 1987); McLaren, Our Own Master Race.
119. On the origins of criminal imbecility and defective delinquency as medico-legal constructs, see Nicole Hahn Rafter, Creating Born Criminals (Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1997). For Canadian studies on feeblemindedness, mental testing, and eugenics, refer to Terry L. Chapman, "Early Eugenics Movement in Western Canada", Alberta History, vol. 25 (1977), pp. 9-17; Ian Robert Dowbiggin, Keeping America Sane: Psychiatry and Eugenics in the United States and Canada, 1880-1940 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997); Kathleen J. A. McConnachie, "Science and Ideology: The Mental Hygiene and Eugenics Movements in the Inter-war Years, 1919-1939" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Toronto, 1987); McLaren, Our Own Master Race.
120. On the origins of criminal imbecility and defective delinquency as medico-legal constructs, see Nicole Hahn Rafter, Creating Born Criminals (Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1997). For Canadian studies on feeblemindedness, mental testing, and eugenics, refer to Terry L. Chapman, "Early Eugenics Movement in Western Canada", Alberta History, vol. 25 (1977), pp. 9-17; Ian Robert Dowbiggin, Keeping America Sane: Psychiatry and Eugenics in the United States and Canada, 1880-1940 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997); Kathleen J. A. McConnachie, "Science and Ideology: The Mental Hygiene and Eugenics Movements in the Inter-war Years, 1919-1939" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Toronto, 1987); McLaren, Our Own Master Race.
121. Eaton, Justice for Women?, p. 61.
122. Jeffrey L. Geller and Maxine Harris, Women of the Asylum: Voices from Behind the Walls, 1840-1945 (New York: Anchor Books, 1994), p. 13.
123. Eaton, Justice for Women?, p. 9.
124. One Essondale physician observed in the ward notes that "Her morals, etc. were beyond question until the time of the birth of her first child after which she apparently deteriorated in every way."
125. Under revisions to the province's Mental Hospitals Act (renamed from the 1873 Insane Asylums Act [61 Vict., chap. 101] in 1912 and revised again in 1940), patients could be released with conditions to the custody of family or friends on "probation" or "special probation" (the latter being against doctors' advice) for a provisional period of six months prior to complete discharge.
126. It should be underscored that the relationship between docility and favourable treatment was scarcely restricted to women patients alone. Nevertheless, medical constructions of good patient behaviour were powerfully mediated by gender, and widely circulating cultural norms regarding femininity and masculinity were inevitably inscribed in psychiatric decisions about women and men respectively. For an evocative recent Canadian study of discipline, compliance, and resistance inside a psychiatric institution, see Geoffrey Reaume, "999 Queen Street West: Patient Life at the Toronto Hospital for the Insane, 1870-1940" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Toronto, 1997). For a look at patient-authority relations within an institution for "criminally insane" men, refer to Robert Menzies, " 'I do not care for a lunatic's role': Modes of Regulation and Resistance Inside the Colquitz Home for the 'Criminally Insane', British Columbia, 1919-1933" (Toronto, Annual Law and Society Association Conference, June 1995).
127. It should be underscored that the relationship between docility and favourable treatment was scarcely restricted to women patients alone. Nevertheless, medical constructions of good patient behaviour were powerfully mediated by gender, and widely circulating cultural norms regarding femininity and masculinity were inevitably inscribed in psychiatric decisions about women and men respectively. For an evocative recent Canadian study of discipline, compliance, and resistance inside a psychiatric institution, see Geoffrey Reaume, "999 Queen Street West: Patient Life at the Toronto Hospital for the Insane, 1870-1940" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Toronto, 1997). For a look at patient-authority relations within an institution for "criminally insane" men, refer to Robert Menzies, " 'I do not care for a lunatic's role': Modes of Regulation and Resistance Inside the Colquitz Home for the 'Criminally Insane', British Columbia, 1919-1933" (Toronto, Annual Law and Society Association Conference, June 1995).
128. Allen, Justice Unbalanced, p. 35.
129. At least one of these escorts was "so reeking of drink" on arrival that the medical superintendent had to "open my office window after they were gone to ventilate the room".
130. "Wet packs" consisted of a "tepid wet sheet, blanket, macintosh, outside this 3 more blankets".
131. Frank Mort, Dangerous Sexualities: Medico-Moral Politics in England since 1830 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1987).
132. Quoted in Mitchinson, Hysteria and Insanity, p. 96.
133. Roy Porter, Mind-Forg'd Manacles: A History of Madness in England from the Restoration to the Regency (London: Athlone Press, 1987), p. 201.
134. Ripa, Women and Madness, p. 18. Sexual threat was highly racialized. See Jean Barman, "Taming Aboriginal Sexuality: Gender, Power, and Race in British Columbia, 1850-1900", BC Studies, no. 115-116 (1997), pp. 237-266.
135. Ripa, Women and Madness, p. 18. Sexual threat was highly racialized. See Jean Barman, "Taming Aboriginal Sexuality: Gender, Power, and Race in British Columbia, 1850-1900", BC Studies, no. 115-116 (1997), pp. 237-266.
136. Victoria E. Bynum, Unruly Women: The Politics of Social and Sexual Control in the Old South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992); Karlene Faith, Unruly Women: The Politics of Confinement and Resistance (Vancouver: Press Gang, 1993).
137. Victoria E. Bynum, Unruly Women: The Politics of Social and Sexual Control in the Old South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992); Karlene Faith, Unruly Women: The Politics of Confinement and Resistance (Vancouver: Press Gang, 1993).
138. See Mary E. Odem, Delinquent Daughters: Protecting and Policing Adolescent Female Sexuality in the United States, 1885-1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995); Joan Sangster, "Incarcerating 'Bad Girls': The Regulation of Sexuality through the Female Refugees Act in Ontario, 1920-1945", Journal of the History of Sexuality, vol. 7 (1996), pp. 239-275; Jennifer Stephen, "The 'Incorrigible', the 'Bad', and the 'Immoral': Toronto's 'Factory Girls' and the Work of the Toronto Psychiatric Clinic", in Louis A. Knafla and Susan W. S. Binnie, eds., Law, Society and the State: Essays in Modern Legal History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1995); Tamara Vrooman, "The Wayward and the Feebleminded: Euthenics, Eugenics, and the Provincial Industrial Home for Girls, 1914-1929" (M.A. thesis, Department of History, University of Victoria, 1994).
139. See Mary E. Odem, Delinquent Daughters: Protecting and Policing Adolescent Female Sexuality in the United States, 1885-1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995); Joan Sangster, "Incarcerating 'Bad Girls': The Regulation of Sexuality through the Female Refugees Act in Ontario, 1920-1945", Journal of the History of Sexuality, vol. 7 (1996), pp. 239-275; Jennifer Stephen, "The 'Incorrigible', the 'Bad', and the 'Immoral': Toronto's 'Factory Girls' and the Work of the Toronto Psychiatric Clinic", in Louis A. Knafla and Susan W. S. Binnie, eds., Law, Society and the State: Essays in Modern Legal History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1995); Tamara Vrooman, "The Wayward and the Feebleminded: Euthenics, Eugenics, and the Provincial Industrial Home for Girls, 1914-1929" (M.A. thesis, Department of History, University of Victoria, 1994).
140. See Mary E. Odem, Delinquent Daughters: Protecting and Policing Adolescent Female Sexuality in the United States, 1885-1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995); Joan Sangster, "Incarcerating 'Bad Girls': The Regulation of Sexuality through the Female Refugees Act in Ontario, 1920-1945", Journal of the History of Sexuality, vol. 7 (1996), pp. 239-275; Jennifer Stephen, "The 'Incorrigible', the 'Bad', and the 'Immoral': Toronto's 'Factory Girls' and the Work of the Toronto Psychiatric Clinic", in Louis A. Knafla and Susan W. S. Binnie, eds., Law, Society and the State: Essays in Modern Legal History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1995); Tamara Vrooman, "The Wayward and the Feebleminded: Euthenics, Eugenics, and the Provincial Industrial Home for Girls, 1914-1929" (M.A. thesis, Department of History, University of Victoria, 1994).
141. See Mary E. Odem, Delinquent Daughters: Protecting and Policing Adolescent Female Sexuality in the United States, 1885-1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995); Joan Sangster, "Incarcerating 'Bad Girls': The Regulation of Sexuality through the Female Refugees Act in Ontario, 1920-1945", Journal of the History of Sexuality, vol. 7 (1996), pp. 239-275; Jennifer Stephen, "The 'Incorrigible', the 'Bad', and the 'Immoral': Toronto's 'Factory Girls' and the Work of the Toronto Psychiatric Clinic", in Louis A. Knafla and Susan W. S. Binnie, eds., Law, Society and the State: Essays in Modern Legal History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1995); Tamara Vrooman, "The Wayward and the Feebleminded: Euthenics, Eugenics, and the Provincial Industrial Home for Girls, 1914-1929" (M.A. thesis, Department of History, University of Victoria, 1994).
142. See Chunn, "A Little Sex".
143. She was working for a sporting goods company in Vancouver.
144. During the 1930s and 1940s, Ward X offered in-patient services to psychiatric patients at the Vancouver General Hospital.
145. Steven Spitzer, "Toward a Marxian Theory of Deviance", Social Problems, vol. 22 (1975), pp. 638-657.
146. Thanks to one of the anonymous manuscript reviewers for Histoire sociale I Social History for pointing out this connection.
147. In Carlcn's words, they were "seen as being outwith 'real' criminality ... rejected by hospital alcohol units as being outwith motivation; rejected by social workers as being outwith reform and beyond help; and rejected by psychiatrists as being outwith treatment and beyond cure". Women's Imprisonment, p.155.
148. See note 9.
149. As in contemporary contexts, the apprehended problem of the chronic alcoholic in mental health, justice, and welfare arenas infused public and professional culture during the late 1800s and the first half of this century. See, for example, Mimi Ajzenstadt, "The Medical-Moral Economy of Regulations: Alcohol Legislation in B.C., 1871-1925" (Ph.D. dissertation, School of Criminology, Simon Fraser University, 1992); Sharon Anne Cook, " 'Through Sunshine and Shadow': The Woman's Christian Temperance Union, Evangelism, and Reform in Ontario, 1874-1930 (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1995); Reginald G. Smart and Alan C. Ogborne, Northern Spirits: A Social History of Alcohol in Canada (Toronto: Addiction Research Foundation, 1996); Cheryl Krasnick Warsh, ed., Drink in Canada: Historical Essays (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1993).
150. As in contemporary contexts, the apprehended problem of the chronic alcoholic in mental health, justice, and welfare arenas infused public and professional culture during the late 1800s and the first half of this century. See, for example, Mimi Ajzenstadt, "The Medical-Moral Economy of Regulations: Alcohol Legislation in B.C., 1871-1925" (Ph.D. dissertation, School of Criminology, Simon Fraser University, 1992); Sharon Anne Cook, " 'Through Sunshine and Shadow': The Woman's Christian Temperance Union, Evangelism, and Reform in Ontario, 1874-1930 (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1995); Reginald G. Smart and Alan C. Ogborne, Northern Spirits: A Social History of Alcohol in Canada (Toronto: Addiction Research Foundation, 1996); Cheryl Krasnick Warsh, ed., Drink in Canada: Historical Essays (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1993).
151. As in contemporary contexts, the apprehended problem of the chronic alcoholic in mental health, justice, and welfare arenas infused public and professional culture during the late 1800s and the first half of this century. See, for example, Mimi Ajzenstadt, "The Medical-Moral Economy of Regulations: Alcohol Legislation in B.C., 1871-1925" (Ph.D. dissertation, School of Criminology, Simon Fraser University, 1992); Sharon Anne Cook, " 'Through Sunshine and Shadow': The Woman's Christian Temperance Union, Evangelism, and Reform in Ontario, 1874-1930 (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1995); Reginald G. Smart and Alan C. Ogborne, Northern Spirits: A Social History of Alcohol in Canada (Toronto: Addiction Research Foundation, 1996); Cheryl Krasnick Warsh, ed., Drink in Canada: Historical Essays (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1993).
152. As in contemporary contexts, the apprehended problem of the chronic alcoholic in mental health, justice, and welfare arenas infused public and professional culture during the late 1800s and the first half of this century. See, for example, Mimi Ajzenstadt, "The Medical-Moral Economy of Regulations: Alcohol Legislation in B.C., 1871-1925" (Ph.D. dissertation, School of Criminology, Simon Fraser University, 1992); Sharon Anne Cook, " 'Through Sunshine and Shadow': The Woman's Christian Temperance Union, Evangelism, and Reform in Ontario, 1874-1930 (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1995); Reginald G. Smart and Alan C. Ogborne, Northern Spirits: A Social History of Alcohol in Canada (Toronto: Addiction Research Foundation, 1996); Cheryl Krasnick Warsh, ed., Drink in Canada: Historical Essays (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1993).
153. See Barman, "Taming Aboriginal Sexuality".
154. Sec ARMHBC, 1949-50 through 1960-61, BCSP.
155. Under the legislation enacted on April 1, 1964, Essondale and the Crease Clinic were unified and renamed Riverview Hospital.
156. Forensic Psychiatric Services Commission Act, 1975 (22-23 EHz. 2, ch. 35).
157. In fiscal year 1953-1954, for example, female admissions to British Columbia mental health services finally surpassed those of men (1,445 versus 1,431), although the total number of men in care continued to exceed that of women. ARMHBC, 1953-54, BCSP.
158. In fiscal year 1991-1992, 47 British Columbian women entered the provincial Adult Forensic Psychiatric Service as in-patients. They represented 12% of the total 432 admissions.
159. See, for example, notes 1, 20, 23, 25, 28, 29, 30, 46, 48, 51, and 52 above.
160. Sim, Medical Power in Prisons, p. 129.