Disentangling perceptions of subtle racist speech: A Cultural Perspective

Journal of Language and Social Psychology

Volumn 22, Issue 2, 2003, Pages 145-168

  Leets, Laura ^a  

^a STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

cultural variation; hate speech; high and low context communication; prejudice; racist speech; subtle racism

Indexed keywords

EID: 10944257786     PISSN: 0261927X     EISSN: 15526526     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0261927X03022002001     Document Type: Article

References (78)

1. Brashers, D., & Jackson, S. (1999). Changing conceptions of “message effects”: A 24-year overview. Human Communication Research, 25, 457-477.
2. Brown, P., & Levinson, S. (1978). Universals in language usage: Politeness phenomena. In E. N. Goody (Ed.), Question and politeness: Strategies in social interaction (pp. 56-310). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3. Brown, P., & Levinson, S. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. London: Cambridge University Press.
4. Chua, E., & Gudykunst, W. (1987). Conflict resolution style in low- and high-context cultures. Communication Research Reports, 4, 32-37.
5. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analyses for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
6. Coupland, N., Grainger, K., & Coupland, J. (1988). Politeness in context: Intergenerational issues (Review article). Language in Society, 17, 253-262.
7. Crocker, J., & Quinn, D. (1998). Racism and self-esteem. In J. L. Eberhardt & S. T. Fiske (Eds.), Confronting racism: The problem and the response (pp. 169-187). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
8. Cross, W., & Strauss, L. (1998). The everyday functions of African American identity. In J. Swim & C. Stangor (Eds.), Prejudice: The target's perspective (pp. 267-279). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
9. Cuellar, I., Harris, L., & Jasso, R. (1980). An acculturation scale for Mexican American normal and clinical populations. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 2, 199-217.
10. Devine, P., Plant, E., & Blair, I. (2001). Classic and contemporary analyses of racial prejudice. In R. Brown & S. Gaertner (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of social psychology: Intergroup processes (pp. 198-217). Oxford: Blackwell.
11. Dillard, J., Wilson, S., Tusing, K., & Kinney, T. (1997). Politeness judgments in personal relationships. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 16, 297-325.
12. Dovidio, J., & Gaertner, S. (1998). On the nature of contemporary prejudice. In J. Eberhardt & S. Fiske (Eds.), Confronting racism: The problem and the response (pp. 3-32). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
13. Drummond, D. (1996, May). The creation, maintenance, and transformation of ethnic identity through ethnic labeling: Subjective and ascribed meanings from the mouths of Americans of African descent. Paper presented at the International Communication Association, Chicago.
14. Fiske, S. (1998). Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. In D. Gilbert, S. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (4th ed., Vol. 2, pp. 357-411). New York: McGraw-Hill.
15. Gaertner, S., & Dovidio, J. (1986). The aversive form of racism. In J. Dovidio & S. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism (pp. 61-89). San Diego: Academic Press.
16. Gannon, M. (1994). Understanding global cultures. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
17. Goodchilds, J. (Ed.). (1991). Psychological perspectives on human diversity in America. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
18. Graumann, C. (1998). Verbal discrimination: A neglected chapter in the social psychology of aggression. Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior, 28, 42-61.
19. Groves, P., & Thompson, R. (1970). Habituation: A dual-process theory. Psychological Review, 77, 419-450.
20. Gudykunst, W. (1998). Bridging differences: Effective intergroup communication (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
21. Gudykunst, W., & Kim, Y. Y. (1992). Communication with strangers: An approach to intercultural communication (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
22. Gudykunst, W., Matsumoto, Y., Ting-Toomey, S., Nishida, T., Kim, K., & Heyman, S. (1996). The influence of cultural individualism-collectivism, self construals, and individual values on communication styles across cultures. Human Communication Research, 22, 510-543.
23. Gudykunst, W., & Ting-Toomey, S. (1998). Culture and interpersonal communication. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
24. Hall, E. (1976). Beyond culture. New York: Doubleday.
25. Hall, E. (1983). The dance of life. New York: Doubleday.
26. Hecht, M., Collier, M., & Ribeau, S. (1993). African American communication: Ethnic identity and cultural interpretation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
27. Hecht, M., & Ribeau, S. (1984). Ethnic communication: A comparative analysis of satisfying communication. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 8, 135-151.
28. Hecht, M., Sedano, M., & Ribeau, S. (1993). Understanding culture, communication, and research: Applications to Chicanos and Mexican Americans. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 17, 157-165.
29. Hewstone, M., & Jaspars, J. (1982). Explanations for racial discrimination: The effect of group discussion on intergroup attributions. European Journal of Social Psychology, 12, 1-16.
30. Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
31. Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. New York: McGraw-Hill.
32. Holtgraves, T., & Yang, J. (1990). Politeness as universal: Cross-cultural perceptions of request strategies and inferences based on their use. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 719-729.
33. Jackson, S. (1992). Message effects research: Principles of design and analysis. New York: Guilford.
34. Jones, E., & Pittman, T. (1982). Toward a general theory of strategic self-presentation. In J. Suls (Ed.), Psychological perspectives on the self (pp. 231-262). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
35. Keppel, G. (1991). Design and analysis: A researcher's handbook (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
36. Kinder, D., & Sears, D. (1981). Prejudice and politics: Symbolic racism versus racial threats to the good life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 414-431.
37. Kirk, R. (1968). Experimental design: Procedures for the behavioral sciences. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
38. Leets, L. (2001). Explaining perceptions of racist speech. Communication Research, 28, 677-707.
39. Leets, L., & Giles, H. (1997). Words as weapons: When do they wound? Investigations of harmful speech. Human Communication Research, 24, 260-301.
40. Leets, L, Giles, H., & Clément, R. (1996). Explicating ethnicity in theory and communication research. Multilingua, 15, 115-147.
41. Levine, T., & Hullett, G. (2002). Eta squared, partial eta squared, and misreporting of effect size in communication research. Human Communication Research, 28, 612-625.
42. Linville, P. (1982). The complexity-extremity effect and age-based stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 193-211.
43. Marger, M. (1994). Race and ethnic relations: American and global perspectives (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
44. Markus, H., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224-253.
45. Marques, J., & Paez, D. (1994). The “black sheep effect”: Social categorization, rejection of ingroup deviates, and perception of group variability. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European review of social psychology (Vol. 5, pp. 37-68). Chichester, UK: Wiley.
46. McConahay, J. (1986). Modern racism, ambivalence, and the modern racism scale. In J. Dovidio & S. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism (pp. 91-125). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
47. Mirandé, A., & Tanno, D. (1993a). Labels, researcher perspective, and contextual validation: A commentary. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 17, 149-155.
48. Mirandé, A., & Tanno, D. (1993b). Understanding interethnic communication and research: A rose by any other name would smell as sweet. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 17, 381-388.
49. Mosher, D., & Proenza, L. (1968). Intensity of attack, displacement and verbal aggression. Psychonomic Science, 12, 359-360.
50. Operario, D., & Fiske, S. (1998). Racism equals power plus prejudice. In J. Eberhardt & S. Fiske (Eds.), Confronting racism: The problem and the response (pp. 33-53). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
51. Operario, D., & Fiske, S. (2001). Ethnic identity moderates perceptions of prejudice: Judgments of personal versus group discrimination and subtle versus blatant bias. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 550-561.
52. Oyserman, D., & Harrison, K. (1998). Implications of cultural context: African American identity and possible selves. In J. Swim & C. Stangor (Eds.), Prejudice: The target's perspective (pp. 281-300). San Diego: Academic Press.
53. Padilla, A. (Ed.). (1995). Hispanic psychology: Critical issues in theory and research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
54. Penman, R. (1990). Facework & politeness: Multiple goals in courtroom discourse. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 9, 15-38.
55. Phinney, J. (1992). The multigroup ethnic identity measure: A new scale for use with diverse groups. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7, 156-176.
56. Phinney, J. (1993). A three-stage model of ethnic identity development in adolescence. In M. Bernal & G. Knight (Eds.), Ethnic identity: Formation and transmission among Hispanics and other minorities (pp. 61-80). New York: State University of New York Press.
57. Pinkow, L., Ehrlich, H., & Purvis, R. (1989). Group tensions on American colleges. Baltimore: National Institute Against Prejudice and Violence. (The National Institute Against Prejudice and Violence closed in July, 1993. Its publications are available from The Prejudice Institute, Stephens Hall Annex, Towson State University, Towson, MD 21204-7097.)
58. Roger, D. (1988). Asian America. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
59. Rowe, M. (1990). Barriers to equality: The power of subtle discrimination to maintain unequal opportunity. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 3, 153-163.
60. Rowe, M. (1993). Fostering diversity: Some major hurdles remain. Change, 25, 35-39.
61. Ruscher, J. (2001). Prejudiced Communication: A social psychological perspective. New York: Guilford.
62. Searle, J. (1975). Indirect speech acts. In P. Cole & J. Morgan (Eds.), Syntax and semantics 3: Speech acts (pp. 59-82). New York: Academic Press.
63. Singelis, T., & Brown, W. (1995). Culture, self and collectivist communication. Human Communication Research, 21, 354-389.
64. Singleton, J. (Producer). (1995). Higher education [Motion picture]. United States: TriStar Home Video.
65. Swim, J., & Stangor, C. (Eds.). (1998). Prejudice: The target's perspective. San Diego: Academic Press.
66. Tajfel, H. (Ed.). (1982). Social identity and intergroup relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
67. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33-48). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
68. Taylor, C. (1985). Philosophical papers, II: Philosophy and the human sciences. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
69. Taylor, D., & Jaggi, J. (1974). Ethnocentrism and causal attributions in a South Indian context. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 5, 162-171.
70. Ting-Toomey, S. (1985). Toward a theory of conflict and culture. In W. Gudykunst, L. Stewart, & S. Ting-Toomey (Eds.), Communication, culture and organizational processes (pp. 71-86). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
71. Ting-Toomey, S. (1988). Intercultural conflict styles: A face-negotiation theory. In Y. Y. Kim & W. B. Gudykunst (Eds.), Theories in intercultural communication (pp. 213-235). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
72. Tracy, K. (1990). The many faces of facework. In H. Giles & W. P. Robinson (Eds.), Handbook of language and social psychology (pp. 209-226). Chichester, UK: Wiley.
73. Triandis, H. (1995). Individualism and collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview.
74. Triandis, H., & Trafimow, D. (2001). Culture and its implications for intergroup behavior. In R. Brown & S. Gaertner (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of social psychology: Intergroup processes (pp. 367-385). Oxford: Blackwell.
75. van Dijk, T. (1995). Elite discourse and the reproduction of racism. In R. Whillock & D. Slayden (Eds.), Hate speech (pp. 1-27). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
76. Veit, C., & Ware, J. (1983). The structure of psychological distress and well-being in general populations. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51, 730-742.
77. Whillock, R., & Slayden, D. (Eds.). (1995). Hate speech. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
78. Winkelman, M. (1993). Ethnic relations in the U.S.: A sociohistorical cultural systems approach. New York: West Publishing Company.