"Fair ones of a purer caste": White women and colonialism in nineteenth-century British Columbia

Feminist Studies

Volumn 23, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 501-524

  Perry, Adele ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0038911269     PISSN: 00463663     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3178383     Document Type: Review

References (139)

1. Report of the Columbia Mission, with List of Contributions, 1860 (London: Rivingtons, [1861]), 24-25. Created by a grant from Baroness Angela Burdett-Coutts, the Columbia Mission was established in 1859 to bring Anglicanism to British Columbia.
2. British Columbian (New Westminster), 7 June 1862.
3. See, for instance, Nupur Chaudhuri and Margaret Strobel, eds., Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992); Anna Davin, "Imperialism and Motherhood," History Workshop 5 (spring 1978): 9-66; Peggy Pascoe, Relations of Rescue: The Search for Female Moral Authority in the American West, 1874-1939 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); Catherine Hall, White, Male, and Middle Class: Explorations in Feminism and History (London: Routledge, 1991); Antoinette Burton, Burdens of History: British Feminists, In-dian Women, and Imperial Culture, 1865-1915 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender, and Sexu-ality in the Colonial Conquest (New York: Routledge, 1995).
4. See, for instance, Nupur Chaudhuri and Margaret Strobel, eds., Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992); Anna Davin, "Imperialism and Motherhood," History Workshop 5 (spring 1978): 9-66; Peggy Pascoe, Relations of Rescue: The Search for Female Moral Authority in the American West, 1874-1939 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); Catherine Hall, White, Male, and Middle Class: Explorations in Feminism and History (London: Routledge, 1991); Antoinette Burton, Burdens of History: British Feminists, In-dian Women, and Imperial Culture, 1865-1915 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender, and Sexu-ality in the Colonial Conquest (New York: Routledge, 1995).
5. See, for instance, Nupur Chaudhuri and Margaret Strobel, eds., Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992); Anna Davin, "Imperialism and Motherhood," History Workshop 5 (spring 1978): 9-66; Peggy Pascoe, Relations of Rescue: The Search for Female Moral Authority in the American West, 1874-1939 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); Catherine Hall, White, Male, and Middle Class: Explorations in Feminism and History (London: Routledge, 1991); Antoinette Burton, Burdens of History: British Feminists, In-dian Women, and Imperial Culture, 1865-1915 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender, and Sexu-ality in the Colonial Conquest (New York: Routledge, 1995).
6. See, for instance, Nupur Chaudhuri and Margaret Strobel, eds., Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992); Anna Davin, "Imperialism and Motherhood," History Workshop 5 (spring 1978): 9-66; Peggy Pascoe, Relations of Rescue: The Search for Female Moral Authority in the American West, 1874-1939 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); Catherine Hall, White, Male, and Middle Class: Explorations in Feminism and History (London: Routledge, 1991); Antoinette Burton, Burdens of History: British Feminists, In-dian Women, and Imperial Culture, 1865-1915 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender, and Sexu-ality in the Colonial Conquest (New York: Routledge, 1995).
7. See, for instance, Nupur Chaudhuri and Margaret Strobel, eds., Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992); Anna Davin, "Imperialism and Motherhood," History Workshop 5 (spring 1978): 9-66; Peggy Pascoe, Relations of Rescue: The Search for Female Moral Authority in the American West, 1874-1939 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); Catherine Hall, White, Male, and Middle Class: Explorations in Feminism and History (London: Routledge, 1991); Antoinette Burton, Burdens of History: British Feminists, In-dian Women, and Imperial Culture, 1865-1915 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender, and Sexu-ality in the Colonial Conquest (New York: Routledge, 1995).
8. See, for instance, Nupur Chaudhuri and Margaret Strobel, eds., Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992); Anna Davin, "Imperialism and Motherhood," History Workshop 5 (spring 1978): 9-66; Peggy Pascoe, Relations of Rescue: The Search for Female Moral Authority in the American West, 1874-1939 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); Catherine Hall, White, Male, and Middle Class: Explorations in Feminism and History (London: Routledge, 1991); Antoinette Burton, Burdens of History: British Feminists, In-dian Women, and Imperial Culture, 1865-1915 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender, and Sexu-ality in the Colonial Conquest (New York: Routledge, 1995).
9. I rely on Nicholas Thomas's definition of a colonial project as "a socially transformative endeavour that is localized, politicized, and partial, yet also engendered by larger historical developments and ways of narrating them." See his Colonialism's Culture: Anthropology, Travel, and Government (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 104.
10. Tina Loo, Making Law, Order, and Authority in British Columbia, 1821-1871 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994), 15.
11. For a general history, see Jean Barman, The West beyond the West: A History of British Columbia (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991). For clarity's sake, I will refer to British Columbia throughout this article.
12. Arthur Harvey, A Statistical Account of British Columbia (Ottawa: G.E. Desbartes, 1867), 9. The terms "aboriginal" and "First Nations" refer to Canada's three native peoples-Indians, Inuit, and Métis-and are used interchangably in this article.
13. See Robert Galois and Cole Harris, "Recalibrating Society: The Population Geography of British Columbia in 1881," Canadian Geographer 38, no. 1 (1994): 37-53; Robin Fisher, Contact and Conflict: Indian-European Relations in British Columbia, 1774-1890, 2d ed. (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1992), chap. 8.
14. See Robert Galois and Cole Harris, "Recalibrating Society: The Population Geography of British Columbia in 1881," Canadian Geographer 38, no. 1 (1994): 37-53; Robin Fisher, Contact and Conflict: Indian-European Relations in British Columbia, 1774-1890, 2d ed. (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1992), chap. 8.
15. "Our Future Destiny," Colonist (Victoria), 16 Jan. 1861.
16. George M. Grant, Ocean to Ocean: Sandford Fleming's Expedition through Canada in 1872 (Toronto: James Campbell & Son, 1873), 308. Also see S.D. Clark, "Mining Society in British Columbia and the Yukon" (215-31); and Barry M. Gough, "The Character of the British Columbia Frontier" (232-44), both in British Columbia: Historical Readings, ed. Peter Ward and Robert A.J. McDonald (Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 1981).
17. George M. Grant, Ocean to Ocean: Sandford Fleming's Expedition through Canada in 1872 (Toronto: James Campbell & Son, 1873), 308. Also see S.D. Clark, "Mining Society in British Columbia and the Yukon" (215-31); and Barry M. Gough, "The Character of the British Columbia Frontier" (232-44), both in British Columbia: Historical Readings, ed. Peter Ward and Robert A.J. McDonald (Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 1981).
18. George M. Grant, Ocean to Ocean: Sandford Fleming's Expedition through Canada in 1872 (Toronto: James Campbell & Son, 1873), 308. Also see S.D. Clark, "Mining Society in British Columbia and the Yukon" (215-31); and Barry M. Gough, "The Character of the British Columbia Frontier" (232-44), both in British Columbia: Historical Readings, ed. Peter Ward and Robert A.J. McDonald (Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 1981).
19. George M. Grant, Ocean to Ocean: Sandford Fleming's Expedition through Canada in 1872 (Toronto: James Campbell & Son, 1873), 308. Also see S.D. Clark, "Mining Society in British Columbia and the Yukon" (215-31); and Barry M. Gough, "The Character of the British Columbia Frontier" (232-44), both in British Columbia: Historical Readings, ed. Peter Ward and Robert A.J. McDonald (Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 1981).
20. See Mary Poovey, Uneven Developments: The Ideological Work of Gender in Mid-Victorian England (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988).
21. See Ann Laura Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's "History of Sexuality" and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995), esp. chap. 4; "Rethinking Colonial Categories: European Communities and the Boundaries of Rule," Comparative Studies in Society and History 31 (January 1989): 135-61; "Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Gender, Race, and Morality in Colonial Asia," in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era, ed. Micaela di Leonardo (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); and "Sexual Affronts and Racial Frontiers: European Identities and Cultural Politics of Exclusion in Colonial Southeast Asia," Comparative Studies in Society and History 34 (July 1992): 514-51.
22. See Ann Laura Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's "History of Sexuality" and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995), esp. chap. 4; "Rethinking Colonial Categories: European Communities and the Boundaries of Rule," Comparative Studies in Society and History 31 (January 1989): 135-61; "Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Gender, Race, and Morality in Colonial Asia," in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era, ed. Micaela di Leonardo (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); and "Sexual Affronts and Racial Frontiers: European Identities and Cultural Politics of Exclusion in Colonial Southeast Asia," Comparative Studies in Society and History 34 (July 1992): 514-51.
23. See Ann Laura Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's "History of Sexuality" and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995), esp. chap. 4; "Rethinking Colonial Categories: European Communities and the Boundaries of Rule," Comparative Studies in Society and History 31 (January 1989): 135-61; "Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Gender, Race, and Morality in Colonial Asia," in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era, ed. Micaela di Leonardo (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); and "Sexual Affronts and Racial Frontiers: European Identities and Cultural Politics of Exclusion in Colonial Southeast Asia," Comparative Studies in Society and History 34 (July 1992): 514-51.
24. See Ann Laura Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's "History of Sexuality" and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995), esp. chap. 4; "Rethinking Colonial Categories: European Communities and the Boundaries of Rule," Comparative Studies in Society and History 31 (January 1989): 135-61; "Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Gender, Race, and Morality in Colonial Asia," in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era, ed. Micaela di Leonardo (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); and "Sexual Affronts and Racial Frontiers: European Identities and Cultural Politics of Exclusion in Colonial Southeast Asia," Comparative Studies in Society and History 34 (July 1992): 514-51.
25. See Mrinalini Sinha, "Gender and Imperialism: Colonial Policy and the Ideology of Moral Imperialism in Late-Nineteenth-Century Bengal," in Changing Men: New Directions in Research on Men and Masculinity, ed. Michael S. Kimmel (New York: Sage, 1987); Kenneth Ballhatchet, Race, Sex, and Class under the Raj: Imperial Attitudes and Policies and Their Critics, 1783-1905 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 1980).
26. See Mrinalini Sinha, "Gender and Imperialism: Colonial Policy and the Ideology of Moral Imperialism in Late-Nineteenth-Century Bengal," in Changing Men: New Directions in Research on Men and Masculinity, ed. Michael S. Kimmel (New York: Sage, 1987); Kenneth Ballhatchet, Race, Sex, and Class under the Raj: Imperial Attitudes and Policies and Their Critics, 1783-1905 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 1980).
27. British Columbia's colonial government was ambivalent or ineffectual about promoting emigration; it was not until 1870 that any government-sponsored assisted emigration occurred. See Office of Immigration Board, Assisted Immigration (Victoria: Immigration Board, 1870); and Barman, 56-57, 96.
28. British Columbia's colonial government was ambivalent or ineffectual about promoting emigration; it was not until 1870 that any government-sponsored assisted emigration occurred. See Office of Immigration Board, Assisted Immigration (Victoria: Immigration Board, 1870); and Barman, 56-57, 96.
29. See, for instance, "Land for Immigrants in Vancouver Island and British Columbia," 1 May 1862; and "Cheap Lands for Actual Settlement," 9 Feb. 1861, both in the Colonist.
30. See, for instance, "Land for Immigrants in Vancouver Island and British Columbia," 1 May 1862; and "Cheap Lands for Actual Settlement," 9 Feb. 1861, both in the Colonist.
31. See, for instance, "Young Men's Christian Association," 5 Sept. 1859; "Dashaway Mass Meeting," 7 Jan. 1860; and "Reading Room," 10 Oct. 1859, all in the Colonist.
32. See, for instance, "Young Men's Christian Association," 5 Sept. 1859; "Dashaway Mass Meeting," 7 Jan. 1860; and "Reading Room," 10 Oct. 1859, all in the Colonist.
33. See, for instance, "Young Men's Christian Association," 5 Sept. 1859; "Dashaway Mass Meeting," 7 Jan. 1860; and "Reading Room," 10 Oct. 1859, all in the Colonist.
34. See Sylvia Van Kirk, "Many Tender Ties": Women in Fur-Trade Society in Western Canada, 1670-1870 (Winnipeg: Dwyer & Watson, 1980); Jennifer S. Brown, Strangers in Blood: Fur Trade Families in Indian Country (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1980).
35. See Sylvia Van Kirk, "Many Tender Ties": Women in Fur-Trade Society in Western Canada, 1670-1870 (Winnipeg: Dwyer & Watson, 1980); Jennifer S. Brown, Strangers in Blood: Fur Trade Families in Indian Country (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1980).
36. See Thomas E. Jesset, ed., Reports and Letters of Herbert Beaver, 1836-1838, Chaplain to the Hudson's Bay Company and Missionary to the Indians at Fort Vancouver (Portland: Champoeg Press, 1959).
37. Matthew Macfie, Vancouver Island and British Columbia: Their History, Resources, and Prospects (London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts & Green, 1865), 471. Also see his The Impending Contact of the Aryan and Turanian Races, with Special Reference to Recent Chinese Migrations (London: Sunday Lecture Series, 1878).
38. Matthew Macfie, Vancouver Island and British Columbia: Their History, Resources, and Prospects (London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts & Green, 1865), 471. Also see his The Impending Contact of the Aryan and Turanian Races, with Special Reference to Recent Chinese Migrations (London: Sunday Lecture Series, 1878).
39. Third Report of the Columbia Mission with Contributions, 1861 (London: Rivingtons, [1862]), 51 (emphasis added).
40. I.D.C., "'A Man's a Man for a' That'" British Columbian, 4-6 June 1862.
41. See Robert J.C. Young, Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture, and Race (London: Routledge, 1995).
42. George Hills, "Hills Journal, 1 January-10 June 1863" (transcript), 29, Anglican Church of Canada, Archives of the Ecclesiastical Province of British Columbia, Vancouver School of Theology, University of British Columbia.
43. Richard Charles Mayne, Four Years in British Columbia and Vancouver Island (London, 1862; rpt., Toronto: S.R. Publishers, 1969), 116, 248.
44. Robie L. Ried, "To the Fraser Mines in 1858," British Columbia Historical Quarterly 1, no. 1 (1938): 248.
45. See, for instance, Frances McNaab, British Columbia for Settlers: Its Mines, Trade, and Agriculture (London: Chapman & Hall, 1889), 102-3. On the Métis resistances, see George F.G. Stanley, The Birth of Western Canada: A History of the Riel Rebellions (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1960).
46. See, for instance, Frances McNaab, British Columbia for Settlers: Its Mines, Trade, and Agriculture (London: Chapman & Hall, 1889), 102-3. On the Métis resistances, see George F.G. Stanley, The Birth of Western Canada: A History of the Riel Rebellions (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1960).
47. Historians disagree about the character of mixed-race relationships. See Van Kirk; Brown; Ron Bourgeault, "Race, Class, and Gender: Colonial Domination of Indian Women," Socialist Studies 5 (1989): 87-115; Ruth Roach Pierson, "Experience, Difference, Dominance, and Voice in the Writing of Canadian Women's History," in Writing Women's History: International Perspectives, ed. Karen Offen, Ruth Roach Pierson, and Jane Rendall (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991).
48. Historians disagree about the character of mixed-race relationships. See Van Kirk; Brown; Ron Bourgeault, "Race, Class, and Gender: Colonial Domination of Indian Women," Socialist Studies 5 (1989): 87-115; Ruth Roach Pierson, "Experience, Difference, Dominance, and Voice in the Writing of Canadian Women's History," in Writing Women's History: International Perspectives, ed. Karen Offen, Ruth Roach Pierson, and Jane Rendall (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991).
49. Thomas Crosby, Among the An-ko-me-nums of the Pacific Coast (Toronto: William Briggs, 1907), 60.
50. Kinahan Cornwallis, The New El Durado; or, British Columbia (London, 1858; rpt., New York: Arno, 1973), 135.
51. I.D.C., "'A Man's a Man for a' That.'" Also see Sarah Carter, "Categories and Terrains of Exclusion: Constructing the 'Indian Woman' in the Early Settlement Era in Western Canada," Great Plains Quarterly 13 (summer 1993): 147-71.
52. I.D.C., "'A Man's a Man for a' That.'" Also see Sarah Carter, "Categories and Terrains of Exclusion: Constructing the 'Indian Woman' in the Early Settlement Era in Western Canada," Great Plains Quarterly 13 (summer 1993): 147-71.
53. Grant, 290.
54. "Immigration," Mainland Guardian (New Westminster), 9 Feb. 1871.
55. "Letter from Victoria," Cariboo Sentinel (Williams Creek), 18 June 1866.
56. "A Laudable Marriage," Colonist, 18 May 1861 (my translation from the Chinook Jargon). Also see Crosby, 66. On Chinook Jargon, see Edward Harper Thomas, Chinook: A History and Dictionary of the Northwest Trade Jargon, 2d ed. (Portland: Binfold & Mont, 1970).
57. "A Laudable Marriage," Colonist, 18 May 1861 (my translation from the Chinook Jargon). Also see Crosby, 66. On Chinook Jargon, see Edward Harper Thomas, Chinook: A History and Dictionary of the Northwest Trade Jargon, 2d ed. (Portland: Binfold & Mont, 1970).
58. "A Laudable Marriage," Colonist, 18 May 1861 (my translation from the Chinook Jargon). Also see Crosby, 66. On Chinook Jargon, see Edward Harper Thomas, Chinook: A History and Dictionary of the Northwest Trade Jargon, 2d ed. (Portland: Binfold & Mont, 1970).
59. Colonist, 29 May 1862.
60. Mayne, 75.
61. R.C. Lundin Brown, British Columbia: An Essay (New Westminster: Royal Engineer Press, 1863), 53.
62. One of the Disappointed, [untitled], British Columbian, 7 June 1862.
63. Frances E. Herring, In the Pathless West with Soldiers, Pioneers, Miners, and Savages (London: T. Fisher Unwin, [1904]), 79-83.
64. Edward Gibbon Wakefield, "A View of the Art of Colonisation with Present Reference to the British Empire: In Letters between a Statesman and a Colonist," The Collected Works of Edward Gibbon Wakefield, ed. M.F. Lloyd Pritchard (London: Collins, 1868 [1849]), 972.
65. On similar environments elsewhere, see Jock Phillips, A Man's Country? The Image of the Pakeha Male: A History (Auckland: Penguin, 1987), chap. 1; Susan Lee Johnson, "'The Gold She Gathered': Difference, Domination, and California's Southern Mines, 1848-1853" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1993).
66. On similar environments elsewhere, see Jock Phillips, A Man's Country? The Image of the Pakeha Male: A History (Auckland: Penguin, 1987), chap. 1; Susan Lee Johnson, "'The Gold She Gathered': Difference, Domination, and California's Southern Mines, 1848-1853" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1993).
67. See Denise Riley, "Am I That Name?": Feminism and the Category of "Women" in History (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988); Vron Ware, Beyond the Pale: White Women, Racism, and History (London: Verso, 1992).
68. See Denise Riley, "Am I That Name?": Feminism and the Category of "Women" in History (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988); Vron Ware, Beyond the Pale: White Women, Racism, and History (London: Verso, 1992).
69. "Sir Harry Verney upon British Columbia," British Columbian, 20 Aug. 1862.
70. "Reading Room."
71. R. Byron Johnson, Very Far West Indeed: A Few Rough Experiences on the North-West Pacific Coast, 3d. ed. (London, 1872; rpt., N.P., 1985), 276.
72. Walter B. Cheadle, Cheadle's Journal of Trip across Canada, 1862-1863 (Edmonton: Hurtig, 1971), 238.
73. W. Parker Snow, British Columbia: Emigration, and Our Colonies Considered Practically, Socially, and Politically (London: Piper, Stephenson, & Spence, 1858), 34.
74. "Dance House-Miners Not to Blame," Colonist, 24 Dec, 1861 (my translation).
75. George Hills, "Transcript of the Diaries of The Rev. George Hills," 5: "31 May 1860 to 8 August 1860," MS 65a, PSA 57, Archives of the Ecclesiastical Province of British Columbia, 395-96.
76. Brown, 53.
77. "Woman," Colonist, 18 Jan. 1862.
78. Macfie, Vancouver Island and British Columbia, 408.
79. "Inducements for Families to Settle in Victoria," Colonist, 30 Nov. 1861.
80. Colonist, 23 Feb. 1869.
81. "British Columbia," Times (London), 13 Jan. 1862.
82. Macfie, Vancouver Island and British Columbia, 497.
83. "The Columbia Mission," Times, 28 Feb. 1862.
84. "Letter from Lytton," Colonist Supplement, 16 May 1862.
85. "National Education," Colonist, 14 Feb. 1860.
86. "Yankee Girls," Daily Chronicle (Victoria), 23 Apr. 1864.
87. See A. James Hammerton, Emigrant Gentlewomen: Genteel Poverty and Female Migration (London: Croom Helm, 1979); Charlotte Macdonald, A Woman of Good Character: Single Women as Immigrant Settlers in Nineteenth-Century New Zealand (Wellington, New Zealand: Bridget Williams, 1990); Jackie Lay, "To Columbia on the Tynemouth: The Immigration of Single Women and Girls in 1862," In Her Own Right: Women's History in B.C., ed. Barbara Latham and Cathy Kess (Victoria, B.C.: Camosun College, 1980); Barbara Roberts, "'A Work of Empire': Canadian Reformers and British Female Migration," in A Not Unreasonable Claim: Women and Reform in Canada, 1880s-1920s, ed. Linda Kealey (Toronto: Women's Press, 1979); Suzann Buckley, "British Female Emigration and Imperial Development: Experiments in Canada, 1885-1931," Hecate 3 (July 1977): 26-40; Janice Gothard, "'Radically Unsound and Mischievous': Female Migration to Tasmania, 1856-1863," Australian Historical Studies 23 (October 1989): 386-404; Cecillie Swaisland, Servants and Gentlewomen to the Golden Land: The Emigration of Single Women from Britain to Southern Africa, 1820-1939 (Oxford and Providence: Berg and University of Natal, 1993).
88. See A. James Hammerton, Emigrant Gentlewomen: Genteel Poverty and Female Migration (London: Croom Helm, 1979); Charlotte Macdonald, A Woman of Good Character: Single Women as Immigrant Settlers in Nineteenth-Century New Zealand (Wellington, New Zealand: Bridget Williams, 1990); Jackie Lay, "To Columbia on the Tynemouth: The Immigration of Single Women and Girls in 1862," In Her Own Right: Women's History in B.C., ed. Barbara Latham and Cathy Kess (Victoria, B.C.: Camosun College, 1980); Barbara Roberts, "'A Work of Empire': Canadian Reformers and British Female Migration," in A Not Unreasonable Claim: Women and Reform in Canada, 1880s-1920s, ed. Linda Kealey (Toronto: Women's Press, 1979); Suzann Buckley, "British Female Emigration and Imperial Development: Experiments in Canada, 1885-1931," Hecate 3 (July 1977): 26-40; Janice Gothard, "'Radically Unsound and Mischievous': Female Migration to Tasmania, 1856-1863," Australian Historical Studies 23 (October 1989): 386-404; Cecillie Swaisland, Servants and Gentlewomen to the Golden Land: The Emigration of Single Women from Britain to Southern Africa, 1820-1939 (Oxford and Providence: Berg and University of Natal, 1993).
89. See A. James Hammerton, Emigrant Gentlewomen: Genteel Poverty and Female Migration (London: Croom Helm, 1979); Charlotte Macdonald, A Woman of Good Character: Single Women as Immigrant Settlers in Nineteenth-Century New Zealand (Wellington, New Zealand: Bridget Williams, 1990); Jackie Lay, "To Columbia on the Tynemouth: The Immigration of Single Women and Girls in 1862," In Her Own Right: Women's History in B.C., ed. Barbara Latham and Cathy Kess (Victoria, B.C.: Camosun College, 1980); Barbara Roberts, "'A Work of Empire': Canadian Reformers and British Female Migration," in A Not Unreasonable Claim: Women and Reform in Canada, 1880s-1920s, ed. Linda Kealey (Toronto: Women's Press, 1979); Suzann Buckley, "British Female Emigration and Imperial Development: Experiments in Canada, 1885-1931," Hecate 3 (July 1977): 26-40; Janice Gothard, "'Radically Unsound and Mischievous': Female Migration to Tasmania, 1856-1863," Australian Historical Studies 23 (October 1989): 386-404; Cecillie Swaisland, Servants and Gentlewomen to the Golden Land: The Emigration of Single Women from Britain to Southern Africa, 1820-1939 (Oxford and Providence: Berg and University of Natal, 1993).
90. See A. James Hammerton, Emigrant Gentlewomen: Genteel Poverty and Female Migration (London: Croom Helm, 1979); Charlotte Macdonald, A Woman of Good Character: Single Women as Immigrant Settlers in Nineteenth-Century New Zealand (Wellington, New Zealand: Bridget Williams, 1990); Jackie Lay, "To Columbia on the Tynemouth: The Immigration of Single Women and Girls in 1862," In Her Own Right: Women's History in B.C., ed. Barbara Latham and Cathy Kess (Victoria, B.C.: Camosun College, 1980); Barbara Roberts, "'A Work of Empire': Canadian Reformers and British Female Migration," in A Not Unreasonable Claim: Women and Reform in Canada, 1880s-1920s, ed. Linda Kealey (Toronto: Women's Press, 1979); Suzann Buckley, "British Female Emigration and Imperial Development: Experiments in Canada, 1885-1931," Hecate 3 (July 1977): 26-40; Janice Gothard, "'Radically Unsound and Mischievous': Female Migration to Tasmania, 1856-1863," Australian Historical Studies 23 (October 1989): 386-404; Cecillie Swaisland, Servants and Gentlewomen to the Golden Land: The Emigration of Single Women from Britain to Southern Africa, 1820-1939 (Oxford and Providence: Berg and University of Natal, 1993).
91. See A. James Hammerton, Emigrant Gentlewomen: Genteel Poverty and Female Migration (London: Croom Helm, 1979); Charlotte Macdonald, A Woman of Good Character: Single Women as Immigrant Settlers in Nineteenth-Century New Zealand (Wellington, New Zealand: Bridget Williams, 1990); Jackie Lay, "To Columbia on the Tynemouth: The Immigration of Single Women and Girls in 1862," In Her Own Right: Women's History in B.C., ed. Barbara Latham and Cathy Kess (Victoria, B.C.: Camosun College, 1980); Barbara Roberts, "'A Work of Empire': Canadian Reformers and British Female Migration," in A Not Unreasonable Claim: Women and Reform in Canada, 1880s-1920s, ed. Linda Kealey (Toronto: Women's Press, 1979); Suzann Buckley, "British Female Emigration and Imperial Development: Experiments in Canada, 1885-1931," Hecate 3 (July 1977): 26-40; Janice Gothard, "'Radically Unsound and Mischievous': Female Migration to Tasmania, 1856-1863," Australian Historical Studies 23 (October 1989): 386-404; Cecillie Swaisland, Servants and Gentlewomen to the Golden Land: The Emigration of Single Women from Britain to Southern Africa, 1820-1939 (Oxford and Providence: Berg and University of Natal, 1993).
92. See A. James Hammerton, Emigrant Gentlewomen: Genteel Poverty and Female Migration (London: Croom Helm, 1979); Charlotte Macdonald, A Woman of Good Character: Single Women as Immigrant Settlers in Nineteenth-Century New Zealand (Wellington, New Zealand: Bridget Williams, 1990); Jackie Lay, "To Columbia on the Tynemouth: The Immigration of Single Women and Girls in 1862," In Her Own Right: Women's History in B.C., ed. Barbara Latham and Cathy Kess (Victoria, B.C.: Camosun College, 1980); Barbara Roberts, "'A Work of Empire': Canadian Reformers and British Female Migration," in A Not Unreasonable Claim: Women and Reform in Canada, 1880s-1920s, ed. Linda Kealey (Toronto: Women's Press, 1979); Suzann Buckley, "British Female Emigration and Imperial Development: Experiments in Canada, 1885-1931," Hecate 3 (July 1977): 26-40; Janice Gothard, "'Radically Unsound and Mischievous': Female Migration to Tasmania, 1856-1863," Australian Historical Studies 23 (October 1989): 386-404; Cecillie Swaisland, Servants and Gentlewomen to the Golden Land: The Emigration of Single Women from Britain to Southern Africa, 1820-1939 (Oxford and Providence: Berg and University of Natal, 1993).
93. See A. James Hammerton, Emigrant Gentlewomen: Genteel Poverty and Female Migration (London: Croom Helm, 1979); Charlotte Macdonald, A Woman of Good Character: Single Women as Immigrant Settlers in Nineteenth-Century New Zealand (Wellington, New Zealand: Bridget Williams, 1990); Jackie Lay, "To Columbia on the Tynemouth: The Immigration of Single Women and Girls in 1862," In Her Own Right: Women's History in B.C., ed. Barbara Latham and Cathy Kess (Victoria, B.C.: Camosun College, 1980); Barbara Roberts, "'A Work of Empire': Canadian Reformers and British Female Migration," in A Not Unreasonable Claim: Women and Reform in Canada, 1880s-1920s, ed. Linda Kealey (Toronto: Women's Press, 1979); Suzann Buckley, "British Female Emigration and Imperial Development: Experiments in Canada, 1885-1931," Hecate 3 (July 1977): 26-40; Janice Gothard, "'Radically Unsound and Mischievous': Female Migration to Tasmania, 1856-1863," Australian Historical Studies 23 (October 1989): 386-404; Cecillie Swaisland, Servants and Gentlewomen to the Golden Land: The Emigration of Single Women from Britain to Southern Africa, 1820-1939 (Oxford and Providence: Berg and University of Natal, 1993).
94. "Hope for Educated Women," Colonist, 1 July 1862.
95. W.R. Greg, "Why Are Women Redundant?" National Review 27 (April 1862): 431-60; Judith Worsnop, "A Reevaluation of 'Problem of Surplus Women' in Nineteenth-Century England," Women's Studies International Forum 13, no. 1-2 (1990): 21-31.
96. W.R. Greg, "Why Are Women Redundant?" National Review 27 (April 1862): 431-60; Judith Worsnop, "A Reevaluation of 'Problem of Surplus Women' in Nineteenth-Century England," Women's Studies International Forum 13, no. 1-2 (1990): 21-31.
97. See Sylvia Van Kirk, "Founding Families: Tracing the Fortunes of Five HBC /Native Families in Early Victoria," forthcoming in BC Studies.
98. "Prostitution Recognized by Government," Colonist, 2 June 1862.
99. "Beating a Squaw," Colonist, 29 Aug. 1861.
100. See, for instance, "Assaulting a Squaw," 25 Feb. 1862; "Alleged Rape," 28 Oct. 1862, both in Colonist.
101. See, for instance, "Assaulting a Squaw," 25 Feb. 1862; "Alleged Rape," 28 Oct. 1862, both in Colonist.
102. "British Columbia Mission," Colonist, 11 Sept. 1861. Also see Lady Lavinia Skewton (pseudonym), The "Occasional Paper" (Victoria: Colonist, 1860).
103. "British Columbia Mission," Colonist, 11 Sept. 1861. Also see Lady Lavinia Skewton (pseudonym), The "Occasional Paper" (Victoria: Colonist, 1860).
104. "The British Columbia Missionary Meeting," Colonist, 31 Jan. 1861. See Colonist, 20, 21, and 23 Mar. 1861 for responses.
105. "The British Columbia Missionary Meeting," Colonist, 31 Jan. 1861. See Colonist, 20, 21, and 23 Mar. 1861 for responses.
106. McNaab, 103 (my translation from the Chinook Jargon).
107. John Sebastian Helmcken, "In the Early Fifties," The Reminiscences of Doctor John Sebastian Helmcken, ed. Dorothy Blakey Smith (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1976), 293.
108. D.W. Higgins, "The Mystic Spring" and Other Tales of Western Life (Toronto: William Briggs, 1904), 56.
109. Edgar Fawcett, Some Reminiscences of Old Victoria (Toronto: William Briggs, 1912), 20-21.
110. William C. King, "Trip to California," Add. Mss. 99, British Columbia Archives and Records Service, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, 16.
111. McNaab, 199.
112. Louis LeBourdais, "Billy Barker of Barkerville," British Columbia Historical Quarterly 1, no. 1 (1937): 167.
113. Higgins, 35-36.
114. James Anderson, Sawney's Letters and Cariboo Rhymes (Barkerville, British Columbia, 1868; rpt. Toronto: Bibliographic Society of Canada, 1950).
115. "Union Mine Items! A Very Interesting Debate!" Nanaimo Free Press, 4 Apr. 1891.
116. See Marilyn Lake, "The Politics of Respectability: Identifying the Masculinist Context," Historical Studies 22 (April 1986): 116-31; Susan Lee Johnson, "Bulls, Bears, and Dancing Boys: Race, Gender, and Leisure in the California Gold Rush," Radical History Review 60 (fall 1994): 4-37.
117. See Marilyn Lake, "The Politics of Respectability: Identifying the Masculinist Context," Historical Studies 22 (April 1986): 116-31; Susan Lee Johnson, "Bulls, Bears, and Dancing Boys: Race, Gender, and Leisure in the California Gold Rush," Radical History Review 60 (fall 1994): 4-37.
118. See Barman, table 2, 369; Galois and Harris; Adele Perry, "'Oh I'm Just Sick of the Faces of Men': Gender Imbalance, Race, Sexuality, and Sociability in Nineteenth-Century British Columbia," BC Studies, no. 105-6 (spring/summer 1995): 27-44.
119. See Barman, table 2, 369; Galois and Harris; Adele Perry, "'Oh I'm Just Sick of the Faces of Men': Gender Imbalance, Race, Sexuality, and Sociability in Nineteenth-Century British Columbia," BC Studies, no. 105-6 (spring/summer 1995): 27-44.
120. "Impressive Sermon," Colonist, 22 Sept. 1862.
121. "Shocking Depravity," Colonist, 29 Sept. 1862.
122. Frederick Whymper, Travel and Adventure in the Territory of Alaska (London, 1868; rpt., Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms, 1966), 2.
123. "Elopement," Colonist, 4 Aug. 1862.
124. George An [sic] Deans to Brother and Sister, 13 August 1856, Annie Deans, "Outward Correspondence," Add. Mss. E B D343A, British Columbia Archives and Records Service.
125. Hills, "Transcript of the Diaries of The Rev. George Hills," 5: 395.
126. Quoted in Barman, 130.
127. I define "feminist" loosely to include all arguments made in the name of women's rights and for opportunities that identify gender as the central barrier to their attainment.
128. See Marilyn Lake, "Colonized and Colonizing: The White Australian Feminist Subject," Women's History Review 2, no. 3 (1993): 377-86; Mariana Valverde, "'When the Mother of the Race Is Free': Race, Reproduction, and Sexuality in First-Wave Feminism," Gender Conflicts: New Essays in Canadian Women's History, ed. Mariana Valverde and Franca Iacovetta (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992).
129. See Marilyn Lake, "Colonized and Colonizing: The White Australian Feminist Subject," Women's History Review 2, no. 3 (1993): 377-86; Mariana Valverde, "'When the Mother of the Race Is Free': Race, Reproduction, and Sexuality in First-Wave Feminism," Gender Conflicts: New Essays in Canadian Women's History, ed. Mariana Valverde and Franca Iacovetta (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992).
130. Nellie de Bertrand Lugrin, The Pioneer Women of Vancouver Island, 1843-1866 (Victoria: Women's Canadian Club, 1928), 145. Also see National Council of Women of Canada, Women of Canada: Their Life and Work (Toronto, 1900; rpt., N.P.: National Council of Women of Canada, 1975), 432-37.
131. Nellie de Bertrand Lugrin, The Pioneer Women of Vancouver Island, 1843-1866 (Victoria: Women's Canadian Club, 1928), 145. Also see National Council of Women of Canada, Women of Canada: Their Life and Work (Toronto, 1900; rpt., N.P.: National Council of Women of Canada, 1975), 432-37.
132. Lugrin, 25.
133. Frances E. Herring, Nan and Other Pioneer Women of the West (London: Francis Griffiths, 1913), no page number.
134. John Pease Babcock, Peace River Joe (Victoria: Litchfield's, 1924), 9, 24 (my translation from the Chinook Jargon).
135. See Claudia Knapman, White Women in Fiji, 1835-1930: The Ruin of Empire? (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1986); Helen Callaway, Gender, Culture, and Empire: European Women in Colonial Nigeria (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Margaret Strobel, European Women and the Second British Empire (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991); Beverly Gartrell, "Colonial Wives: Villains or Victims?" The Incorporated Wife, ed. Hilary Callan and Shirley Ardner (London: Croom Helm, 1984), for arguments against the notion that white women spelled the end of harmonious and reciprocal race relations. See Jane Haggis, "Gendering Colonialism or Colonizing Gender? Recent Women's Studies Approaches to White Women and the History of British Colonialism," Women's Studies International Forum 13, no. 1-2 (1990): 105-15, for an insightful critique.
136. See Claudia Knapman, White Women in Fiji, 1835-1930: The Ruin of Empire? (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1986); Helen Callaway, Gender, Culture, and Empire: European Women in Colonial Nigeria (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Margaret Strobel, European Women and the Second British Empire (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991); Beverly Gartrell, "Colonial Wives: Villains or Victims?" The Incorporated Wife, ed. Hilary Callan and Shirley Ardner (London: Croom Helm, 1984), for arguments against the notion that white women spelled the end of harmonious and reciprocal race relations. See Jane Haggis, "Gendering Colonialism or Colonizing Gender? Recent Women's Studies Approaches to White Women and the History of British Colonialism," Women's Studies International Forum 13, no. 1-2 (1990): 105-15, for an insightful critique.
137. See Claudia Knapman, White Women in Fiji, 1835-1930: The Ruin of Empire? (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1986); Helen Callaway, Gender, Culture, and Empire: European Women in Colonial Nigeria (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Margaret Strobel, European Women and the Second British Empire (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991); Beverly Gartrell, "Colonial Wives: Villains or Victims?" The Incorporated Wife, ed. Hilary Callan and Shirley Ardner (London: Croom Helm, 1984), for arguments against the notion that white women spelled the end of harmonious and reciprocal race relations. See Jane Haggis, "Gendering Colonialism or Colonizing Gender? Recent Women's Studies Approaches to White Women and the History of British Colonialism," Women's Studies International Forum 13, no. 1-2 (1990): 105-15, for an insightful critique.
138. See Claudia Knapman, White Women in Fiji, 1835-1930: The Ruin of Empire? (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1986); Helen Callaway, Gender, Culture, and Empire: European Women in Colonial Nigeria (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Margaret Strobel, European Women and the Second British Empire (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991); Beverly Gartrell, "Colonial Wives: Villains or Victims?" The Incorporated Wife, ed. Hilary Callan and Shirley Ardner (London: Croom Helm, 1984), for arguments against the notion that white women spelled the end of harmonious and reciprocal race relations. See Jane Haggis, "Gendering Colonialism or Colonizing Gender? Recent Women's Studies Approaches to White Women and the History of British Colonialism," Women's Studies International Forum 13, no. 1-2 (1990): 105-15, for an insightful critique.
139. See Claudia Knapman, White Women in Fiji, 1835-1930: The Ruin of Empire? (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1986); Helen Callaway, Gender, Culture, and Empire: European Women in Colonial Nigeria (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Margaret Strobel, European Women and the Second British Empire (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991); Beverly Gartrell, "Colonial Wives: Villains or Victims?" The Incorporated Wife, ed. Hilary Callan and Shirley Ardner (London: Croom Helm, 1984), for arguments against the notion that white women spelled the end of harmonious and reciprocal race relations. See Jane Haggis, "Gendering Colonialism or Colonizing Gender? Recent Women's Studies Approaches to White Women and the History of British Colonialism," Women's Studies International Forum 13, no. 1-2 (1990): 105-15, for an insightful critique.