Germany's unforgettable war: The twisted road from Berlin to Moscow and back

Diplomatic History

Volumn 25, Issue 3, 2001, Pages 405-423

  Bartov, Omer ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 10944272848     PISSN: 01452096     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/0145-2096.00275     Document Type: Article

References (125)

1. Nina Tumarkin, The Living and the Dead: The Rise and Fall of the Cult of World War II in Russia (New York, 1994); Richard Stites, ed., Culture and Entertainment in Wartime Russia (Bloomington, 1995). For sophisticated discussions of the links and contradictions between communism, war, and the ethnic policies of the Soviet Union see Terry Martin, "The Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing," Journal of Modern History 70 (December 1998): 813-61; Amir Weiner, "Nature, Nurture, and Memory in a Socialist Utopia: Delineating the Soviet Socio-Ethnic Body in the Age of Socialism," American Historical Review 104 (October 1999): 1114-55; Peter Holquist, "To Count, to Extract, to Exterminate: Population Statistics and Population Politics in Late Imperial and Soviet Russia," in A State of Nations: Empire and Nation-Making in the Soviet Union, ed. Ronald Grigor Suny and Terry Martin (forthcoming).
2. Nina Tumarkin, The Living and the Dead: The Rise and Fall of the Cult of World War II in Russia (New York, 1994); Richard Stites, ed., Culture and Entertainment in Wartime Russia (Bloomington, 1995). For sophisticated discussions of the links and contradictions between communism, war, and the ethnic policies of the Soviet Union see Terry Martin, "The Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing," Journal of Modern History 70 (December 1998): 813-61; Amir Weiner, "Nature, Nurture, and Memory in a Socialist Utopia: Delineating the Soviet Socio-Ethnic Body in the Age of Socialism," American Historical Review 104 (October 1999): 1114-55; Peter Holquist, "To Count, to Extract, to Exterminate: Population Statistics and Population Politics in Late Imperial and Soviet Russia," in A State of Nations: Empire and Nation-Making in the Soviet Union, ed. Ronald Grigor Suny and Terry Martin (forthcoming).
3. Nina Tumarkin, The Living and the Dead: The Rise and Fall of the Cult of World War II in Russia (New York, 1994); Richard Stites, ed., Culture and Entertainment in Wartime Russia (Bloomington, 1995). For sophisticated discussions of the links and contradictions between communism, war, and the ethnic policies of the Soviet Union see Terry Martin, "The Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing," Journal of Modern History 70 (December 1998): 813-61; Amir Weiner, "Nature, Nurture, and Memory in a Socialist Utopia: Delineating the Soviet Socio-Ethnic Body in the Age of Socialism," American Historical Review 104 (October 1999): 1114-55; Peter Holquist, "To Count, to Extract, to Exterminate: Population Statistics and Population Politics in Late Imperial and Soviet Russia," in A State of Nations: Empire and Nation-Making in the Soviet Union, ed. Ronald Grigor Suny and Terry Martin (forthcoming).
4. Nina Tumarkin, The Living and the Dead: The Rise and Fall of the Cult of World War II in Russia (New York, 1994); Richard Stites, ed., Culture and Entertainment in Wartime Russia (Bloomington, 1995). For sophisticated discussions of the links and contradictions between communism, war, and the ethnic policies of the Soviet Union see Terry Martin, "The Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing," Journal of Modern History 70 (December 1998): 813-61; Amir Weiner, "Nature, Nurture, and Memory in a Socialist Utopia: Delineating the Soviet Socio-Ethnic Body in the Age of Socialism," American Historical Review 104 (October 1999): 1114-55; Peter Holquist, "To Count, to Extract, to Exterminate: Population Statistics and Population Politics in Late Imperial and Soviet Russia," in A State of Nations: Empire and Nation-Making in the Soviet Union, ed. Ronald Grigor Suny and Terry Martin (forthcoming).
5. Nina Tumarkin, The Living and the Dead: The Rise and Fall of the Cult of World War II in Russia (New York, 1994); Richard Stites, ed., Culture and Entertainment in Wartime Russia (Bloomington, 1995). For sophisticated discussions of the links and contradictions between communism, war, and the ethnic policies of the Soviet Union see Terry Martin, "The Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing," Journal of Modern History 70 (December 1998): 813-61; Amir Weiner, "Nature, Nurture, and Memory in a Socialist Utopia: Delineating the Soviet Socio-Ethnic Body in the Age of Socialism," American Historical Review 104 (October 1999): 1114-55; Peter Holquist, "To Count, to Extract, to Exterminate: Population Statistics and Population Politics in Late Imperial and Soviet Russia," in A State of Nations: Empire and Nation-Making in the Soviet Union, ed. Ronald Grigor Suny and Terry Martin (forthcoming).
6. On the differences between the manner in which the GDR and FRG came to terms with the Nazi past see Jeffrey Herf, Divided Memory: The Nazi Past in the Two Germanys (Cambridge, MA, 1997).
7. On the war on the Eastern Front see Omer Bartov, The Eastern Front, 1941-1945: German Troops and the Barbarisation of Warfare (London, 1985); idem, Hitler's Army: Soldiers, Nazis, and War in the Third Reich (New York, 1991); and Rolf-Dieter Müller and Gerd R. Ueberschär, Hitler's War in the East, 1941-1945: A Critical Assessment (Providence, 1997).
8. On the war on the Eastern Front see Omer Bartov, The Eastern Front, 1941-1945: German Troops and the Barbarisation of Warfare (London, 1985); idem, Hitler's Army: Soldiers, Nazis, and War in the Third Reich (New York, 1991); and Rolf-Dieter Müller and Gerd R. Ueberschär, Hitler's War in the East, 1941-1945: A Critical Assessment (Providence, 1997).
9. On the war on the Eastern Front see Omer Bartov, The Eastern Front, 1941-1945: German Troops and the Barbarisation of Warfare (London, 1985); idem, Hitler's Army: Soldiers, Nazis, and War in the Third Reich (New York, 1991); and Rolf-Dieter Müller and Gerd R. Ueberschär, Hitler's War in the East, 1941-1945: A Critical Assessment (Providence, 1997).
10. Elisabeth Domansky, "A Lost War: World War II in Postwar German Memory," in Thinking About the Holocaust: After Half a Century, ed. Alvin H. Rosenfeld (Bloomington, 1997), 233-72.
11. On the early encounter with atrocity photographs see Barbie Zelizer, Remembering to Forget: Holocaust Memory through the Camera's Eye (Chicago, 1998); on the more mixed German response to views of their victims and their own sense of victimhood see Dagmar Barnouw, Germany, 1945: Views of War and Violence (Bloomington, 1996).
12. On the early encounter with atrocity photographs see Barbie Zelizer, Remembering to Forget: Holocaust Memory through the Camera's Eye (Chicago, 1998); on the more mixed German response to views of their victims and their own sense of victimhood see Dagmar Barnouw, Germany, 1945: Views of War and Violence (Bloomington, 1996).
13. On the transformation in the status of the FRG see David Clay Large, Germans to the Front: West German Rearmament in the Adenauer Era (Chapel Hill, 1996). On the evacuation of the Holocaust - and by extension, all other crimes by the Wehrmacht in the east - from military history see Donald G. Schilling, "Re-presenting the Holocaust in the General Histories of World War II" (unpublished paper, 1998). For a classic example of writing on German occupation policies in the Soviet Union with the Wehrmacht's crimes largely left out and no systematic analysis of the genocide of the Jews there see the otherwise pioneering study Alexander Dallin, German Rule in Russia, 1941-1945: A Study of Occupation Policies, 2d ed. (London, 1981).
14. On the transformation in the status of the FRG see David Clay Large, Germans to the Front: West German Rearmament in the Adenauer Era (Chapel Hill, 1996). On the evacuation of the Holocaust - and by extension, all other crimes by the Wehrmacht in the east - from military history see Donald G. Schilling, "Re-presenting the Holocaust in the General Histories of World War II" (unpublished paper, 1998). For a classic example of writing on German occupation policies in the Soviet Union with the Wehrmacht's crimes largely left out and no systematic analysis of the genocide of the Jews there see the otherwise pioneering study Alexander Dallin, German Rule in Russia, 1941-1945: A Study of Occupation Policies, 2d ed. (London, 1981).
15. On the transformation in the status of the FRG see David Clay Large, Germans to the Front: West German Rearmament in the Adenauer Era (Chapel Hill, 1996). On the evacuation of the Holocaust - and by extension, all other crimes by the Wehrmacht in the east - from military history see Donald G. Schilling, "Re-presenting the Holocaust in the General Histories of World War II" (unpublished paper, 1998). For a classic example of writing on German occupation policies in the Soviet Union with the Wehrmacht's crimes largely left out and no systematic analysis of the genocide of the Jews there see the otherwise pioneering study Alexander Dallin, German Rule in Russia, 1941-1945: A Study of Occupation Policies, 2d ed. (London, 1981).
16. See especially, Horst Boog et al., eds., Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg [The German Reich and World War II], vol. 4, Der Angriff auf die Sowjetunion [The attack on the Soviet Union] (Stuttgart, 1983); and Rolf-Dieter Müller and Hans-Erich Volkmann, eds., Die Wehrmacht. Mythos und Realität [The Wehrmacht: Myth and reality] (Munich, 1999). One sobering fact is that Red Army casualties in the battle of Berlin were equivalent to the total figure of American casualties during the entire war in both the European and the Pacific theaters. Similarly, between 1 July and 31 December 1944, the Wehrmacht lost a monthly average of over two hundred thousand men (killed, wounded, and missing) on the Eastern Front, compared to an average of only eight thousand casualties per month on the Western Front (which was only then reactivated following the landings in Normandy).
17. See especially, Horst Boog et al., eds., Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg [The German Reich and World War II], vol. 4, Der Angriff auf die Sowjetunion [The attack on the Soviet Union] (Stuttgart, 1983); and Rolf-Dieter Müller and Hans-Erich Volkmann, eds., Die Wehrmacht. Mythos und Realität [The Wehrmacht: Myth and reality] (Munich, 1999). One sobering fact is that Red Army casualties in the battle of Berlin were equivalent to the total figure of American casualties during the entire war in both the European and the Pacific theaters. Similarly, between 1 July and 31 December 1944, the Wehrmacht lost a monthly average of over two hundred thousand men (killed, wounded, and missing) on the Eastern Front, compared to an average of only eight thousand casualties per month on the Western Front (which was only then reactivated following the landings in Normandy).
18. Pieter Lagrou, "Utopia, Violence, Resistance: The Legacy of Nazi Occupation in Western Europe" (unpublished paper, 1999); more generally, idem, The Legacy of Nazi Occupation: Patriotic Memory and National Recovery in Western Europe, 1945-1965 (Cambridge, England, 2000); and Jay M. Winter, The Great War and the British People (Cambridge, MA, 1986), 66-76.
19. Pieter Lagrou, "Utopia, Violence, Resistance: The Legacy of Nazi Occupation in Western Europe" (unpublished paper, 1999); more generally, idem, The Legacy of Nazi Occupation: Patriotic Memory and National Recovery in Western Europe, 1945-1965 (Cambridge, England, 2000); and Jay M. Winter, The Great War and the British People (Cambridge, MA, 1986), 66-76.
20. Pieter Lagrou, "Utopia, Violence, Resistance: The Legacy of Nazi Occupation in Western Europe" (unpublished paper, 1999); more generally, idem, The Legacy of Nazi Occupation: Patriotic Memory and National Recovery in Western Europe, 1945-1965 (Cambridge, England, 2000); and Jay M. Winter, The Great War and the British People (Cambridge, MA, 1986), 66-76.
21. For further analysis see Richard Overy, Russia's War (New York, 1998); and idem, Why the Allies Won (New York, 1997).
22. For further analysis see Richard Overy, Russia's War (New York, 1998); and idem, Why the Allies Won (New York, 1997).
23. Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (New York, 1989), 347-95; Alan S. Milward, The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945-1951 (Berkeley, 1984).
24. Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (New York, 1989), 347-95; Alan S. Milward, The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945-1951 (Berkeley, 1984).
25. On France's preoccupation with the past see Henry Rousso, The Vichy Syndrome: History and Memory in France since 1944 (Cambridge, MA, 1991). On Eastern Europe since 1945 see Joseph Rothschild, Return to Diversity: A Political History of East Central Europe since World War II, 2d ed. (New York, 1993).
26. On France's preoccupation with the past see Henry Rousso, The Vichy Syndrome: History and Memory in France since 1944 (Cambridge, MA, 1991). On Eastern Europe since 1945 see Joseph Rothschild, Return to Diversity: A Political History of East Central Europe since World War II, 2d ed. (New York, 1993).
27. This is expressed also in recent reviews of the twentieth century. See, for example, Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes: A History of the World, 1914-1991 (New York, 1995); and Mark Mazower, Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century (New York, 1999). See also Helmut Peitsch et al., eds., European Memories of the Second World War (New York, 1999).
28. This is expressed also in recent reviews of the twentieth century. See, for example, Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes: A History of the World, 1914-1991 (New York, 1995); and Mark Mazower, Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century (New York, 1999). See also Helmut Peitsch et al., eds., European Memories of the Second World War (New York, 1999).
29. This is expressed also in recent reviews of the twentieth century. See, for example, Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes: A History of the World, 1914-1991 (New York, 1995); and Mark Mazower, Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century (New York, 1999). See also Helmut Peitsch et al., eds., European Memories of the Second World War (New York, 1999).
30. For some examples see R. J. Crampton, Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century (London, 1994); Michael Geyer and John W. Boyer, eds., Resistance against the Third Reich: 1933-1990 (Chicago, 1994); Marc Olivier Baruch, Servir l'Etat français: L'administration en France de 1940 à 1944 [To serve the French state: The civil service in France from 1940 to 1944] (Paris, 1997); Christian Gerlach, Kalkulierte Morde: Die deutsche Wirtschafts- und Vernichtungspolitik in Weissrussland 1941 bis 1944 [Calculated murders: German Economic and extermination policies in Belorussia, 1941 to 1944] (Hamburg, 1999); François Furet, The Passing of an Illusion: The Idea of Communism in the Twentieth Century (Chicago, 1999); and Stéphane Courtois et al., The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression (Cambridge, MA, 1999).
31. For some examples see R. J. Crampton, Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century (London, 1994); Michael Geyer and John W. Boyer, eds., Resistance against the Third Reich: 1933-1990 (Chicago, 1994); Marc Olivier Baruch, Servir l'Etat français: L'administration en France de 1940 à 1944 [To serve the French state: The civil service in France from 1940 to 1944] (Paris, 1997); Christian Gerlach, Kalkulierte Morde: Die deutsche Wirtschafts- und Vernichtungspolitik in Weissrussland 1941 bis 1944 [Calculated murders: German Economic and extermination policies in Belorussia, 1941 to 1944] (Hamburg, 1999); François Furet, The Passing of an Illusion: The Idea of Communism in the Twentieth Century (Chicago, 1999); and Stéphane Courtois et al., The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression (Cambridge, MA, 1999).
32. For some examples see R. J. Crampton, Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century (London, 1994); Michael Geyer and John W. Boyer, eds., Resistance against the Third Reich: 1933-1990 (Chicago, 1994); Marc Olivier Baruch, Servir l'Etat français: L'administration en France de 1940 à 1944 [To serve the French state: The civil service in France from 1940 to 1944] (Paris, 1997); Christian Gerlach, Kalkulierte Morde: Die deutsche Wirtschafts- und Vernichtungspolitik in Weissrussland 1941 bis 1944 [Calculated murders: German Economic and extermination policies in Belorussia, 1941 to 1944] (Hamburg, 1999); François Furet, The Passing of an Illusion: The Idea of Communism in the Twentieth Century (Chicago, 1999); and Stéphane Courtois et al., The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression (Cambridge, MA, 1999).
33. For some examples see R. J. Crampton, Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century (London, 1994); Michael Geyer and John W. Boyer, eds., Resistance against the Third Reich: 1933-1990 (Chicago, 1994); Marc Olivier Baruch, Servir l'Etat français: L'administration en France de 1940 à 1944 [To serve the French state: The civil service in France from 1940 to 1944] (Paris, 1997); Christian Gerlach, Kalkulierte Morde: Die deutsche Wirtschafts- und Vernichtungspolitik in Weissrussland 1941 bis 1944 [Calculated murders: German Economic and extermination policies in Belorussia, 1941 to 1944] (Hamburg, 1999); François Furet, The Passing of an Illusion: The Idea of Communism in the Twentieth Century (Chicago, 1999); and Stéphane Courtois et al., The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression (Cambridge, MA, 1999).
34. For some examples see R. J. Crampton, Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century (London, 1994); Michael Geyer and John W. Boyer, eds., Resistance against the Third Reich: 1933-1990 (Chicago, 1994); Marc Olivier Baruch, Servir l'Etat français: L'administration en France de 1940 à 1944 [To serve the French state: The civil service in France from 1940 to 1944] (Paris, 1997); Christian Gerlach, Kalkulierte Morde: Die deutsche Wirtschafts- und Vernichtungspolitik in Weissrussland 1941 bis 1944 [Calculated murders: German Economic and extermination policies in Belorussia, 1941 to 1944] (Hamburg, 1999); François Furet, The Passing of an Illusion: The Idea of Communism in the Twentieth Century (Chicago, 1999); and Stéphane Courtois et al., The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression (Cambridge, MA, 1999).
35. For some examples see R. J. Crampton, Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century (London, 1994); Michael Geyer and John W. Boyer, eds., Resistance against the Third Reich: 1933-1990 (Chicago, 1994); Marc Olivier Baruch, Servir l'Etat français: L'administration en France de 1940 à 1944 [To serve the French state: The civil service in France from 1940 to 1944] (Paris, 1997); Christian Gerlach, Kalkulierte Morde: Die deutsche Wirtschafts- und Vernichtungspolitik in Weissrussland 1941 bis 1944 [Calculated murders: German Economic and extermination policies in Belorussia, 1941 to 1944] (Hamburg, 1999); François Furet, The Passing of an Illusion: The Idea of Communism in the Twentieth Century (Chicago, 1999); and Stéphane Courtois et al., The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression (Cambridge, MA, 1999).
36. F. Fischer, Germany's Aims in the First World War (London, 1967); Klaus-Jürgen Müller, The Army, Politics, and Society in Germany, 1933-45: Studies in the Army's Relation to Nazism (New York, 1987); F. L. Carsten, The Reichswehr and Politics, 1918-1933, 2d ed. (Berkeley, 1973); John Wheeler-Bennett, The Nemesis of Power: The German Army in Politics, 1918-1945, 2d ed. (London, 1980).
37. F. Fischer, Germany's Aims in the First World War (London, 1967); Klaus-Jürgen Müller, The Army, Politics, and Society in Germany, 1933-45: Studies in the Army's Relation to Nazism (New York, 1987); F. L. Carsten, The Reichswehr and Politics, 1918-1933, 2d ed. (Berkeley, 1973); John Wheeler-Bennett, The Nemesis of Power: The German Army in Politics, 1918-1945, 2d ed. (London, 1980).
38. F. Fischer, Germany's Aims in the First World War (London, 1967); Klaus-Jürgen Müller, The Army, Politics, and Society in Germany, 1933-45: Studies in the Army's Relation to Nazism (New York, 1987); F. L. Carsten, The Reichswehr and Politics, 1918-1933, 2d ed. (Berkeley, 1973); John Wheeler-Bennett, The Nemesis of Power: The German Army in Politics, 1918-1945, 2d ed. (London, 1980).
39. F. Fischer, Germany's Aims in the First World War (London, 1967); Klaus-Jürgen Müller, The Army, Politics, and Society in Germany, 1933-45: Studies in the Army's Relation to Nazism (New York, 1987); F. L. Carsten, The Reichswehr and Politics, 1918-1933, 2d ed. (Berkeley, 1973); John Wheeler-Bennett, The Nemesis of Power: The German Army in Politics, 1918-1945, 2d ed. (London, 1980).
40. Eberhard Jäckel, Hitler's World View: A Blueprint for Power (Cambridge, MA, 1981).
41. Peter Pulzer, The Rise of Political Anti-Semitism in Germany and Austria, rev. ed. (Cambridge, MA, 1988); Ulrich Herbert, Best: Biographische Studien über Radikalismus, Weltanschauung und Venunft, 1903-1989 [Best: Biographical studies of extremism, ideology, and reason, 1903-1989] (Bonn, 1996).
42. Peter Pulzer, The Rise of Political Anti-Semitism in Germany and Austria, rev. ed. (Cambridge, MA, 1988); Ulrich Herbert, Best: Biographische Studien über Radikalismus, Weltanschauung und Venunft, 1903-1989 [Best: Biographical studies of extremism, ideology, and reason, 1903-1989] (Bonn, 1996).
43. Gerald Fleming, Hitler and the Final Solution (Berkeley, 1984); Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1889-1936: Hubris (New York, 1998); Norman Rich, Hitler's War Aims: Ideology, the Nazi State, and the Course of Expansion (New York, 1973).
44. Gerald Fleming, Hitler and the Final Solution (Berkeley, 1984); Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1889-1936: Hubris (New York, 1998); Norman Rich, Hitler's War Aims: Ideology, the Nazi State, and the Course of Expansion (New York, 1973).
45. Gerald Fleming, Hitler and the Final Solution (Berkeley, 1984); Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1889-1936: Hubris (New York, 1998); Norman Rich, Hitler's War Aims: Ideology, the Nazi State, and the Course of Expansion (New York, 1973).
46. Henry Friedlander, The Origins of Nazi Genocide: From Euthanasia to the Final Solution (Chapel Hill, 1995).
47. Michael Zimmermann, Rassenutopie und Genozid: Die nationalsozialistische "Lösung der Zigeunerfrage" [Racial utopia and genocide: The Nazi "solution of the Gypsy question"] (Hamburg, 1996).
48. John Connelly, "Nazis and Slavs: From Racial Theory to Racist Practice," Central European History 32, no. 1 (1999): 1-33.
49. Michael Burleigh, Death and Deliverance: "Euthanasia" in Germany, 1900-1945 (Cambridge, England, 1994); Zygmunt Bauman, Modernity and the Holocaust (Ithaca, 1989).
50. Michael Burleigh, Death and Deliverance: "Euthanasia" in Germany, 1900-1945 (Cambridge, England, 1994); Zygmunt Bauman, Modernity and the Holocaust (Ithaca, 1989).
51. Götz Aly, "Final Solution": Nazi Population Policies and the Murder of the European Jews (New York, 1999).
52. Andreas Hillgruber, Hitlers Strategie. Politik und Kriegsführung, 1940-1941 [Hitler's strategy: Politics and warfare, 1940-1941] (Frankfurt/M., 1965).
53. Norman J. W. Goda, Tomorrow the World: Hitler, Northwest Africa, and the Path toward America (College Station, TX, 1998).
54. Bartov, Hitler's Army; Marlis G. Steinert, Hitler's War and the Germans: Public Mood and Attitude during the Second World War (Athens, OH, 1977).
55. Hannes Heer and Klaus Naumann, eds., War of Extermination: The German Military in World War II, 1941-1944 (New York, 2000); Christian Streit, Keine Kameraden: Die Wehrmacht und die sowjetischen Kriegsgefangenen, 1941-1945 [Not comrades in arms: The Wehrmacht and Soviet prisoners of war, 1941-1945], 2d ed. (Bonn, 1991); Bartov, The Eastern Front; Helmut Krausnick and Hans-Heinrich Wilhelm, Die Truppe des Weltanschauungskrieges: Die Einsatzgruppen der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD, 1938-1942 [Soldiers of the ideological war: The Einsatzgruppen of the security police and the SD, 1938-1942] (Stuttgart, 1981). The Einsatzgruppen, literally "task units," were the murder squads charged with killing Jews and other "biological" and political enemies of the Nazi regime. The SD, or Sicherheitsdienst (security service), was the secret police of the SS and Nazi Party. The SD, Gestapo (secret state police), and Kripo (criminal police) were centralized under the RSHA (Reichssicherheitshauptamt or Reich Security Main Office) commanded by Reinhard Heydrich in 1939. The Sicherheitspolizei (Sipo, or Security Police) was eventually made up of the Gestapo and Kripo. See further in Robert Gellately, The Gestapo and German Society: Enforcing Racial Policy, 1933-1945 (Oxford, 1990); George C. Browder, The Foundations of the Nazi Police State: The Formation of Sipo and SD (Lexington, KY, 1990); and idem, Hitler's Enforcers: The Gestapo and the SS Security Service in the Nazi Revolution (New York, 1996).
56. Hannes Heer and Klaus Naumann, eds., War of Extermination: The German Military in World War II, 1941-1944 (New York, 2000); Christian Streit, Keine Kameraden: Die Wehrmacht und die sowjetischen Kriegsgefangenen, 1941-1945 [Not comrades in arms: The Wehrmacht and Soviet prisoners of war, 1941-1945], 2d ed. (Bonn, 1991); Bartov, The Eastern Front; Helmut Krausnick and Hans-Heinrich Wilhelm, Die Truppe des Weltanschauungskrieges: Die Einsatzgruppen der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD, 1938-1942 [Soldiers of the ideological war: The Einsatzgruppen of the security police and the SD, 1938-1942] (Stuttgart, 1981). The Einsatzgruppen, literally "task units," were the murder squads charged with killing Jews and other "biological" and political enemies of the Nazi regime. The SD, or Sicherheitsdienst (security service), was the secret police of the SS and Nazi Party. The SD, Gestapo (secret state police), and Kripo (criminal police) were centralized under the RSHA (Reichssicherheitshauptamt or Reich Security Main Office) commanded by Reinhard Heydrich in 1939. The Sicherheitspolizei (Sipo, or Security Police) was eventually made up of the Gestapo and Kripo. See further in Robert Gellately, The Gestapo and German Society: Enforcing Racial Policy, 1933-1945 (Oxford, 1990); George C. Browder, The Foundations of the Nazi Police State: The Formation of Sipo and SD (Lexington, KY, 1990); and idem, Hitler's Enforcers: The Gestapo and the SS Security Service in the Nazi Revolution (New York, 1996).
57. Hannes Heer and Klaus Naumann, eds., War of Extermination: The German Military in World War II, 1941-1944 (New York, 2000); Christian Streit, Keine Kameraden: Die Wehrmacht und die sowjetischen Kriegsgefangenen, 1941-1945 [Not comrades in arms: The Wehrmacht and Soviet prisoners of war, 1941-1945], 2d ed. (Bonn, 1991); Bartov, The Eastern Front; Helmut Krausnick and Hans-Heinrich Wilhelm, Die Truppe des Weltanschauungskrieges: Die Einsatzgruppen der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD, 1938-1942 [Soldiers of the ideological war: The Einsatzgruppen of the security police and the SD, 1938-1942] (Stuttgart, 1981). The Einsatzgruppen, literally "task units," were the murder squads charged with killing Jews and other "biological" and political enemies of the Nazi regime. The SD, or Sicherheitsdienst (security service), was the secret police of the SS and Nazi Party. The SD, Gestapo (secret state police), and Kripo (criminal police) were centralized under the RSHA (Reichssicherheitshauptamt or Reich Security Main Office) commanded by Reinhard Heydrich in 1939. The Sicherheitspolizei (Sipo, or Security Police) was eventually made up of the Gestapo and Kripo. See further in Robert Gellately, The Gestapo and German Society: Enforcing Racial Policy, 1933-1945 (Oxford, 1990); George C. Browder, The Foundations of the Nazi Police State: The Formation of Sipo and SD (Lexington, KY, 1990); and idem, Hitler's Enforcers: The Gestapo and the SS Security Service in the Nazi Revolution (New York, 1996).
58. Hannes Heer and Klaus Naumann, eds., War of Extermination: The German Military in World War II, 1941-1944 (New York, 2000); Christian Streit, Keine Kameraden: Die Wehrmacht und die sowjetischen Kriegsgefangenen, 1941-1945 [Not comrades in arms: The Wehrmacht and Soviet prisoners of war, 1941-1945], 2d ed. (Bonn, 1991); Bartov, The Eastern Front; Helmut Krausnick and Hans-Heinrich Wilhelm, Die Truppe des Weltanschauungskrieges: Die Einsatzgruppen der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD, 1938-1942 [Soldiers of the ideological war: The Einsatzgruppen of the security police and the SD, 1938-1942] (Stuttgart, 1981). The Einsatzgruppen, literally "task units," were the murder squads charged with killing Jews and other "biological" and political enemies of the Nazi regime. The SD, or Sicherheitsdienst (security service), was the secret police of the SS and Nazi Party. The SD, Gestapo (secret state police), and Kripo (criminal police) were centralized under the RSHA (Reichssicherheitshauptamt or Reich Security Main Office) commanded by Reinhard Heydrich in 1939. The Sicherheitspolizei (Sipo, or Security Police) was eventually made up of the Gestapo and Kripo. See further in Robert Gellately, The Gestapo and German Society: Enforcing Racial Policy, 1933-1945 (Oxford, 1990); George C. Browder, The Foundations of the Nazi Police State: The Formation of Sipo and SD (Lexington, KY, 1990); and idem, Hitler's Enforcers: The Gestapo and the SS Security Service in the Nazi Revolution (New York, 1996).
59. Hannes Heer and Klaus Naumann, eds., War of Extermination: The German Military in World War II, 1941-1944 (New York, 2000); Christian Streit, Keine Kameraden: Die Wehrmacht und die sowjetischen Kriegsgefangenen, 1941-1945 [Not comrades in arms: The Wehrmacht and Soviet prisoners of war, 1941-1945], 2d ed. (Bonn, 1991); Bartov, The Eastern Front; Helmut Krausnick and Hans-Heinrich Wilhelm, Die Truppe des Weltanschauungskrieges: Die Einsatzgruppen der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD, 1938-1942 [Soldiers of the ideological war: The Einsatzgruppen of the security police and the SD, 1938-1942] (Stuttgart, 1981). The Einsatzgruppen, literally "task units," were the murder squads charged with killing Jews and other "biological" and political enemies of the Nazi regime. The SD, or Sicherheitsdienst (security service), was the secret police of the SS and Nazi Party. The SD, Gestapo (secret state police), and Kripo (criminal police) were centralized under the RSHA (Reichssicherheitshauptamt or Reich Security Main Office) commanded by Reinhard Heydrich in 1939. The Sicherheitspolizei (Sipo, or Security Police) was eventually made up of the Gestapo and Kripo. See further in Robert Gellately, The Gestapo and German Society: Enforcing Racial Policy, 1933-1945 (Oxford, 1990); George C. Browder, The Foundations of the Nazi Police State: The Formation of Sipo and SD (Lexington, KY, 1990); and idem, Hitler's Enforcers: The Gestapo and the SS Security Service in the Nazi Revolution (New York, 1996).
60. Hannes Heer and Klaus Naumann, eds., War of Extermination: The German Military in World War II, 1941-1944 (New York, 2000); Christian Streit, Keine Kameraden: Die Wehrmacht und die sowjetischen Kriegsgefangenen, 1941-1945 [Not comrades in arms: The Wehrmacht and Soviet prisoners of war, 1941-1945], 2d ed. (Bonn, 1991); Bartov, The Eastern Front; Helmut Krausnick and Hans-Heinrich Wilhelm, Die Truppe des Weltanschauungskrieges: Die Einsatzgruppen der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD, 1938-1942 [Soldiers of the ideological war: The Einsatzgruppen of the security police and the SD, 1938-1942] (Stuttgart, 1981). The Einsatzgruppen, literally "task units," were the murder squads charged with killing Jews and other "biological" and political enemies of the Nazi regime. The SD, or Sicherheitsdienst (security service), was the secret police of the SS and Nazi Party. The SD, Gestapo (secret state police), and Kripo (criminal police) were centralized under the RSHA (Reichssicherheitshauptamt or Reich Security Main Office) commanded by Reinhard Heydrich in 1939. The Sicherheitspolizei (Sipo, or Security Police) was eventually made up of the Gestapo and Kripo. See further in Robert Gellately, The Gestapo and German Society: Enforcing Racial Policy, 1933-1945 (Oxford, 1990); George C. Browder, The Foundations of the Nazi Police State: The Formation of Sipo and SD (Lexington, KY, 1990); and idem, Hitler's Enforcers: The Gestapo and the SS Security Service in the Nazi Revolution (New York, 1996).
61. For a historiographical survey see Omer Bartov, "German Soldiers and the Holocaust: Historiography, Research and Implications," History & Memory 9 (Fall 1997): 162-88.
62. Michael R. Marrus, The Nuremberg War Crimes Trial, 1945-46: A Documentary History (Boston, 1997).
63. This was reflected in a spate of memoirs by Wehrmacht generals published in the first couple of decades after the war. See, for example, Heinz Guderian, Panzer Leader, 3d. ed. (London, 1977); and Erich von Manstein, Lost Victories (London, 1958).
64. This was reflected in a spate of memoirs by Wehrmacht generals published in the first couple of decades after the war. See, for example, Heinz Guderian, Panzer Leader, 3d. ed. (London, 1977); and Erich von Manstein, Lost Victories (London, 1958).
65. See note 6, above. Also see Donald Abenheim, Reforging the Iron Cross: The Search for Tradition in the West German Armed Forces (Princeton, 1988); and Andrei S. Markovits and Simon Reich, The German Predicament: Memory and Power in the New Europe (Ithaca, 1997).
66. See note 6, above. Also see Donald Abenheim, Reforging the Iron Cross: The Search for Tradition in the West German Armed Forces (Princeton, 1988); and Andrei S. Markovits and Simon Reich, The German Predicament: Memory and Power in the New Europe (Ithaca, 1997).
67. Atina Grossmann, "A Question of Silence: The Rape of German Women by Occupation Soldiers," in West Germany under Construction: Politics, Society, and Culture in the Adenauer Era, ed. Robert G. Moeller (Ann Arbor, 1997), 33-52; Norman M. Naimark, The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949 (Cambridge, MA, 1995); Rebecca Boehling, A Question of Priorities: Democratic Reform and Economic Recovery in Postwar Germany (New York, 1998); Robert G. Moeller, "War Stories: The Search for a Usable Past in the Federal Republic of Germany," American Historical Review 101 (October 1996): 1008-48; Frank Biess, "Survivors of Totalitarianism: Returning POWs and the Reconstruction of Masculine Citizenship in West Germany, 1945-1955," in The Miracle Years Revisited. A Cultural History of West Germany, 1949-1968, ed. Hanna Schissler (Princeton, 2001), 57-82. On the growing currency of such terms as "orgy of revenge" in the 1980s see Andreas Hillgruber, Zweierlei Untergang: Die Zerschlagung des Deutschen Reiches und das Ende des europäischen Judentums [Two kinds of downfall: The destruction of the German Reich and the end of European Jewry] (Berlin, 1986); Omer Bartov, "Historians on the Eastern Front: Andreas Hillgruber and Germany's Tragedy," in Bartov, Murder in Our Midst: The Holocaust, Industrial Killing, and Representation (New York, 1996), 71-88.
68. Atina Grossmann, "A Question of Silence: The Rape of German Women by Occupation Soldiers," in West Germany under Construction: Politics, Society, and Culture in the Adenauer Era, ed. Robert G. Moeller (Ann Arbor, 1997), 33-52; Norman M. Naimark, The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949 (Cambridge, MA, 1995); Rebecca Boehling, A Question of Priorities: Democratic Reform and Economic Recovery in Postwar Germany (New York, 1998); Robert G. Moeller, "War Stories: The Search for a Usable Past in the Federal Republic of Germany," American Historical Review 101 (October 1996): 1008-48; Frank Biess, "Survivors of Totalitarianism: Returning POWs and the Reconstruction of Masculine Citizenship in West Germany, 1945-1955," in The Miracle Years Revisited. A Cultural History of West Germany, 1949-1968, ed. Hanna Schissler (Princeton, 2001), 57-82. On the growing currency of such terms as "orgy of revenge" in the 1980s see Andreas Hillgruber, Zweierlei Untergang: Die Zerschlagung des Deutschen Reiches und das Ende des europäischen Judentums [Two kinds of downfall: The destruction of the German Reich and the end of European Jewry] (Berlin, 1986); Omer Bartov, "Historians on the Eastern Front: Andreas Hillgruber and Germany's Tragedy," in Bartov, Murder in Our Midst: The Holocaust, Industrial Killing, and Representation (New York, 1996), 71-88.
69. Atina Grossmann, "A Question of Silence: The Rape of German Women by Occupation Soldiers," in West Germany under Construction: Politics, Society, and Culture in the Adenauer Era, ed. Robert G. Moeller (Ann Arbor, 1997), 33-52; Norman M. Naimark, The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949 (Cambridge, MA, 1995); Rebecca Boehling, A Question of Priorities: Democratic Reform and Economic Recovery in Postwar Germany (New York, 1998); Robert G. Moeller, "War Stories: The Search for a Usable Past in the Federal Republic of Germany," American Historical Review 101 (October 1996): 1008-48; Frank Biess, "Survivors of Totalitarianism: Returning POWs and the Reconstruction of Masculine Citizenship in West Germany, 1945-1955," in The Miracle Years Revisited. A Cultural History of West Germany, 1949-1968, ed. Hanna Schissler (Princeton, 2001), 57-82. On the growing currency of such terms as "orgy of revenge" in the 1980s see Andreas Hillgruber, Zweierlei Untergang: Die Zerschlagung des Deutschen Reiches und das Ende des europäischen Judentums [Two kinds of downfall: The destruction of the German Reich and the end of European Jewry] (Berlin, 1986); Omer Bartov, "Historians on the Eastern Front: Andreas Hillgruber and Germany's Tragedy," in Bartov, Murder in Our Midst: The Holocaust, Industrial Killing, and Representation (New York, 1996), 71-88.
70. Atina Grossmann, "A Question of Silence: The Rape of German Women by Occupation Soldiers," in West Germany under Construction: Politics, Society, and Culture in the Adenauer Era, ed. Robert G. Moeller (Ann Arbor, 1997), 33-52; Norman M. Naimark, The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949 (Cambridge, MA, 1995); Rebecca Boehling, A Question of Priorities: Democratic Reform and Economic Recovery in Postwar Germany (New York, 1998); Robert G. Moeller, "War Stories: The Search for a Usable Past in the Federal Republic of Germany," American Historical Review 101 (October 1996): 1008-48; Frank Biess, "Survivors of Totalitarianism: Returning POWs and the Reconstruction of Masculine Citizenship in West Germany, 1945-1955," in The Miracle Years Revisited. A Cultural History of West Germany, 1949-1968, ed. Hanna Schissler (Princeton, 2001), 57-82. On the growing currency of such terms as "orgy of revenge" in the 1980s see Andreas Hillgruber, Zweierlei Untergang: Die Zerschlagung des Deutschen Reiches und das Ende des europäischen Judentums [Two kinds of downfall: The destruction of the German Reich and the end of European Jewry] (Berlin, 1986); Omer Bartov, "Historians on the Eastern Front: Andreas Hillgruber and Germany's Tragedy," in Bartov, Murder in Our Midst: The Holocaust, Industrial Killing, and Representation (New York, 1996), 71-88.
71. Atina Grossmann, "A Question of Silence: The Rape of German Women by Occupation Soldiers," in West Germany under Construction: Politics, Society, and Culture in the Adenauer Era, ed. Robert G. Moeller (Ann Arbor, 1997), 33-52; Norman M. Naimark, The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949 (Cambridge, MA, 1995); Rebecca Boehling, A Question of Priorities: Democratic Reform and Economic Recovery in Postwar Germany (New York, 1998); Robert G. Moeller, "War Stories: The Search for a Usable Past in the Federal Republic of Germany," American Historical Review 101 (October 1996): 1008-48; Frank Biess, "Survivors of Totalitarianism: Returning POWs and the Reconstruction of Masculine Citizenship in West Germany, 1945-1955," in The Miracle Years Revisited. A Cultural History of West Germany, 1949-1968, ed. Hanna Schissler (Princeton, 2001), 57-82. On the growing currency of such terms as "orgy of revenge" in the 1980s see Andreas Hillgruber, Zweierlei Untergang: Die Zerschlagung des Deutschen Reiches und das Ende des europäischen Judentums [Two kinds of downfall: The destruction of the German Reich and the end of European Jewry] (Berlin, 1986); Omer Bartov, "Historians on the Eastern Front: Andreas Hillgruber and Germany's Tragedy," in Bartov, Murder in Our Midst: The Holocaust, Industrial Killing, and Representation (New York, 1996), 71-88.
72. Atina Grossmann, "A Question of Silence: The Rape of German Women by Occupation Soldiers," in West Germany under Construction: Politics, Society, and Culture in the Adenauer Era, ed. Robert G. Moeller (Ann Arbor, 1997), 33-52; Norman M. Naimark, The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949 (Cambridge, MA, 1995); Rebecca Boehling, A Question of Priorities: Democratic Reform and Economic Recovery in Postwar Germany (New York, 1998); Robert G. Moeller, "War Stories: The Search for a Usable Past in the Federal Republic of Germany," American Historical Review 101 (October 1996): 1008-48; Frank Biess, "Survivors of Totalitarianism: Returning POWs and the Reconstruction of Masculine Citizenship in West Germany, 1945-1955," in The Miracle Years Revisited. A Cultural History of West Germany, 1949-1968, ed. Hanna Schissler (Princeton, 2001), 57-82. On the growing currency of such terms as "orgy of revenge" in the 1980s see Andreas Hillgruber, Zweierlei Untergang: Die Zerschlagung des Deutschen Reiches und das Ende des europäischen Judentums [Two kinds of downfall: The destruction of the German Reich and the end of European Jewry] (Berlin, 1986); Omer Bartov, "Historians on the Eastern Front: Andreas Hillgruber and Germany's Tragedy," in Bartov, Murder in Our Midst: The Holocaust, Industrial Killing, and Representation (New York, 1996), 71-88.
73. Atina Grossmann, "A Question of Silence: The Rape of German Women by Occupation Soldiers," in West Germany under Construction: Politics, Society, and Culture in the Adenauer Era, ed. Robert G. Moeller (Ann Arbor, 1997), 33-52; Norman M. Naimark, The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949 (Cambridge, MA, 1995); Rebecca Boehling, A Question of Priorities: Democratic Reform and Economic Recovery in Postwar Germany (New York, 1998); Robert G. Moeller, "War Stories: The Search for a Usable Past in the Federal Republic of Germany," American Historical Review 101 (October 1996): 1008-48; Frank Biess, "Survivors of Totalitarianism: Returning POWs and the Reconstruction of Masculine Citizenship in West Germany, 1945-1955," in The Miracle Years Revisited. A Cultural History of West Germany, 1949-1968, ed. Hanna Schissler (Princeton, 2001), 57-82. On the growing currency of such terms as "orgy of revenge" in the 1980s see Andreas Hillgruber, Zweierlei Untergang: Die Zerschlagung des Deutschen Reiches und das Ende des europäischen Judentums [Two kinds of downfall: The destruction of the German Reich and the end of European Jewry] (Berlin, 1986); Omer Bartov, "Historians on the Eastern Front: Andreas Hillgruber and Germany's Tragedy," in Bartov, Murder in Our Midst: The Holocaust, Industrial Killing, and Representation (New York, 1996), 71-88.
74. Norbert Frei, Vergangenheitspolitik: Die Anfänge der Bundesrepublik und die NS-Vergingenheit [The politics of the past: The beginnings of the Federal Republic and the Nazi past] (Munich, 1996); Frank Stern, The Whitewashing of the Yellow Badge: Antisemitism and Philosemitism in Postwar Germany (Oxford, 1992).
75. Norbert Frei, Vergangenheitspolitik: Die Anfänge der Bundesrepublik und die NS-Vergingenheit [The politics of the past: The beginnings of the Federal Republic and the Nazi past] (Munich, 1996); Frank Stern, The Whitewashing of the Yellow Badge: Antisemitism and Philosemitism in Postwar Germany (Oxford, 1992).
76. A good example of early German interpretations is Friedrich Meinecke, The German Catastrophe: Reflections and Recollections, 2d ed. (Boston, 1963).
77. Robert G. Moeller, War Stories: The Search for a Usable Past in the Federal Republic of Germany (Berkeley, 2001).
78. See notes 7, 25, and 26, above. See also Manfred Messerschmidt, Die Wehrmacht im NS-Staat: Zeit der Indoktrination [The Wehrmacht in the Nazi state: The era of indoctrination] (Hamburg, 1969); and Klaus-Jürgen Müller, Das Heer und Hitler: Armee und nationalsozialistisches Regime, 1933-1940 [The army and Hitler: The military and the Nazi regime, 1933-1940] (Stuttgart, 1969).
79. See notes 7, 25, and 26, above. See also Manfred Messerschmidt, Die Wehrmacht im NS-Staat: Zeit der Indoktrination [The Wehrmacht in the Nazi state: The era of indoctrination] (Hamburg, 1969); and Klaus-Jürgen Müller, Das Heer und Hitler: Armee und nationalsozialistisches Regime, 1933-1940 [The army and Hitler: The military and the Nazi regime, 1933-1940] (Stuttgart, 1969).
80. On the fate of the veterans themselves see James M. Diehl, The Thanks of the Fatherland: German Veterans after the Second World War (Chapel Hill, 1993).
81. See note 2, above, and Frank Biess, "'Pioneers of a New Germany.' Returning POWs from the Soviet Union and the Making of East German Citizens, 1945-1950," Central European History 32, no. 2 (1999): 143-80. See also Mary Fulbrook, The Two Germanies, 1945-1990: Problems of Interpretation (Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1992); and Stuart Parkes, Understanding Contemporary Germany (London, 1997).
82. See note 2, above, and Frank Biess, "'Pioneers of a New Germany.' Returning POWs from the Soviet Union and the Making of East German Citizens, 1945-1950," Central European History 32, no. 2 (1999): 143-80. See also Mary Fulbrook, The Two Germanies, 1945-1990: Problems of Interpretation (Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1992); and Stuart Parkes, Understanding Contemporary Germany (London, 1997).
83. See note 2, above, and Frank Biess, "'Pioneers of a New Germany.' Returning POWs from the Soviet Union and the Making of East German Citizens, 1945-1950," Central European History 32, no. 2 (1999): 143-80. See also Mary Fulbrook, The Two Germanies, 1945-1990: Problems of Interpretation (Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1992); and Stuart Parkes, Understanding Contemporary Germany (London, 1997).
84. For background, see note 7, above, and Omer Bartov, The Eastern Front, 1941-45: German Troops and the Barbarisation of Warfare, 2d ed. (London, forthcoming), preface to the second edition. For updated scholarship see Müller and Volkmann, eds., Die Wehrmacht.
85. For more details see Omer Bartov, "Soldiers, Nazis, and War in the Third Reich," in The Third Reich: The Essential Readings, ed. Christian Leitz (Oxford, 1999), 131-50; and idem, "The Conduct of War: Soldiers and the Barbarization of Warfare," in Geyer and Boyer, eds., Resistance, 39-52.
86. For more details see Omer Bartov, "Soldiers, Nazis, and War in the Third Reich," in The Third Reich: The Essential Readings, ed. Christian Leitz (Oxford, 1999), 131-50; and idem, "The Conduct of War: Soldiers and the Barbarization of Warfare," in Geyer and Boyer, eds., Resistance, 39-52.
87. See note 26, above. See further in Ulrich Herbert, ed., National Socialist Extermination Policies: Contemporary German Perspectives and Controversies (New York, 2000); Ulrich Herbert, Karin Orth, and Christoph Dieckmann, eds., Die nationalsozialistischen Konzentrationslager: Entwicklung und Struktur [The Nazi concentration camps: Development and structure], 2 vols. (Göttingen, 1998); and Ulrich Herbert, Hitler's Foreign Workers: Enforced Foreign Labor in Germany under the Third Reich (Cambridge, England, 1997).
88. See note 26, above. See further in Ulrich Herbert, ed., National Socialist Extermination Policies: Contemporary German Perspectives and Controversies (New York, 2000); Ulrich Herbert, Karin Orth, and Christoph Dieckmann, eds., Die nationalsozialistischen Konzentrationslager: Entwicklung und Struktur [The Nazi concentration camps: Development and structure], 2 vols. (Göttingen, 1998); and Ulrich Herbert, Hitler's Foreign Workers: Enforced Foreign Labor in Germany under the Third Reich (Cambridge, England, 1997).
89. See note 26, above. See further in Ulrich Herbert, ed., National Socialist Extermination Policies: Contemporary German Perspectives and Controversies (New York, 2000); Ulrich Herbert, Karin Orth, and Christoph Dieckmann, eds., Die nationalsozialistischen Konzentrationslager: Entwicklung und Struktur [The Nazi concentration camps: Development and structure], 2 vols. (Göttingen, 1998); and Ulrich Herbert, Hitler's Foreign Workers: Enforced Foreign Labor in Germany under the Third Reich (Cambridge, England, 1997).
90. In greater detail see Omer Bartov, "Whose History is It, Anyway? The Wehrmacht and German Historiography," in Heer and Naumann, eds., War of Extermination, 400-16.
91. See the catalogue, available now in English, Hamburg Institute for Social Research, ed., The German Army and Genocide: Crimes against War Prisoners, Jews, and Other Civilians, 1939-1944 (New York, 1999).
92. Hamburger Institut für Sozialforschung, ed., Besucher einer Ausstellung: Die Ausstellung "Vernichtungskrieg. Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941 bis 1944" in Interview und Gespräch [Visitors at an exhibition: The exhibition "War of Extermination: Crimes of the Wehrmacht, 1941 to 1944" in interview and conversation] (Hamburg, 1998); Helga Embacher et al., eds., Umkämpfte Erinnerung: Die Wehrmachtsausstellung in Salzburg [Memory wars: The Wehrmacht exhibition in Salzburg] (Salzburg, 1999). For the fiftieth anniversary of the end of the war and the debate around the event that served as an initial context for the exhibition see Klaus Naumann, Der Krieg als Text: Das Jahr 1945 im Kulturellen Gedächtnis der Presse [War as text: 1945 in the cultural memory of the press] (Hamburg, 1998).
93. Hamburger Institut für Sozialforschung, ed., Besucher einer Ausstellung: Die Ausstellung "Vernichtungskrieg. Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941 bis 1944" in Interview und Gespräch [Visitors at an exhibition: The exhibition "War of Extermination: Crimes of the Wehrmacht, 1941 to 1944" in interview and conversation] (Hamburg, 1998); Helga Embacher et al., eds., Umkämpfte Erinnerung: Die Wehrmachtsausstellung in Salzburg [Memory wars: The Wehrmacht exhibition in Salzburg] (Salzburg, 1999). For the fiftieth anniversary of the end of the war and the debate around the event that served as an initial context for the exhibition see Klaus Naumann, Der Krieg als Text: Das Jahr 1945 im Kulturellen Gedächtnis der Presse [War as text: 1945 in the cultural memory of the press] (Hamburg, 1998).
94. Hamburger Institut für Sozialforschung, ed., Besucher einer Ausstellung: Die Ausstellung "Vernichtungskrieg. Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941 bis 1944" in Interview und Gespräch [Visitors at an exhibition: The exhibition "War of Extermination: Crimes of the Wehrmacht, 1941 to 1944" in interview and conversation] (Hamburg, 1998); Helga Embacher et al., eds., Umkämpfte Erinnerung: Die Wehrmachtsausstellung in Salzburg [Memory wars: The Wehrmacht exhibition in Salzburg] (Salzburg, 1999). For the fiftieth anniversary of the end of the war and the debate around the event that served as an initial context for the exhibition see Klaus Naumann, Der Krieg als Text: Das Jahr 1945 im Kulturellen Gedächtnis der Presse [War as text: 1945 in the cultural memory of the press] (Hamburg, 1998).
95. The articles that attacked the exhibition with detailed criticism are: Krisztián Ungváry, "Echte Bilder - Problematische Aussagen. Eine quantitative und qualitative Analyse des Bildmaterials der Ausstellung 'Vernichtungskrieg - Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941 bis 1944'" [Authentic pictures - Problematic assertions. A quantitative and qualitative analysis of the photographic material at the exhibition "War of Extermination - Crimes of the Wehrmacht, 1941 to 1944"] and Dieter Schmidt-Neuhaus, "Die Tarnopol-Stellwand der Wanderausstellung 'Vernichtungskrieg - Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941 bis 1944'. Eine Falluntersuchung zur Verwendung von Bildquellen" [The Tarnopol Panel at the traveling exhibition "War of Extermination - Crimes of the Wehrmacht, 1941 to 1944." A case study of the use of photographic evidence], both in Geschichte in Wissenschaft und Unterricht (October 1999): 584-95; Bogdan Musial, "Bilder einer Ausstellung. Kritische Anmerkungen zur Wanderausstellung 'Vernichtungskrieg - Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941 bis 1944'" [Pictures at an exhibition. Critical remarks on the
96. The articles that attacked the exhibition with detailed criticism are: Krisztián Ungváry, "Echte Bilder - Problematische Aussagen. Eine quantitative und qualitative Analyse des Bildmaterials der Ausstellung 'Vernichtungskrieg - Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941 bis 1944'" [Authentic pictures - Problematic assertions. A quantitative and qualitative analysis of the photographic material at the exhibition "War of Extermination - Crimes of the Wehrmacht, 1941 to 1944"] and Dieter Schmidt-Neuhaus, "Die Tarnopol-Stellwand der Wanderausstellung 'Vernichtungskrieg - Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941 bis 1944'. Eine Falluntersuchung zur Verwendung von Bildquellen" [The Tarnopol Panel at the traveling exhibition "War of Extermination - Crimes of the Wehrmacht, 1941 to 1944." A case study of the use of photographic evidence], both in Geschichte in Wissenschaft und Unterricht (October 1999): 584-95; Bogdan Musial, "Bilder einer Ausstellung. Kritische Anmerkungen zur Wanderausstellung 'Vernichtungskrieg - Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941 bis 1944'" [Pictures at an exhibition. Critical remarks on the traveling exhibition "War of Extermination - Crimes of the Wehrmacht, 1941 to 1944"], Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte 47/4 (October 1999): 563-91.
97. See, for example, Hans Maier, ed., Totalitarismus und Politische Religionen: Konzepte des Diktaturvergleichs [Totalitarianism and political religions: Concepts for the comparison of dictatorships] 2 vols. (Paderborn, 1996); Emilio Gentile, The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist Italy (Cambridge, MA, 1996); Courtois, The Black Book; and Furet, Illusion.
98. See, for example, Hans Maier, ed., Totalitarismus und Politische Religionen: Konzepte des Diktaturvergleichs [Totalitarianism and political religions: Concepts for the comparison of dictatorships] 2 vols. (Paderborn, 1996); Emilio Gentile, The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist Italy (Cambridge, MA, 1996); Courtois, The Black Book; and Furet, Illusion.
99. See, for example, Hans Maier, ed., Totalitarismus und Politische Religionen: Konzepte des Diktaturvergleichs [Totalitarianism and political religions: Concepts for the comparison of dictatorships] 2 vols. (Paderborn, 1996); Emilio Gentile, The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist Italy (Cambridge, MA, 1996); Courtois, The Black Book; and Furet, Illusion.
100. See, for example, Hans Maier, ed., Totalitarismus und Politische Religionen: Konzepte des Diktaturvergleichs [Totalitarianism and political religions: Concepts for the comparison of dictatorships] 2 vols. (Paderborn, 1996); Emilio Gentile, The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist Italy (Cambridge, MA, 1996); Courtois, The Black Book; and Furet, Illusion.
101. Forever in the Shadow of Hitler? Original Documents of the "Historikerstreit," the Controversy Concerning the Singularity of the Holocaust (Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1993); Charles S. Maier, The Unmasterable Past: History, Holocaust, and German Nationalism (Cambridge, MA, 1988); Richard Evans, In Hitler's Shadow: West German Historians and the Attempt to Escape from the Nazi Past (New York, 1989).
102. Forever in the Shadow of Hitler? Original Documents of the "Historikerstreit," the Controversy Concerning the Singularity of the Holocaust (Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1993); Charles S. Maier, The Unmasterable Past: History, Holocaust, and German Nationalism (Cambridge, MA, 1988); Richard Evans, In Hitler's Shadow: West German Historians and the Attempt to Escape from the Nazi Past (New York, 1989).
103. Forever in the Shadow of Hitler? Original Documents of the "Historikerstreit," the Controversy Concerning the Singularity of the Holocaust (Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1993); Charles S. Maier, The Unmasterable Past: History, Holocaust, and German Nationalism (Cambridge, MA, 1988); Richard Evans, In Hitler's Shadow: West German Historians and the Attempt to Escape from the Nazi Past (New York, 1989).
104. For a sampling of the debate in the media see Heribert Seifert, "Gefährliches Spiel mit der Bildermacht" [Dangerous game with the power of pictures], Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 12 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Der Hamburger Bilderschau zur Wehrmacht ging es nicht um historische Aufklärung" [The Hamburg photograph exhibition was not about historical enlightenment], Die Welt, 11 November 1999; Fritz Göttler, "Bilder einer Einstellung" [Position pictures], Süddeutsche Zeitung [SZ], 9 November 1999; Götz Aly, "Machtbeflissene Verharmlosung" [Power-hungry dismissal], Berliner Zeitung [BZ], 8 November 1999; "'Geschrei ist unangebracht.' Wolfgang Benz zum Streit über die Wehrmachtsausstellung" ["The outcry is out of place." Wolfgang Benz on the controversy over the Wehrmacht exhibition], SZ, 8 November 1999; Krisztián Ungváry, "Reemtsmas Legenden" [Reemtsma's legends], Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung [FAZ], 5 November 1999; Omer Bartov, "Eine Frage der Ehre" [A question of honor], Die Woche 5 November 1999; Bernhard R. Kroener, "Die Deformation des Menschen im Krieg" [The distortion of people in war], Die Welt, 4 November 1999; Norbert Frei, Feuilleton Kommentar [Commentary in the literary section], FAZ, 2 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Die 6. Armee im Kessel der Denunziation" [The Sixth Army in the cauldron of denunciation], BZ, 30 October 1999; Volker Ullrich, "Von Bildern und Legenden" [On pictures and legends], Die Zeit 44 (October 28, 1999); Michael Stürmer, "Tod, Trauer und Tabu" [Death, mourning and taboo], Die Welt, 28 October 1999; Jost Nolte, "Wahre Bilder, falsche Bilder - welche Bilder?" [True pictures, false pictures - Which pictures?], Die Welt, 27 October 1999; "Fotos der Wehrmachtsausstellung falsch zugeordnet" [Photographs at the Wehrmacht exhibition wrongly captioned] FAZ, 20 October 1999.
105. For a sampling of the debate in the media see Heribert Seifert, "Gefährliches Spiel mit der Bildermacht" [Dangerous game with the power of pictures], Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 12 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Der Hamburger Bilderschau zur Wehrmacht ging es nicht um historische Aufklärung" [The Hamburg photograph exhibition was not about historical enlightenment], Die Welt, 11 November 1999; Fritz Göttler, "Bilder einer Einstellung" [Position pictures], Süddeutsche Zeitung [SZ], 9 November 1999; Götz Aly, "Machtbeflissene Verharmlosung" [Power-hungry dismissal], Berliner Zeitung [BZ], 8 November 1999; "'Geschrei ist unangebracht.' Wolfgang Benz zum Streit über die Wehrmachtsausstellung" ["The outcry is out of place." Wolfgang Benz on the controversy over the Wehrmacht exhibition], SZ, 8 November 1999; Krisztián Ungváry, "Reemtsmas Legenden" [Reemtsma's legends], Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung [FAZ], 5 November 1999; Omer Bartov, "Eine Frage der Ehre" [A question of honor], Die Woche 5 November 1999; Bernhard R. Kroener, "Die Deformation des Menschen im Krieg" [The distortion of people in war], Die Welt, 4 November 1999; Norbert Frei, Feuilleton Kommentar [Commentary in the literary section], FAZ, 2 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Die 6. Armee im Kessel der Denunziation" [The Sixth Army in the cauldron of denunciation], BZ, 30 October 1999; Volker Ullrich, "Von Bildern und Legenden" [On pictures and legends], Die Zeit 44 (October 28, 1999); Michael Stürmer, "Tod, Trauer und Tabu" [Death, mourning and taboo], Die Welt, 28 October 1999; Jost Nolte, "Wahre Bilder, falsche Bilder - welche Bilder?" [True pictures, false pictures - Which pictures?], Die Welt, 27 October 1999; "Fotos der Wehrmachtsausstellung falsch zugeordnet" [Photographs at the Wehrmacht exhibition wrongly captioned] FAZ, 20 October 1999.
106. For a sampling of the debate in the media see Heribert Seifert, "Gefährliches Spiel mit der Bildermacht" [Dangerous game with the power of pictures], Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 12 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Der Hamburger Bilderschau zur Wehrmacht ging es nicht um historische Aufklärung" [The Hamburg photograph exhibition was not about historical enlightenment], Die Welt, 11 November 1999; Fritz Göttler, "Bilder einer Einstellung" [Position pictures], Süddeutsche Zeitung [SZ], 9 November 1999; Götz Aly, "Machtbeflissene Verharmlosung" [Power-hungry dismissal], Berliner Zeitung [BZ], 8 November 1999; "'Geschrei ist unangebracht.' Wolfgang Benz zum Streit über die Wehrmachtsausstellung" ["The outcry is out of place." Wolfgang Benz on the controversy over the Wehrmacht exhibition], SZ, 8 November 1999; Krisztián Ungváry, "Reemtsmas Legenden" [Reemtsma's legends], Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung [FAZ], 5 November 1999; Omer Bartov, "Eine Frage der Ehre" [A question of honor], Die Woche 5 November 1999; Bernhard R. Kroener, "Die Deformation des Menschen im Krieg" [The distortion of people in war], Die Welt, 4 November 1999; Norbert Frei, Feuilleton Kommentar [Commentary in the literary section], FAZ, 2 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Die 6. Armee im Kessel der Denunziation" [The Sixth Army in the cauldron of denunciation], BZ, 30 October 1999; Volker Ullrich, "Von Bildern und Legenden" [On pictures and legends], Die Zeit 44 (October 28, 1999); Michael Stürmer, "Tod, Trauer und Tabu" [Death, mourning and taboo], Die Welt, 28 October 1999; Jost Nolte, "Wahre Bilder, falsche Bilder - welche Bilder?" [True pictures, false pictures - Which pictures?], Die Welt, 27 October 1999; "Fotos der Wehrmachtsausstellung falsch zugeordnet" [Photographs at the Wehrmacht exhibition wrongly captioned] FAZ, 20 October 1999.
107. For a sampling of the debate in the media see Heribert Seifert, "Gefährliches Spiel mit der Bildermacht" [Dangerous game with the power of pictures], Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 12 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Der Hamburger Bilderschau zur Wehrmacht ging es nicht um historische Aufklärung" [The Hamburg photograph exhibition was not about historical enlightenment], Die Welt, 11 November 1999; Fritz Göttler, "Bilder einer Einstellung" [Position pictures], Süddeutsche Zeitung [SZ], 9 November 1999; Götz Aly, "Machtbeflissene Verharmlosung" [Power-hungry dismissal], Berliner Zeitung [BZ], 8 November 1999; "'Geschrei ist unangebracht.' Wolfgang Benz zum Streit über die Wehrmachtsausstellung" ["The outcry is out of place." Wolfgang Benz on the controversy over the Wehrmacht exhibition], SZ, 8 November 1999; Krisztián Ungváry, "Reemtsmas Legenden" [Reemtsma's legends], Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung [FAZ], 5 November 1999; Omer Bartov, "Eine Frage der Ehre" [A question of honor], Die Woche 5 November 1999; Bernhard R. Kroener, "Die Deformation des Menschen im Krieg" [The distortion of people in war], Die Welt, 4 November 1999; Norbert Frei, Feuilleton Kommentar [Commentary in the literary section], FAZ, 2 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Die 6. Armee im Kessel der Denunziation" [The Sixth Army in the cauldron of denunciation], BZ, 30 October 1999; Volker Ullrich, "Von Bildern und Legenden" [On pictures and legends], Die Zeit 44 (October 28, 1999); Michael Stürmer, "Tod, Trauer und Tabu" [Death, mourning and taboo], Die Welt, 28 October 1999; Jost Nolte, "Wahre Bilder, falsche Bilder - welche Bilder?" [True pictures, false pictures - Which pictures?], Die Welt, 27 October 1999; "Fotos der Wehrmachtsausstellung falsch zugeordnet" [Photographs at the Wehrmacht exhibition wrongly captioned] FAZ, 20 October 1999.
108. For a sampling of the debate in the media see Heribert Seifert, "Gefährliches Spiel mit der Bildermacht" [Dangerous game with the power of pictures], Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 12 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Der Hamburger Bilderschau zur Wehrmacht ging es nicht um historische Aufklärung" [The Hamburg photograph exhibition was not about historical enlightenment], Die Welt, 11 November 1999; Fritz Göttler, "Bilder einer Einstellung" [Position pictures], Süddeutsche Zeitung [SZ], 9 November 1999; Götz Aly, "Machtbeflissene Verharmlosung" [Power-hungry dismissal], Berliner Zeitung [BZ], 8 November 1999; "'Geschrei ist unangebracht.' Wolfgang Benz zum Streit über die Wehrmachtsausstellung" ["The outcry is out of place." Wolfgang Benz on the controversy over the Wehrmacht exhibition], SZ, 8 November 1999; Krisztián Ungváry, "Reemtsmas Legenden" [Reemtsma's legends], Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung [FAZ], 5 November 1999; Omer Bartov, "Eine Frage der Ehre" [A question of honor], Die Woche 5 November 1999; Bernhard R. Kroener, "Die Deformation des Menschen im Krieg" [The distortion of people in war], Die Welt, 4 November 1999; Norbert Frei, Feuilleton Kommentar [Commentary in the literary section], FAZ, 2 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Die 6. Armee im Kessel der Denunziation" [The Sixth Army in the cauldron of denunciation], BZ, 30 October 1999; Volker Ullrich, "Von Bildern und Legenden" [On pictures and legends], Die Zeit 44 (October 28, 1999); Michael Stürmer, "Tod, Trauer und Tabu" [Death, mourning and taboo], Die Welt, 28 October 1999; Jost Nolte, "Wahre Bilder, falsche Bilder - welche Bilder?" [True pictures, false pictures - Which pictures?], Die Welt, 27 October 1999; "Fotos der Wehrmachtsausstellung falsch zugeordnet" [Photographs at the Wehrmacht exhibition wrongly captioned] FAZ, 20 October 1999.
109. For a sampling of the debate in the media see Heribert Seifert, "Gefährliches Spiel mit der Bildermacht" [Dangerous game with the power of pictures], Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 12 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Der Hamburger Bilderschau zur Wehrmacht ging es nicht um historische Aufklärung" [The Hamburg photograph exhibition was not about historical enlightenment], Die Welt, 11 November 1999; Fritz Göttler, "Bilder einer Einstellung" [Position pictures], Süddeutsche Zeitung [SZ], 9 November 1999; Götz Aly, "Machtbeflissene Verharmlosung" [Power-hungry dismissal], Berliner Zeitung [BZ], 8 November 1999; "'Geschrei ist unangebracht.' Wolfgang Benz zum Streit über die Wehrmachtsausstellung" ["The outcry is out of place." Wolfgang Benz on the controversy over the Wehrmacht exhibition], SZ, 8 November 1999; Krisztián Ungváry, "Reemtsmas Legenden" [Reemtsma's legends], Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung [FAZ], 5 November 1999; Omer Bartov, "Eine Frage der Ehre" [A question of honor], Die Woche 5 November 1999; Bernhard R. Kroener, "Die Deformation des Menschen im Krieg" [The distortion of people in war], Die Welt, 4 November 1999; Norbert Frei, Feuilleton Kommentar [Commentary in the literary section], FAZ, 2 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Die 6. Armee im Kessel der Denunziation" [The Sixth Army in the cauldron of denunciation], BZ, 30 October 1999; Volker Ullrich, "Von Bildern und Legenden" [On pictures and legends], Die Zeit 44 (October 28, 1999); Michael Stürmer, "Tod, Trauer und Tabu" [Death, mourning and taboo], Die Welt, 28 October 1999; Jost Nolte, "Wahre Bilder, falsche Bilder - welche Bilder?" [True pictures, false pictures - Which pictures?], Die Welt, 27 October 1999; "Fotos der Wehrmachtsausstellung falsch zugeordnet" [Photographs at the Wehrmacht exhibition wrongly captioned] FAZ, 20 October 1999.
110. For a sampling of the debate in the media see Heribert Seifert, "Gefährliches Spiel mit der Bildermacht" [Dangerous game with the power of pictures], Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 12 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Der Hamburger Bilderschau zur Wehrmacht ging es nicht um historische Aufklärung" [The Hamburg photograph exhibition was not about historical enlightenment], Die Welt, 11 November 1999; Fritz Göttler, "Bilder einer Einstellung" [Position pictures], Süddeutsche Zeitung [SZ], 9 November 1999; Götz Aly, "Machtbeflissene Verharmlosung" [Power-hungry dismissal], Berliner Zeitung [BZ], 8 November 1999; "'Geschrei ist unangebracht.' Wolfgang Benz zum Streit über die Wehrmachtsausstellung" ["The outcry is out of place." Wolfgang Benz on the controversy over the Wehrmacht exhibition], SZ, 8 November 1999; Krisztián Ungváry, "Reemtsmas Legenden" [Reemtsma's legends], Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung [FAZ], 5 November 1999; Omer Bartov, "Eine Frage der Ehre" [A question of honor], Die Woche 5 November 1999; Bernhard R. Kroener, "Die Deformation des Menschen im Krieg" [The distortion of people in war], Die Welt, 4 November 1999; Norbert Frei, Feuilleton Kommentar [Commentary in the literary section], FAZ, 2 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Die 6. Armee im Kessel der Denunziation" [The Sixth Army in the cauldron of denunciation], BZ, 30 October 1999; Volker Ullrich, "Von Bildern und Legenden" [On pictures and legends], Die Zeit 44 (October 28, 1999); Michael Stürmer, "Tod, Trauer und Tabu" [Death, mourning and taboo], Die Welt, 28 October 1999; Jost Nolte, "Wahre Bilder, falsche Bilder - welche Bilder?" [True pictures, false pictures - Which pictures?], Die Welt, 27 October 1999; "Fotos der Wehrmachtsausstellung falsch zugeordnet" [Photographs at the Wehrmacht exhibition wrongly captioned] FAZ, 20 October 1999.
111. For a sampling of the debate in the media see Heribert Seifert, "Gefährliches Spiel mit der Bildermacht" [Dangerous game with the power of pictures], Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 12 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Der Hamburger Bilderschau zur Wehrmacht ging es nicht um historische Aufklärung" [The Hamburg photograph exhibition was not about historical enlightenment], Die Welt, 11 November 1999; Fritz Göttler, "Bilder einer Einstellung" [Position pictures], Süddeutsche Zeitung [SZ], 9 November 1999; Götz Aly, "Machtbeflissene Verharmlosung" [Power-hungry dismissal], Berliner Zeitung [BZ], 8 November 1999; "'Geschrei ist unangebracht.' Wolfgang Benz zum Streit über die Wehrmachtsausstellung" ["The outcry is out of place." Wolfgang Benz on the controversy over the Wehrmacht exhibition], SZ, 8 November 1999; Krisztián Ungváry, "Reemtsmas Legenden" [Reemtsma's legends], Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung [FAZ], 5 November 1999; Omer Bartov, "Eine Frage der Ehre" [A question of honor], Die Woche 5 November 1999; Bernhard R. Kroener, "Die Deformation des Menschen im Krieg" [The distortion of people in war], Die Welt, 4 November 1999; Norbert Frei, Feuilleton Kommentar [Commentary in the literary section], FAZ, 2 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Die 6. Armee im Kessel der Denunziation" [The Sixth Army in the cauldron of denunciation], BZ, 30 October 1999; Volker Ullrich, "Von Bildern und Legenden" [On pictures and legends], Die Zeit 44 (October 28, 1999); Michael Stürmer, "Tod, Trauer und Tabu" [Death, mourning and taboo], Die Welt, 28 October 1999; Jost Nolte, "Wahre Bilder, falsche Bilder - welche Bilder?" [True pictures, false pictures - Which pictures?], Die Welt, 27 October 1999; "Fotos der Wehrmachtsausstellung falsch zugeordnet" [Photographs at the Wehrmacht exhibition wrongly captioned] FAZ, 20 October 1999.
112. For a sampling of the debate in the media see Heribert Seifert, "Gefährliches Spiel mit der Bildermacht" [Dangerous game with the power of pictures], Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 12 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Der Hamburger Bilderschau zur Wehrmacht ging es nicht um historische Aufklärung" [The Hamburg photograph exhibition was not about historical enlightenment], Die Welt, 11 November 1999; Fritz Göttler, "Bilder einer Einstellung" [Position pictures], Süddeutsche Zeitung [SZ], 9 November 1999; Götz Aly, "Machtbeflissene Verharmlosung" [Power-hungry dismissal], Berliner Zeitung [BZ], 8 November 1999; "'Geschrei ist unangebracht.' Wolfgang Benz zum Streit über die Wehrmachtsausstellung" ["The outcry is out of place." Wolfgang Benz on the controversy over the Wehrmacht exhibition], SZ, 8 November 1999; Krisztián Ungváry, "Reemtsmas Legenden" [Reemtsma's legends], Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung [FAZ], 5 November 1999; Omer Bartov, "Eine Frage der Ehre" [A question of honor], Die Woche 5 November 1999; Bernhard R. Kroener, "Die Deformation des Menschen im Krieg" [The distortion of people in war], Die Welt, 4 November 1999; Norbert Frei, Feuilleton Kommentar [Commentary in the literary section], FAZ, 2 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Die 6. Armee im Kessel der Denunziation" [The Sixth Army in the cauldron of denunciation], BZ, 30 October 1999; Volker Ullrich, "Von Bildern und Legenden" [On pictures and legends], Die Zeit 44 (October 28, 1999); Michael Stürmer, "Tod, Trauer und Tabu" [Death, mourning and taboo], Die Welt, 28 October 1999; Jost Nolte, "Wahre Bilder, falsche Bilder - welche Bilder?" [True pictures, false pictures - Which pictures?], Die Welt, 27 October 1999; "Fotos der Wehrmachtsausstellung falsch zugeordnet" [Photographs at the Wehrmacht exhibition wrongly captioned] FAZ, 20 October 1999.
113. For a sampling of the debate in the media see Heribert Seifert, "Gefährliches Spiel mit der Bildermacht" [Dangerous game with the power of pictures], Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 12 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Der Hamburger Bilderschau zur Wehrmacht ging es nicht um historische Aufklärung" [The Hamburg photograph exhibition was not about historical enlightenment], Die Welt, 11 November 1999; Fritz Göttler, "Bilder einer Einstellung" [Position pictures], Süddeutsche Zeitung [SZ], 9 November 1999; Götz Aly, "Machtbeflissene Verharmlosung" [Power-hungry dismissal], Berliner Zeitung [BZ], 8 November 1999; "'Geschrei ist unangebracht.' Wolfgang Benz zum Streit über die Wehrmachtsausstellung" ["The outcry is out of place." Wolfgang Benz on the controversy over the Wehrmacht exhibition], SZ, 8 November 1999; Krisztián Ungváry, "Reemtsmas Legenden" [Reemtsma's legends], Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung [FAZ], 5 November 1999; Omer Bartov, "Eine Frage der Ehre" [A question of honor], Die Woche 5 November 1999; Bernhard R. Kroener, "Die Deformation des Menschen im Krieg" [The distortion of people in war], Die Welt, 4 November 1999; Norbert Frei, Feuilleton Kommentar [Commentary in the literary section], FAZ, 2 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Die 6. Armee im Kessel der Denunziation" [The Sixth Army in the cauldron of denunciation], BZ, 30 October 1999; Volker Ullrich, "Von Bildern und Legenden" [On pictures and legends], Die Zeit 44 (October 28, 1999); Michael Stürmer, "Tod, Trauer und Tabu" [Death, mourning and taboo], Die Welt, 28 October 1999; Jost Nolte, "Wahre Bilder, falsche Bilder - welche Bilder?" [True pictures, false pictures - Which pictures?], Die Welt, 27 October 1999; "Fotos der Wehrmachtsausstellung falsch zugeordnet" [Photographs at the Wehrmacht exhibition wrongly captioned] FAZ, 20 October 1999.
114. For a sampling of the debate in the media see Heribert Seifert, "Gefährliches Spiel mit der Bildermacht" [Dangerous game with the power of pictures], Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 12 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Der Hamburger Bilderschau zur Wehrmacht ging es nicht um historische Aufklärung" [The Hamburg photograph exhibition was not about historical enlightenment], Die Welt, 11 November 1999; Fritz Göttler, "Bilder einer Einstellung" [Position pictures], Süddeutsche Zeitung [SZ], 9 November 1999; Götz Aly, "Machtbeflissene Verharmlosung" [Power-hungry dismissal], Berliner Zeitung [BZ], 8 November 1999; "'Geschrei ist unangebracht.' Wolfgang Benz zum Streit über die Wehrmachtsausstellung" ["The outcry is out of place." Wolfgang Benz on the controversy over the Wehrmacht exhibition], SZ, 8 November 1999; Krisztián Ungváry, "Reemtsmas Legenden" [Reemtsma's legends], Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung [FAZ], 5 November 1999; Omer Bartov, "Eine Frage der Ehre" [A question of honor], Die Woche 5 November 1999; Bernhard R. Kroener, "Die Deformation des Menschen im Krieg" [The distortion of people in war], Die Welt, 4 November 1999; Norbert Frei, Feuilleton Kommentar [Commentary in the literary section], FAZ, 2 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Die 6. Armee im Kessel der Denunziation" [The Sixth Army in the cauldron of denunciation], BZ, 30 October 1999; Volker Ullrich, "Von Bildern und Legenden" [On pictures and legends], Die Zeit 44 (October 28, 1999); Michael Stürmer, "Tod, Trauer und Tabu" [Death, mourning and taboo], Die Welt, 28 October 1999; Jost Nolte, "Wahre Bilder, falsche Bilder - welche Bilder?" [True pictures, false pictures - Which pictures?], Die Welt, 27 October 1999; "Fotos der Wehrmachtsausstellung falsch zugeordnet" [Photographs at the Wehrmacht exhibition wrongly captioned] FAZ, 20 October 1999.
115. For a sampling of the debate in the media see Heribert Seifert, "Gefährliches Spiel mit der Bildermacht" [Dangerous game with the power of pictures], Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 12 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Der Hamburger Bilderschau zur Wehrmacht ging es nicht um historische Aufklärung" [The Hamburg photograph exhibition was not about historical enlightenment], Die Welt, 11 November 1999; Fritz Göttler, "Bilder einer Einstellung" [Position pictures], Süddeutsche Zeitung [SZ], 9 November 1999; Götz Aly, "Machtbeflissene Verharmlosung" [Power-hungry dismissal], Berliner Zeitung [BZ], 8 November 1999; "'Geschrei ist unangebracht.' Wolfgang Benz zum Streit über die Wehrmachtsausstellung" ["The outcry is out of place." Wolfgang Benz on the controversy over the Wehrmacht exhibition], SZ, 8 November 1999; Krisztián Ungváry, "Reemtsmas Legenden" [Reemtsma's legends], Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung [FAZ], 5 November 1999; Omer Bartov, "Eine Frage der Ehre" [A question of honor], Die Woche 5 November 1999; Bernhard R. Kroener, "Die Deformation des Menschen im Krieg" [The distortion of people in war], Die Welt, 4 November 1999; Norbert Frei, Feuilleton Kommentar [Commentary in the literary section], FAZ, 2 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Die 6. Armee im Kessel der Denunziation" [The Sixth Army in the cauldron of denunciation], BZ, 30 October 1999; Volker Ullrich, "Von Bildern und Legenden" [On pictures and legends], Die Zeit 44 (October 28, 1999); Michael Stürmer, "Tod, Trauer und Tabu" [Death, mourning and taboo], Die Welt, 28 October 1999; Jost Nolte, "Wahre Bilder, falsche Bilder - welche Bilder?" [True pictures, false pictures - Which pictures?], Die Welt, 27 October 1999; "Fotos der Wehrmachtsausstellung falsch zugeordnet" [Photographs at the Wehrmacht exhibition wrongly captioned] FAZ, 20 October 1999.
116. For a sampling of the debate in the media see Heribert Seifert, "Gefährliches Spiel mit der Bildermacht" [Dangerous game with the power of pictures], Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 12 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Der Hamburger Bilderschau zur Wehrmacht ging es nicht um historische Aufklärung" [The Hamburg photograph exhibition was not about historical enlightenment], Die Welt, 11 November 1999; Fritz Göttler, "Bilder einer Einstellung" [Position pictures], Süddeutsche Zeitung [SZ], 9 November 1999; Götz Aly, "Machtbeflissene Verharmlosung" [Power-hungry dismissal], Berliner Zeitung [BZ], 8 November 1999; "'Geschrei ist unangebracht.' Wolfgang Benz zum Streit über die Wehrmachtsausstellung" ["The outcry is out of place." Wolfgang Benz on the controversy over the Wehrmacht exhibition], SZ, 8 November 1999; Krisztián Ungváry, "Reemtsmas Legenden" [Reemtsma's legends], Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung [FAZ], 5 November 1999; Omer Bartov, "Eine Frage der Ehre" [A question of honor], Die Woche 5 November 1999; Bernhard R. Kroener, "Die Deformation des Menschen im Krieg" [The distortion of people in war], Die Welt, 4 November 1999; Norbert Frei, Feuilleton Kommentar [Commentary in the literary section], FAZ, 2 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Die 6. Armee im Kessel der Denunziation" [The Sixth Army in the cauldron of denunciation], BZ, 30 October 1999; Volker Ullrich, "Von Bildern und Legenden" [On pictures and legends], Die Zeit 44 (October 28, 1999); Michael Stürmer, "Tod, Trauer und Tabu" [Death, mourning and taboo], Die Welt, 28 October 1999; Jost Nolte, "Wahre Bilder, falsche Bilder - welche Bilder?" [True pictures, false pictures - Which pictures?], Die Welt, 27 October 1999; "Fotos der Wehrmachtsausstellung falsch zugeordnet" [Photographs at the Wehrmacht exhibition wrongly captioned] FAZ, 20 October 1999.
117. For a sampling of the debate in the media see Heribert Seifert, "Gefährliches Spiel mit der Bildermacht" [Dangerous game with the power of pictures], Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 12 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Der Hamburger Bilderschau zur Wehrmacht ging es nicht um historische Aufklärung" [The Hamburg photograph exhibition was not about historical enlightenment], Die Welt, 11 November 1999; Fritz Göttler, "Bilder einer Einstellung" [Position pictures], Süddeutsche Zeitung [SZ], 9 November 1999; Götz Aly, "Machtbeflissene Verharmlosung" [Power-hungry dismissal], Berliner Zeitung [BZ], 8 November 1999; "'Geschrei ist unangebracht.' Wolfgang Benz zum Streit über die Wehrmachtsausstellung" ["The outcry is out of place." Wolfgang Benz on the controversy over the Wehrmacht exhibition], SZ, 8 November 1999; Krisztián Ungváry, "Reemtsmas Legenden" [Reemtsma's legends], Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung [FAZ], 5 November 1999; Omer Bartov, "Eine Frage der Ehre" [A question of honor], Die Woche 5 November 1999; Bernhard R. Kroener, "Die Deformation des Menschen im Krieg" [The distortion of people in war], Die Welt, 4 November 1999; Norbert Frei, Feuilleton Kommentar [Commentary in the literary section], FAZ, 2 November 1999; Jörg Friedrich, "Die 6. Armee im Kessel der Denunziation" [The Sixth Army in the cauldron of denunciation], BZ, 30 October 1999; Volker Ullrich, "Von Bildern und Legenden" [On pictures and legends], Die Zeit 44 (October 28, 1999); Michael Stürmer, "Tod, Trauer und Tabu" [Death, mourning and taboo], Die Welt, 28 October 1999; Jost Nolte, "Wahre Bilder, falsche Bilder - welche Bilder?" [True pictures, false pictures - Which pictures?], Die Welt, 27 October 1999; "Fotos der Wehrmachtsausstellung falsch zugeordnet" [Photographs at the Wehrmacht exhibition wrongly captioned] FAZ, 20 October 1999.
118. Johannes Klotz, "Kurzer Atem Resignierten die Macher zu schnell? - Eine Kritik der Kritiker der Wehrmachtsausstellung" [Out of breath the organizers resigned too quickly? - A critique of the critics of the Wehrmacht exhibition], Frankfurter Rundschau [FR] 26 November 1999. This article cites the unpublished paper by the prominent Wehrmacht historian Christian Streit: "Die Kontroverse um die sogenannte Wehrmachtsausstellung" [The controversy over the so-called Wehrmacht exhibition], November 1999. Christian Gerlach, "In der Steppe versickert. Es geht nicht bloss um Fotos, es geht um die Wehrmacht" [Wasted away in the Steppe. It's not merely about photographs, it's about the Wehrmacht], FR, 30 November 1999.
119. Johannes Klotz, "Kurzer Atem Resignierten die Macher zu schnell? - Eine Kritik der Kritiker der Wehrmachtsausstellung" [Out of breath the organizers resigned too quickly? - A critique of the critics of the Wehrmacht exhibition], Frankfurter Rundschau [FR] 26 November 1999. This article cites the unpublished paper by the prominent Wehrmacht historian Christian Streit: "Die Kontroverse um die sogenannte Wehrmachtsausstellung" [The controversy over the so-called Wehrmacht exhibition], November 1999. Christian Gerlach, "In der Steppe versickert. Es geht nicht bloss um Fotos, es geht um die Wehrmacht" [Wasted away in the Steppe. It's not merely about photographs, it's about the Wehrmacht], FR, 30 November 1999.
120. Johannes Klotz, "Kurzer Atem Resignierten die Macher zu schnell? - Eine Kritik der Kritiker der Wehrmachtsausstellung" [Out of breath the organizers resigned too quickly? - A critique of the critics of the Wehrmacht exhibition], Frankfurter Rundschau [FR] 26 November 1999. This article cites the unpublished paper by the prominent Wehrmacht historian Christian Streit: "Die Kontroverse um die sogenannte Wehrmachtsausstellung" [The controversy over the so-called Wehrmacht exhibition], November 1999. Christian Gerlach, "In der Steppe versickert. Es geht nicht bloss um Fotos, es geht um die Wehrmacht" [Wasted away in the Steppe. It's not merely about photographs, it's about the Wehrmacht], FR, 30 November 1999.
121. See especially Dieter Pohl, Nationalsozialistische Judenverfolgung in Ostgalizien, 1941-1944: Organisation und Durchführung eines staatlichen Massenverbrechens [The Nazi persecution of the Jews in East Galicia, 1941-1944: Organization and implementation of a state-ordered mass crime] (Munich, 1996); Thomas Sandkühler, "Endlösung in Galizien: Der Judenmord in Ostpolen und die Rettungsinitiativen von Berthold Beitz, 1941-1944 [The "Final Solution" in Galicia: The murder of the Jews in East Poland and the rescue initiatives of Berthold Beitz, 1941-1944] (Bonn, 1996); and Walter Manoschek, "Serbien ist judenfrei": Militärische Besatzungspolitik und Judenvernichtung in Serbien 1941/42 ["Serbia is free of Jews": Military occupation policy and the extermination of the Jews in Serbia, 1941-1942] (Munich, 1995).
122. See especially Dieter Pohl, Nationalsozialistische Judenverfolgung in Ostgalizien, 1941-1944: Organisation und Durchführung eines staatlichen Massenverbrechens [The Nazi persecution of the Jews in East Galicia, 1941-1944: Organization and implementation of a state-ordered mass crime] (Munich, 1996); Thomas Sandkühler, "Endlösung in Galizien: Der Judenmord in Ostpolen und die Rettungsinitiativen von Berthold Beitz, 1941-1944 [The "Final Solution" in Galicia: The murder of the Jews in East Poland and the rescue initiatives of Berthold Beitz, 1941-1944] (Bonn, 1996); and Walter Manoschek, "Serbien ist judenfrei": Militärische Besatzungspolitik und Judenvernichtung in Serbien 1941/42 ["Serbia is free of Jews": Military occupation policy and the extermination of the Jews in Serbia, 1941-1942] (Munich, 1995).
123. See especially Dieter Pohl, Nationalsozialistische Judenverfolgung in Ostgalizien, 1941-1944: Organisation und Durchführung eines staatlichen Massenverbrechens [The Nazi persecution of the Jews in East Galicia, 1941-1944: Organization and implementation of a state-ordered mass crime] (Munich, 1996); Thomas Sandkühler, "Endlösung in Galizien: Der Judenmord in Ostpolen und die Rettungsinitiativen von Berthold Beitz, 1941-1944 [The "Final Solution" in Galicia: The murder of the Jews in East Poland and the rescue initiatives of Berthold Beitz, 1941-1944] (Bonn, 1996); and Walter Manoschek, "Serbien ist judenfrei": Militärische Besatzungspolitik und Judenvernichtung in Serbien 1941/42 ["Serbia is free of Jews": Military occupation policy and the extermination of the Jews in Serbia, 1941-1942] (Munich, 1995).
124. "'Es geht nicht um die Wahrheit.' Horst Möller, Leiter des Münchner Instituts für Zeitgeschichte, über die Fehler und den wissenschaftlichen Gehalt der Wehrmachtsausstellung" ["This is not about the truth." Horst Möller, director of the Munich Institute for Contemporary History, on the errors and the scholarly content of the Wehrmacht exhibition], Focus, 25 October 1999;
125. "'Gegen Kritik immun.' Der Potsdamer Historiker Rolf-Dieter Müller über die Wehrmacht im Zweiten Weltkrieg und die Thesen des Hamburger Instituts für Sozialforschung" ["Immune to criticism." The Potsdam historian Rolf-Dieter Müller on the Wehrmacht in World War II and the theses of the Hamburg Institute for Social Research], Der Spiegel 23/1999.