Exercise in the cold

Journal of Sports Sciences

Volumn 22, Issue 10, 2004, Pages 898-916

  Nimmo, Myra ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF STRATHCLYDE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Adaptation; Cold conditions; Immersion; Norepinephrine; Vasoconstriction

Indexed keywords

GLYCOGEN; WATER;

AIR; ANTHROPOMETRY; ATHLETE; BREATHING MECHANICS; COLD ACCLIMATIZATION; COLD CLIMATE; CORE TEMPERATURE; ENVIRONMENTAL TEMPERATURE; EXERCISE; FATIGUE; HUMAN; HYPOTHERMIA; MUSCLE CONTRACTION; PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE; PROTECTIVE CLOTHING; REST; REVIEW; SHIVERING; SWIMMING; THERMOGENESIS; THERMOREGULATION; WATER TEMPERATURE;

EID: 11044226342     PISSN: 02640414     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/0264041400005883     Document Type: Review

References (145)

1. Ainslie, P.N. and Reilly, T. (2003). Physiology of accidental hypothermia in the mountains: a forgotten story. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 37, 548-550.
2. Asmussen, G. and Gaunz, U. (1989). Temperature effects on isometric contractions of slow and fast twitch muscles of various rodents - dependence on fibre type composition: a comparative study. Biomedica Biochimica Acta, 48, 536-541.
3. Asmussen, E., Bonde-Petersen, F. and Jorgensen, K. (1976). Mechnano-elastic properties of human muscles at different temperatures. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 96, 83-93.
4. Ball, D., Burrow, C. and Sargeant, A.J. (1999). Human power output during repeated sprint cycle exercise: the influence of thermal stress. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 79, 360-366.
5. Baum, E., Bruck, K. and Schwennicke, H.P. (1976). Adaptive modifications in the thermoregulatory system of long distance runners. Journal of Applied Physiology, 40, 404-410.
6. Beelan, A. and Sargeant, A.J. (1991). Effect of lowered muscle temperature on the physiological response to exercise in men. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 63, 387-392.
7. Bergh, U. and Ekblom, B. (1979). Influence of muscle temperature on maximal muscle strength and power output in human skeletal muscles. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 107, 33-37.
8. Bigland-Ritchie, B., Thomas, C.K., Rice, C.L., Howarth, J.V. and Woods, J.J. (1992). Muscle temperature, contractile speed, and motoneuron firing rates during human voluntary contractions. Journal of Applied Physiology, 73, 2457-2461.
9. Bligh, J. and Johnson, K.G. (1973). Glossary of terms for thermal physiology. Journal of Applied Physiology, 35, 941-961.
10. Blomstrand, E. and Essen-Gustavsson, B. (1987). Influence of reduced muscle temperature on metabolism in Type I and Type II human muscle fibres during intensive exercise. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 131, 569-574.
11. Castellani, J.W., Young, A.J., Degroot, D.W. et al. (2001). Thermoregulation during cold exposure after several days of exhaustive exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 90, 939-946.
12. Castellani, J.W., Stulz, D.A., Degroot, DW. et al. (2003). Eighty four hours of sustained operations alter thermoregulation during cold exposure. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 35, 175-181.
13. Clarke, R.S.J., Hellon, R.F. and Lind, A.R. (1958). The duration of sustained contractions of the human forearm at different muscle temperatures. Journal of Physiology, 143, 454-473.
14. Clothier, J.G. (1974). Medical aspects of work in artic areas. Practitioner, 213, 805-811.
15. Collins, K.J., Easton, J.C., Belfield-Smith, H., Exton-Smith, A.N. and Pluck, R.A. (1985). Effects of age and body temperature on blood pressure in cold environments. Clinical Science, 69, 465-470.
16. Costill, D.L., Dalsky, G.P. and Fink, W.J. (1978). Effects of caffeine ingestion on metabolism and exercise performance. Medicine and Science in Sports, 10, 155-158.
17. Daniels, F. and Baker, P.T. (1961). Relationship between body fat and shivering in air at 15°C. Journal of Applied Physiology, 16, 421-425.
18. Davies, C.T.M. and Young, K. (1983). Effect of temperature on the contractile properties and muscle power of triceps surae in humans. Journal of Applied Physiology, 55, 191-195.
19. De Ruiter, C.J. and De Haan, A. (2000). Temperature effect on the force/velocity relationship of the fresh and fatigued human adductor pollicis muscle. Pflugers Archive, 440, 163-170.
20. Doubt, T.J. (1991). Physiology of exercise in the cold. Sports Medicine, 11, 367-381.
21. Doubt, T.J. and Hseih, S.S. (1991). Additive effects of caffeine and cold water during submaximal leg exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 23, 435-442.
22. Dressendorfer, R.H., Smith, R.M., Baker, D.G. and Hong, S.K. (1977). Cold tolerance of long-distance runners and swimmers in Hawaii. International Journal of Biometeorology, 21, 51-63.
23. Edwards, R.H.T., Harris, R.C., Hultman, E. et al. (1972). Effect of temperature on muscle energy metabolism and endurance during successive isometric contractions, sustained to fatigue, of the quadriceps muscle in man. Journal of Physiology, 220, 335-352.
24. Epstein, Y., Shapiro, Y. and Brill, S. (1983). Role of surface area to mass ratio and work efficiency in heat intolerance. Journal of Applied Physiology, 54, 831-836.
25. Estler, C.J., Ammar, H.P. and Herzog, C. (1978). Swimming capacity of mice after prolonged treatment with psychostimulants. I. Effects of caffeine on swimming performance and cold stress. Psychopharmacology, 58, 161-166.
26. Falk, B. (1998). Effects of exercise and stress during rest and exercise in the paediatric population. Sports Medicine, 25 221-240.
27. Falk, B., Bar-Or, O., Smolander, J. and Frost, G. (1994). Response to rest and exercise in the cold: effects of age and aerobic fitness. Journal of Applied Physiology, 76, 72-78
28. Faulkner, J.A., White, T.P. and Markley, J.M. (1981). The 1979 Canadian ski marathon: a natural experiment in hypothermia. In Exercise in Health and Disease (edited by F.J. Nagle and H.J. Mortoye), pp. 184-195. Springfield, IL: Thomas.
29. Febbraio, M.A., Murton, P., Selig, S.E. et al. (1996a). Effect of CHO ingestion on exercise metabolism and performance in different ambient temperatures. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 28, 1380-1387.
30. Febbraio, M.A., Snow, R.J., Stathis, C.G., Hargreaves, M. and Carey, M.F. (1996b). Blunting the rise in body temperature reduces muscle glycogenolysis during exercise in humans. Experimental Physiology, 81, 685-693.
31. Ferretti, G., Ishii, M., Moia, C. and Cerretelli, P. (1992). Effects of temperature on the maximal instantaneous muscle power of humans. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 64, 112-116.
32. Flore, P., Therminaris, A., Oddou-Chirpaz, M.F. and Quirion, A. (1992). Influence of moderate cold exposure on blood lactate during incremental exercise. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 64 213-217.
33. Fox, R.H., MacGibbon, R., Davies, L. and Woodward, P.M. (1973). Problem of the old and the cold. British Medical Journal, 1, 21-24.
34. Frank, S.M., Raja, S.N., Bulcao, C. and Goldstein, D.S. (2000). Age-related thermoregulatory differences during core cooling in humans. American Journal of Physiology, 279, R349-R354.
35. Freund, B.J. and Sawka, M.N. (1996). Influence of cold stress on human fluid balance. In Nutrient Requirements for Work in Cold and High Altitude Environments (edited by B.M. Marriot and S.J. Carlson), pp. 161-179. Washington, DC: National Academy of Science Press.
36. Galloway, S.D.R. and Maughan, R.J. (1997). Effects of ambient temperature on the capacity to perform prolonged cycle exercise in man. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 29, 1240-1249.
37. Galloway, S.D.R. and Maughan, R.J. (1998). The effects of substrate and fluid provision on thermoregulatory, cardiorespiratory, and metabolic responses to prolonged exercise in a cold environment in man. Experimental Physiology, 83, 419-430.
38. Galloway, S.D.R., Wootton, S.A., Murphy, J.L. and Maughan, R.J. (2001). Exogenous carbohydrate from drinks ingested during prolonged exercise in a cold environment. Journal of Applied Physiology, 91, 654-660.
39. Giesbrecht, G.G. (1995). The respiratory system in a cold environment. Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine, 66, 890-902.
40. Glickman-Weiss, E.L., Nelson, A.G., Hearon, C.M., Vasanthakumar, S.R. and Stringer, B.T. (1993). Does feeding regime affect physiologic and thermal responses during exposure to 8, 20 and 27°C. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 67, 30-34.
41. Glickman-Weiss, E.L., Nelson, A.G., Hearon, C.M., Windhauser, M. and Heltz, D. (1994). The thermogenic effect of carbohydrate feeding during exposure to 8, 12 and 27°C. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 68, 291-297.
42. Glickman-Weiss, E.L., Cheatham, C.C., Caine, N., Blegen, M. and Marcinkiewicz, J. (2000a). Influence of gender and menstrual cycle on a cold tolerance test and its relationship to thermosensitivity. Undersea and Hyperbaric Medicine, 27, 75-81.
43. Glickman-Weiss, E.L., Caine, N., Cheatham, C.C. et al. (2000b). The effects of gender and menstrual phase on carbohydrate utilisation during acute cold exposure. Wilderness and Environmental Medicine, 11, 5-11.
44. Golden, F.S. and Tipton, M.J. (1988). Human adaptation to repeated cold immersions. Journal of Physiology, 396, 349-363.
45. Golden, F.St.C., Hampton, I.F.G. and Smith, D. (1979). Cold tolerance in long distance swimmers. Journal of Physiology, 290 48P-49P.
46. Gonzalez, R.R. and Blanchard, L.A. (1998). Thermoregulatory responses to cold transients: effects of menstrual cycle in resting women. Journal of Applied Physiology, 85, 543-553.
47. Grucza, R., Pekkarinen, H., Timonen, K., Titov, E. and Hanninen, O. (1997). Physiological responses to cold in relation to the phase of the menstrual cycle and oral contraceptives. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 813, 697-701.
48. Grucza, R., Pekkarinen, H. and Hanninen, O. (1999). Different thermal sensitivity to exercise and cold in men and women. Journal of Thermal Biology, 24, 397-401.
49. Haman, F., Perronet, F., Kenny, G.P. et al. (2002). Effect of cold exposure on fuel utilization in humans: plasma glucose, muscle glycogen, and lipids. Journal of Applied Physiology, 93 77-84.
50. Hanna, J.M. and Hong, S.K. (1972). Critical water temperature and effective insulation in scuba divers in Hawaii. Journal of Applied Physiology, 33, 770-773.
51. Hannah, J.N., McHill, P. and Sinclair, J.D. (1975). Human cardiorespiratory responses to acute cold exposure. Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology, 2, 229-238.
52. Hawley, J.A. (2002). Effect of increased fat availability on metabolism and exercise capacity. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 34, 1485-1491.
53. Hayward, M.G. and Keatinge, W.R (1981). Roles of subcutaneous fat and thermoregulatory reflexes in determining ability to stabilise body temperature in water. Journal of Physiology, 320, 229-251.
54. Heir, T. and Oseid, S. (1994). Self-reported asthma and exercise induced symptoms in high level competitive cross-country skiers. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine, Science and Sports, 4, 128-133.
55. Heir, T. and Stemshaug, H. (1995). Salbutamol and high-intensity treadmill running in non-asthmatic highly conditioned athletes. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine, Science and Sports, 5, 231-236.
56. Hurley, B.F. and Haymes, E.M. (1982). The effects of rest and exercise in the cold on substrate mobilisation and utilisation. Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine, 53, 1193-1197.
57. Inoue, Y., Araki, T. and Tsujta, J. (1996). The thermoregulatory responses of prepubertal boys and young men in changing temperature linearly from 28-15°C. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 72, 204-208.
58. Ivy, J.J., Costill, D.L., Fink, W.J. and Lower, R.W. (1979). Influence of caffeine and carbohydrate feedings on endurance performance. Medicine and Science in Sports, 11, 6-11.
59. Jacobs, I., Romet, T., Frim, J. and Hynes, A. (1984). Effects of endurance fitness on responses to cold water immersion. Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine, 55, 715-720.
60. Jacobs, I., Romet, T.T. and Kerrigan-Brown, D. (1985). Muscle glycogen depletion during exercise at 9°C and 21°C. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 54, 35-39.
61. Launay, J., Besnard, Y., Guinet, A. et al. (2002). Thermoregulation in the cold after physical training at different ambient air temperatures. Canadian of Physiology and Pharmacology, 80 857-864.
62. Layden, J.D., Patterson, M.J. and Nimmo, M.A. (2002). Effect of reduced ambient temperature on fat utilization during submaximal exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 34, 774-799.
63. Layden, J.D., Malkova, D. and Nimmo, M.A. (2004). During exercise in the cold increased availability of plasma non esterified fatty acids does not affect the pattern of substrate oxidation. Metabolism, 53, 203-208.
64. LeBlanc, J. (1954). Subcutaneous fat and skin temperature. Canadian Journal of Biochemistry and Physiology, 32, 354-358.
65. Lennquist, S., Granberg, P.O. and Wedin, D.P. (1974). Fluid balance and physical work capacity in humans exposed to cold. Archives of Environmental Health, 29, 241-249.
66. MacNaughton, K., Sathasivam, P., Vallerand, A. and Graham, T. (1990). Influence of caffeine on metabolic responses of men at rest in 28 and 5°C. Journal of Applied Physiology, 68, 1889-1895.
67. Mahler, D.A. and Loke, J. (1981). Lung function after marathon running at warm and cold ambient temperatures. American Review of Respiratory Disease, 124, 154-157.
68. Martineau, L. and Jacobs, I. (1988). Muscle glycogen utilization during shivering thermogenesis in humans. Journal of Applied Physiology, 65, 2046-2050.
69. Martineau, L. and Jacobs, I. (1989a). Free fatty acid availability and temperature regulation in cold water. Journal of Applied Physiology, 67, 2466-2472.
70. Martineau, L. and Jacobs, I. (1989b). Muscle glycogen availability and temperature regulation in humans. Journal of Applied Physiology, 66, 72-78.
71. McArdle, W.D., Magle, J.R., Spina, R.J., Gergley, T.J. and Toner, M.M. (1984). Thermal adjustment to cold-water exposure in exercising men and women. Journal of Applied Physiology, 56, 1572-1577.
72. Molnar, G.W. (1946). Survival of hypothermia by men immersed in the ocean. Journal of the American Medical Association, 131 1046-1050.
73. Nadel, E.R. (1984). Energy exchanges in water. Undersea Biomedical Research, 11, 149-158.
74. Nadel, E.R., Holmer, I., Bergh, U., Åstrand, P.O. and Stolwijk, J.A. (1974). Energy exchanges of swimming man. Journal of Applied Physiology, 36, 465-471.
75. Nielsen, B. and Nielsen, M. (1962). Body temperature during work at different intensities. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 56, 120-129.
76. Nielsen, M. (1938). Die Regulation der Korpertemperatur bei Muskelarbeit. Skandinavica Archive Physiologica, 79, 193-230.
77. O'Brien, C., Young, A.J., Lee, D.A. et al. (2000). Role of core temperature as a stimulus for cold acclimation during repeated immersion in 20°C water. Journal of Applied Physiology, 89, 242-250.
78. O'Dea, K., Esler, M., Leonard, P., Stockigt, J.R. and Nestel, P. (1982). Noradrenaline turnover during under- and over-eating in normal weight subjects. Metabolism, 31, 896-899.
79. Oksa, J., Rintamaki, H. and Rissanen, S. (1997). Muscle performance and electromyogram activity of the lower leg muscles with different levels of cold exposure. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 75, 484-490.
80. Parkin, J.M., Carey, M.F., Zhao, S. and Febbraio, M.A. (1999). Effect of ambient temperature on human skeletal muscle metabolism during fatiguing submaximal exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology 86, 902-908.
81. Patton, J.F. and Vogel, J.A. (1984). Effects of acute cold exposure on submaximal endurance performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 16, 494-497.
82. Pitsiladis, Y.P. and Maughan, R.J. (1999). The effects of exercise and diet manipulation on the capacity to perform prolonged exercise in the heat and in the cold on trained subjects. Journal of Physiology, 517, 919-930.
83. Pitsiladis, Y.P., Smith, I. and Maughan, R.J. (1999). Increased fat availability enhances the capacity of trained individuals to perform prolonged exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 31, 1570-1579.
84. Pozos, R. (1981). Frequency analysis of shivering in humans and its alteration by the temperature of inspired air. In Thermal Constraints in Diving (edited by L. A. Kuehn), pp. 55-80. Bethesda, MD: Undersea Medical Society Inc.
85. Pugh, L.G.C.E. (1963). Tolerance to extreme cold at altitude in a Nepalese pilgrim. Journal of Applied Physiology, 18, 1234-1238.
86. Pugh, L.G.C.E. (1967). Cold stress and muscular exercise, with special reference to accidental hypothermia. British Heart Journal, 2, 333-337.
87. Pugh, L.G.C.E. and Edholm, O.G. (1955). The physiology of channel swimmers. Lancet, October, pp. 761-768.
88. Pugh, L.G.C.E., Edholm, O.G., Fox, R.H. et al. (1960). A physiological study of channel swimming. Clinical Science, 19 257-273.
89. Quirion, A., Laurencelle, L., Paulin, L. et al. (1989). Metabolic and hormonal responses during exercise at 20°C, 0°C and - 20°C. International Journal of Biometeorology, 33, 227-232.
90. Rall, J.A. and Woledge, R.C. (1990). Influence of temperature on mechanics and energetics of muscle contraction. American Journal of Physiology, 259, R197-R203.
91. Rennie, D.W. (1988). Tissue heat transfer in water: lessons from the Korean divers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 20, S177-S184.
92. Rennie, M., Winder, W.W. and Holloszy, J.O. (1976). A sparing effect of increased free fatty acids on muscle glycogen in exercising rats. Biochemistry Journal, 156, 647-655.
93. Robinson, S. and Somers, A. (1971). Temperature regulation in swimming. Journal of Physiology, 63, 406-409.
94. Rome, L.C. and Kushmeric, M.J. (1983). Energetics of isometric contractions as a function of muscle temperature. American Journal of Physiology, 244, C100-C109.
95. Rome, L.C., Loughna, P.T. and Goldspink, G. (1984). Muscle fibre activity in carp as a function of swimming speed and muscle temperature. American Journal of Physiology, 247, R272-R279.
96. Rowell, L.B. (1983). Cardiovascular aspects of human thermoregulation. Circulation Research, 52, 367-379.
97. Samra, J.S, Simpson, E.J., Clark, M.L. et al. (1996). Effects of epinephrine infusion on adipose tissue: interactions between blood flow and lipid metabolism. American Journal of Physiology, 271, E834-E839.
98. Sandsund, M., Sue-Chu, M., Helgerud, J., Reinertsen, R.E. and Bjermer, L. (1998). Effect of cold exposure (-15°C) and Salbutamol treatment on physical performance in elite nonasthmatic cross country skiers. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 77, 297-304.
99. Sargeant, A.J. (1987). Effect of muscle temperature on leg extension force and short-term power output in humans. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 56, 693-698.
100. Sasaki, H., Maeda, J., Usui, S. and Ishiko, T. (1987). Effects of sucrose and caffeine ingestion on performance of prolonged strenuous running. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 8 261-265.
101. Schrauwen, P., Westerterp-Plantenga, M.S., Kornips, E., Schaart, G. and van Marken Lichtenbelt, W.D. (2002). The effect of mild cold exposure on UCP3 mRNA expression and UCP3 protein content in humans. International Journal of Obesity, 26, 450-457.
102. Shephard, R.J. and Shek, P.N. (1998). Cold exposure and immune function. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 76, 828-836.
103. Shiojiri, T., Shibasaki, M., Aoki, K., Kondo, N. and Koga, S. (1997). Effects of reduced muscle temperature on the oxygen uptake kinetics at the start of exercise. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 159, 327-333.
104. Sink, K.R., Thomas, T.R., Araujo, J. and Hill, S.F. (1989). Fat energy use and plasma lipid changes associated with exercise intensity and temperature. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 58, 508-513.
105. Siple, P.A. and Passel, C.F. (1945). Measurements of dry atmospheric cooling in subfreezing temperatures. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 89, 177-199.
106. Sloan, R.E.G. and Keatinge, W.R. (1973). Cooling rates of young people swimming in cold water. Journal of Applied Physiology, 35, 371-375.
107. Smith, G.B. and Hames, E.F. (1962). Estimation of tolerance times for cold water immerson. Aerospace Medicine, 33, 834-840.
108. Smith, R.M. and Hanna, J.M. (1975). Skinfolds and resting heat loss in cold air and water: temperature equivalence. Journal of Applied Physiology, 39, 93-102.
109. Smolander, J. (2002). Effect of cold exposure on older humans. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 23, 86-92.
110. Smolander, J., Bar-Or, O., Kohonen, O. and Ilmarinen, J. (1992). Thermoregulation during rest and exercise in the cold in pre- and early pubescent boys and in young men. Journal of Applied Physiology 72, 1589-1594.
111. Starkie, R.L., Hargreaves, M., Lambert, D.L., Proietto, J. and Febbraio, M.A. (1999). Effect of temperature on muscle metabolism during submaximal exercise in humans. Experimental Physiology, 84, 775-784.
112. Stienen, G.J.M., Kiers, J.L., Bottinelli, R. and Reggiani, C. (1996). Myofibrillar ATP-ase activity in skinned human skeletal muscle fibres: fibre type and temperature dependence. Journal of Physiology 493, 299-307.
113. Stocks, J.M., Patterson, M.J., Hyde, D.E., Mittleman, K.D. and Taylor, N.A.S. (2001). Metabolic habituation following repeated resting cold-water immersion is not apparent during low intensity cold-water exercise. Journal of Physiological Anthropology, 20 263-267.
114. Sue-Chu, M., Larsson, L. and Bjermer, L. (1996). Prevalence of asthma in young cross country skiers in central Scandanavia: differences between Norway and Sweden. Respiratory Medicine, 90 99-105.
115. Tarnopolsky, M.A., Atkinson, S.A., MacDougall, J.D., Sale, D.G. and Sutton, J.R. (1989). Physiological responses to caffeine during endurance running in habitual caffeine users. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 21, 418-424.
116. Therminaria, A., Flore, P., Oddou-Chirpaz, M.F., Pellerei, E. and Quirion, A. (1989). Influence of cold exposure on blood lactate response during incremental exercise. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 58, 411-418.
117. Thomson, R.L. and Hayward, J.S. (1996). Wet-cold exposure and hypothermia: thermal and metabolic responses to prolonged exercise in rain. Journal of Applied Physiology, 81, 1128-1137.
118. Tikuisis, P., Ducharme, M.B., Moroz, D. and Jacobs, I. (1999). Physiological responses of exercised-fatigued individuals exposed to wet-cold conditions. Journal of Applied Physiology, 86, 1319-1328.
119. Tikuisis, P., Jacobs, I., Moroz, D., Vallerand, A.L. and Martineau, L. (2000). Comparison of thermoregulatory responses between men and women immersed in cold water. Journal of Applied Physiology 89, 1403-1411.
120. Tipton, M.J. (1989). The initial responses to cold-water immersion in man. Clinical Science, 77, 581-588.
121. Tipton, M.J., Mekjavic, IB. and Eglin, C. M. (2000). Permanence of the habituation of the initial responses to cold-water immersion in humans. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 83 17-21.
122. Toner, M.M., Sawka, M.N., Holden, W.L. and Pandolf, K.B. (1985). Comparison of thermal responses between rest and leg exercise in water. Journal of Applied Physiology, 59, 248-253.
123. Toner, M.M. and McArdle, W.D. (1988). Physiological adjustments of man to the cold. In Human Performance: Physiology and Environmental Medicine at Terrestrial Extremes (edited by K.B. Pandolf, M.N. Sawka and R.R. Gonzalez), pp. 361-399. Carmel, CA: Cooper Publishing Group.
124. Vallerand, A.L. and Jacobs, I. (1989). Rates of energy substrates utilization during human cold exposure. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 58, 873-878.
125. Vallerand, A.L. and Jacobs, I. (1990). Influence of cold exposure on plasma triglyceride clearance in humans. Metabolism, 39, 1211-1218.
126. Vallerand, A.L., Perusse, L.F. and Bukowiecki, L.J. (1987). Cold exposure potentiates the effect of insulin on in vivo glucose uptake. American of Physiology, 253, E179-E186.
127. Vallerand, A.L., Jacobs, I. and Kavanagh, M. (1989). Mechanism of enhanced cold tolerance by an ephidrine-caffeine mixture in humans. Journal of Applied Physiology, 67, 438-444.
128. Vallerand, A.L., Tikuisis, P., Ducharme, M.B. and Jacobs, I. (1993). Is energy substrate mobilization a limiting factor for cold thermogenesis? European Journal of Applied Physiology, 67, 239-244.
129. Vallerand, A.L., Zamecnik, J. and Jacobs, I. (1995). Plasma glucose turnover duirng cold stress in humans. Journal of Applied Physiology, 78, 1296-1302.
130. a and TG/FFA cycling in humans. Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine, 70, 42-50.
131. van Marken Lichtenbelt, W.D., Schrauwen, P., van de Kerckhove, S. and Westerterp-Plantenga, M.S. (2002). Individual variation in body temperature and energy expenditure in response to mild cold. American Journal of Physiology, 282, E1077-E1083.
132. Vybiral, S., Lesna, I., Jansky, L. and Zeman, V. (2000). Thermoregulation in winter swimmers and physiological significance of human catecholamine thermogenesis. Experimental Physiology, 85 326.
133. Wagner, J.A. and Horvarth, S.M. (1985). Influence of age and gender on human thermoregulatory responses to cold exposures. Journal of Applied Physiology, 58, 180-186.
134. Wagner, J.A., Robinson, S. and Marino, R.R. (1974). Age and temperature regulation of humans in neutral and cold environments. Journal of Applied Physiology, 37, 562-565.
135. Wallenberg, L.R. and Granberg, P.O. (1976). Is cold diuresis a pressure diuresis? In Circumpolar Health. Proceedings of the Third International Symposium (edited by R.J. Shephard and S. Itah), pp. 49-55. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
136. Walsh, N.P., Bishop, N.C., Blackwell, J., Wierzbicki, S.G. and Montague, J.C. (2002). Salivary IgA response to prolonged exercise in a cold environment in trained cyclists. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 34, 1632-1637.
137. Weller, A.S., Millard, C.E., Stroud, M.A., Greenhaff, P.L. and MacDonald, I.A. (1997). Physiological responses to a cold, wet, and windy environment during prolonged intermittent walking. American Journal of Physiology, 41, R226-R233.
138. Weller, A.S., Greenhaff, P.L. and MacDonald, I.A. (1998a). Physiological responses to moderate cold stress in man and the influence of prior prolonged exhaustive exercise. Experimental Physiology, 83, 679-695.
139. Weller, A.S., Millard, C.E., Greenhaff, P.L. and MacDonald, I.A. (1998b). The influence of cold stress and a 36 h fast on the physiological responses to prolonged intermittent walking in man. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 77, 217-223.
140. Werner, J. and Reents, T. (1980). A contribution to the topography of temperature regulation in man. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 45, 87-94.
141. Westerterp-Plantenga, M.S. (1999). Effects of extreme environments on food intake in human subjects. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 58, 791-798.
142. Young, A.J. (1996). Homeostatic responses to prolonged cold exposure: human cold acclimatization. In Handbook of Physiology: Environmental Physiology, pp. 419-438. Bethesda, MD: American Physiology Society.
143. Young, A J., Muza, S.R., Sawka, M.N., Gonzalez, R.R. and Pandolf, K.B. (1986). Human thermoregulatory responses to cold air are altered by repeated cold water immersion. Journal of Applied Physiology, 60, 1542-1548.
144. Young, A.J., Sawka, M.N., Darrel Neufer, P. et al. (1989). Thermoregulation during cold water immersion is unimpaired by low muscle glycogen levels. Journal of Applied Physiology, 66, 1809-1816.
145. Young, A.J., Castellani, J.W., O'Brien, C. et al. (1998). Exertional fatigue, sleep loss, and negative energy balance increase susceptibility to hypothermia. Journal of Applied Physiology 85, 1210-1217.