Hand hygiene: Simple and complex

International Journal of Infectious Diseases

Volumn 9, Issue 1, 2005, Pages 3-14

  Jumaa, P A ^a  

^a UNITED ARAB EMIRATES UNIVERSITY   (United Arab Emirates)

Author keywords

Behaviour; Compliance; Cultural; Hand drying; Hand hygiene; Handwashing

Indexed keywords

BACTERIAL TRANSMISSION; BEHAVIOR; COMMUNITY CARE; CROWDING; ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION; HAND; HEALTH CARE; HEALTH EDUCATION; HUMAN; HYGIENE; INFECTION CONTROL; REVIEW; SOCIOLOGY;

EID: 10444286632     PISSN: 12019712     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2004.05.005     Document Type: Short Survey

References (113)

1. A.E. Aiello, and E.L. Larson What is the evidence for a causal link between hygiene and infections? Lancet Infect Dis 2 2002 103 110
2. V. Curtis, and S. Cairncross Effect of washing hands with soap on diarrhoea risk in the community: a systematic review Lancet Infect Dis 3 2003 275 281
3. E.L. Larson, C. Gomez-Duarte, L.V. Lee, P. Della-Latta, D.J. Kain, and B.H. Keswick Microbial flora of the hands of homemakers Am J Infect Control 31 2003 72 79
4. E.L. Teare Hand washing- a modest measure with big effects BMJ 318 1999 686
5. D. Pittet, S. Hugonnet, S. Harbarth, P. Morouga, V. Sauvan, and S. Touveneau Effectiveness of a hospital-wide programme to improve compliance with hand hygiene Lancet 356 2000 1307 1312
6. A. Trampuz, and A.F. Widmer Hand hygiene: a frequently missed life saving opportunity during patient care Mayo Clin Proc 79 2004 109 116
7. C. Wendt Hand hygiene-comparison of international recommendations J Hosp Infect 2001 S23 S28
8. WHO. World Health Report 2000. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2000:164.
9. WHO. The global water supply and sanitation assessment 2000. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2000:74.
10. Healy M. Epidemic disease in London. Champion JAI, ed. Centre for Metropolitan History. Working papers series No. 1 London; 1993. p 19-34.
11. E. Straub The roots of evil. The psychological and cultural origins of genocide 1992 Cambridge University Press Cambridge
12. C.M. De Costa 'The contagiousness of Childbed Fever': a short history of puerperal sepsis and its treatment Med J Aust 177 2002 668 671
13. C.M. Coppage Handwashing in patient care (Motion Picture) 1961 US Public Health Service Washington, DC
14. A.C. Steere, and G.F. Mallison Handwashing practices for the prevention of nosocomial infections Ann Intern Med 83 1975 683 690
15. J.S. Garner, and M.S. Favero CDC Guideline for handwashing and hospital environmental infection control Infect Control 7 1986 231 243
16. Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC) Recommendations for preventing the spread of vancomycin resistance Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 16 1995 105 113
17. J.S. Garner Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Guideline for isolation precautions in hospitals Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 17 1996 53 80
18. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guideline for Hand Hygiene in Health-Care settings: Recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee and the HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene task Force. MMWR 2002; 51 (No. RR-16):1-48.
19. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. www.britannica.com.
20. D. Pittet Improving adherence to hand hygiene practice: A multidisciplinary approach Emerg Infect Dis 7 2001 234 240
21. L. Bissett Interpretation of terms used to describe handwashing activities Br J Nurs 12 2003 536 542
22. W.C. Noble, and D.A. Somerville Microbiology of human skin 1974 WB Saunders Philadelphia
23. S.A. Sattar, and S.A. Ansari The fingerpad protocol to assess hygienic hand antiseptics against viruses J Virol Methods 103 2002 171 181
24. S.H. Guenther, J.O. Hendley, and R.P. Wenzel Gram negative bacilli as nontransient flora on the hands of hospital personnel J Clin Microbiol 25 1987 488 490
25. L.J. Strausbaugh, D.L. Sewell, T.T. Ward, M.A. Pfaller, T. Heitzman, and R. Tjoelker High frequency of yeast carriage on hands of hospital personnel J Clin Microbiol 32 1994 2299 2300
26. M. Casewell, and Phillips Hands as a route of transmission of Klebsiella species BMJ 2 1977 1315 1317
27. D. Pittet, S. Dharan, S. Touveneau, V. Sauvan, and T.V. Perneger Bacterial contamination of the hands of hospital staff during routine patient care Arch Intern Med 159 1999 821 826
28. E.L. Larson, C.A. Hughes, J.D. Pyrek, S.M. Sparks, E.U. Cagataz, and J.M. Bartkus Changes in bacterial flora associated with skin damage on hands of health care personnel Am J Infect Control 26 1998 513 521
29. E. Larson Skin hygiene and infection prevention: More of the same or different approaches? Clin Infect Dis 29 1999 1287 1294
30. L.V. McFarland, M.E. Mulligan, R.Y.Y. Kwok, and W.E. Stamm Nosocomial acquisition of Clostridium difficile infection N Engl J Med 320 1989 204 210
31. N.J. Ehrenkranz, and B.C. Alfonso Failure of bland soap handwash to prevent hand transfer of patient bacteria to urethral catheters Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 12 1991 654 662
32. M.E. McBride Microbial flora of in-use soap products Appl Environ Microbiol 48 1984 338 341
33. J.J. Karbara, and M.B. Brady Contamination of bar soaps under 'in-use' conditions J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol 5 1984 1 14
34. C. Sartor, V. Jacomo, C. Duvivier, H. Tissot-Dupont, R. Sambuc, and M. Drancourt Nosocomial Serratia marcescens infections associated with extrinsic contamination of a liquid non-medicated soap Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 21 2000 196 199
35. J.E. Heinze, and F. Yackovich Washing with contaminated bar soap is unlikely to transfer bacteria Epidemiol Infect 101 1988 135 142
36. M. Winnefeld, M.A. Richard, M. Drancourt, and J.J. Grob Skin tolerance and effectiveness of two hand decontamination procedures in everyday hospital use Br J Dermatol 143 2000 546 550
37. G.A.J. Ayliffe, J.R. Babb, J.G. Davies, and H.A. Hilly Hand disinfection: a comparison of various agents in laboratory and ward studies J Hosp Infect 11 1988 226 243
38. L.J. Pereira, G.M. Lee, and K.J. Wade An evaluation of five protocols for surgical handwashing in relation to skin condition and microbial counts J Hosp Infect 36 1997 49 65
39. E. Girou, S. Loyeau, S. Legrand, F. Oppein, and C. Brun-Buisson Efficacy of handrubbing with alcohol-based solution versus standard handwashing with antiseptic soap: randomized clinical trial BMJ 325 2002 362 366
40. E.L. Teare, B. Cookson, and S. Stone Hand hygiene-use alcohol handrubs between patients: they reduce the risk of transmission of infection BMJ 323 2001 412 413
41. E.L. Larson, P.I. Eke, and B.E. Laughton Efficacy of alcohol-based hand rinses under frequent-use conditions Antimicrob Agents Chemother 30 1986 542 544
42. L. Mody, S.A. McNeil, R. Sun, S.E. Bradley, and C.A. Kauffman Introduction of a waterless alcohol-based hand rub in a long term care facility Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 24 2003 157 159
43. S.F. Bloomfield, and E.A. Scott Developing an effective policy for home hygiene: a risk-based approach Int J Environ Health Res 2003 S57 S66
44. S.Y. Sattar, H. Jacobsen, V.S. Springthorpe, T.M. Cusack, and J.R. Rubino Chemical disinfection to interrupt transfer of rhinovirus Type 14 from environmental surfaces to hands Appl Environ Microbiol 59 1993 1579 1585
45. C.J. Griffith, R. Malik, R.A. Cooper, N. Looker, and B. Michaels Environmental surface cleanliness and the potential for contamination during handwashing Am J Infect Control 31 2003 93 96
46. S. Naikoba, and A. Hayward The effectiveness of interventions aimed at increasing handwashing in healthcare workers- a systematic review J Hosp Infect 47 2001 173 180
47. P. Wilson No touch taps help cut infection Health Estate 57 2003 46
48. M. Halabi, M. Wiesholzer-Pittl, J. Schoberl, and H. Mittermayer Non-touch fittings in hospitals: a possible source of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Legionella spp J Hosp Infect 49 2003 117 121
49. D.R. Patrick, G. Findon, and T.E. Miller Residual moisture determines the level of touch-contact-associated bacterial transfer following hand washing Epidemiol Infect 119 1997 319 325
50. Knights B, Evans C, Barrass S, McHardy B. Hand Drying; Assessment of Efficiency and Hygiene of Different Methods. Survey by the Applied Ecology Research Group at the University of Westminster, London; 1993.
51. S.A. Ansari, V.S. Springthorpe, S.A. Sattar, W. Tostowaryk, and G.A. Wells Comparison of cloth, paper and warm air drying in eliminating viruses and bacteria from washed hands Am J Infect Control 19 1991 243 249
52. E.L. Larson, K.J. McGinley, A. Foglia, J.J. Leyden, N. Boland, and J. Larson Handwashing practices and resistance and density of bacterial hand flora on two pediatric units in Lima Peru Am J Infect Control 20 1992 65 72
53. Y.F. Ngeow, H.W. Ong, and P. Tan Dispersal of bacteria by an electric air hand dryer Malays J Pathol 11 1989 53 56
54. D. Gould The significance of hand drying in the prevention of infection Nurs Times 90 1994 33 35
55. J.H. Taylor, K.L. Brown, J. Toivenen, and J.T. Holah A microbiological evaluation of warm air hand driers with respect to hand hygiene and the washroom environment J Appl Microbiol 89 2000 910 919
56. W.A. Harrison, C.J. Griffith, T. Ayers, and B. Michaels Bacterial transfer and cross contamination potential associated with paper-towel dispensing Am J Infect Control 31 2003 387 391
57. D. Gould Hand decontamination: nurses'opinions and practices Nurs Times 91 1995 42 45
58. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Perspectives in disease prevention and health promotion update: universal precautions for prevention of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus, Hepatitis B virus and other bloodborne pathogens in health-care settings. MMWR 1988; 37:377-88.
59. A.I. Harstein, M.A. Denny, V.H. Morthland, A.M. LeMonte, and M.A. Pfaller Control of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a hospital and an intensive care unit Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 16 1995 405 411
60. H. Kjolen, and B.M. Andersen Handwashing and disinfection of heavily contaminated hands: effective or ineffective? J Hosp Infect 21 1992 61 71
61. N.J. Ehrenkranz, and B.C. Alfonso Failure of bland soap handwash to prevent hand transfer of patient bacteria to urethral catheters Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 12 1991 654 662
62. B.L. Thompson, D.M. Dwyer, X.T. Ussery, S. Denman, P. Vacek, and B. Schwarz Handwashing and glove use in a long-term care facility Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 18 1997 97 103
63. J. Zimakoff, M. Stormark, and S.O. Larsen Use of gloves and handwashing behaviour among health care workers in intensive care units. A multicentre investigation in four hospitals in Denmark and Norway J Hosp Infect 24 1993 63 67
64. A.R. Tenorio, S.M. Badri, N.B. Sahgal, B. Hota, M. Matushek, and M.K. Hayden Effectiveness of gloves in the prevention of hand carriage of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus species by health care workers Clin Infect Dis 32 2001 826 829
65. H.R. Kotilainen, J.L. Avato, and N.M. Gantz Latex and vinyl nonsterile examination gloves: status report on laboratory evaluation of defects by physical and biological methods Appl Environ Microbiol 56 1990 1627 1630
66. J.E. Patterson, J. Vecchio, E.L. Pantelick, D. Farrel, D. Mazon, and M.J. Zervos Association of contaminated gloves with transmission of Acinetobacter calcoaceticus var anitratus in an intensive care unit Am J Med 91 1991 479 483
67. A.L. Reingold, M.A. Kane, and A.W. Hightower Failure of gloves and other protective devices to prevent transmission of hepatitis B virus to oral surgeons JAMA 259 1988 2558 2560
68. H.R. Kotilainen, J.P. Brinker, J.L. Avato, and N.M. Gantz Latex and vinyl examination gloves. Quality control procedures and implications for health care workers Arch Intern Med 149 1989 2749 2753
69. D.M. Korniewicz, M. Kirwin, K. Cresci, and E. Larson Leakage of latex and vinyl exam gloves in high and low risk clinical settings Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 54 1993 22 26
70. L.W. Hunt, A.F. Fransway, C.E. Reed, L.K. Miller, R.T. Jones, and M.C. Swanson An epidemic of occupational allergy to latex involving healthcare workers J Occup Environ Med 37 1995 1204 1209
71. D.M. Korniewicz, M. Kirwin, K. Cresci, T. sing, T.E. Choo, and M. Wool Barrier protection with examination gloves: double versus single Am J Infect Control 22 1994 12 15
72. 2-generating gloves Clin Infect Dis 38 2004 57 63
73. www.infectiontoday.com/hotnews/43h19103524.html.
74. D. Gould, J. Gammon, M. Donnelly, L. Batiste, E. Ball, and A.M. De Melo Improving hand hygiene in community healthcare settings: the impact of research and clinical collaboration J Clin Nurs 9 2000 95 102
75. R.D. Mc Cormick, T.L. Buchman, and D.G. Maki Double-blind, randomized trial of scheduled use of a novel barrier cream and an oil-containing lotion for protecting the hands of health care workers Am J Infect Control 28 2000 302 310
76. P.N. Hoffman, E.M. Cooke, M.R. McCarville, and A.M. Emmerson Micro-organisms isolated from skin under wedding rings worn by hospital staff BMJ (Clin Res Ed) 290 1985 206 207
77. E.A. Field, P. McGowan, P.K. Pearce, and M.V. Martin Rings and watches: should they be removed prior to operative dental procedures? J Dent 24 1996 65 69
78. W.E. Trick, M.O. Vernon, R.A. Hayes, C. Nathan, T.W. Rice, and B.J. Peterson Impact of ring wearing on hand contamination and comparison of hand hygiene agents in a hospital Clin Infect Dis 36 2003 1383 1390
79. D.M. Salisbury, P. Hutfilz, L.M. Treen, G.E. Bollin, and S. Gautam The effect of rings on microbial load of health care workers' hands Am J Infect Control 25 1997 24 27
80. R. Montville, Y. Chen, and D.W. Schaffner Risk assessment of handwashing efficacy using literature and experimental data Int J Food Microbiol 73 2002 305 307
81. Arrowsmith VA, Maunder JA, Seargent RJ, Taylor R. Removal of nail polish and finger rings to prevent surgical infection. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2001; 4:CD003325.
82. J.C. Hartley, A.D. Mackay, and G.M. Scott Wrist watches must be removed before washing hands BMJ 318 1999 328
83. K.J. McGinley, E.L. Larson, and J.J. Leyden Composition and density of microflora in the subungual space of the hand J Clin Microbiol 26 1988 950 953
84. C.M. Lin, F.M. Wu, H.K. Kim, M.P. Doyle, B.S. Michael, and L.K. Williams A comparison of handwashing techniques to remove Escherichia coli and caliciviruses under natural or artificial fingernails J Food Prot 66 2003 2296 2301
85. J. Pottinger, S. Burns, and C. Manske Bacterial carriage by artificial versus natural nails Am J Infect Control 17 1989 340 344
86. S.A. Hedderwick, S.A. McNeil, M.J. Lyons, and C.A. Kauffman Pathogenic organisms associated with artificial fingernails worn by healthcare workers Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 21 2000 505 509
87. S.A. McNeil, C.L. Foster, S.A. Hedderwick, and C.A. Kauffman Effect of hand cleansing with antimicrobial soap or alcohol-based gel on microbial colonization of artificial fingernails worn by healthcare workers Clin Infect Dis 32 2001 362 372
88. D.J. Passaro, L. Waring, R. Armstrong, F. Bolding, B. Bouvier, and J. Rosenberg Post operative Serratia marcescens wound infections traced to an out of hospital source J Infect Dis 175 1997 992 995
89. R.L. Moolenaar, J.M. Crutcher, V.H. San Joaquin, L.V. Sewell, L.C. Hutwagner, and L.A. Carson A prolonged outbreak of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in a neonatal intensive care unit: did staff fingernails play a role in disease transmission? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 21 2000 77 79
90. M.F. Parry, B. Grant, M. Yukna, D. Adler Klein, G.X. McLeod, and R. Taddorio Candida osteomyelitis and diskitis after spinal surgery: an outbreak that implicates artificial nail use Clin Infect Dis 32 2001 352 357
91. A. Jeanes, and J. Green Nail art: a review of current infection control issues J Hosp Infect 49 2001 139 142
92. C.A. Wynd, D.E. Samstag, and A.M. Lapp Bacterial carriage on the fingernails of OR nurses AORN J 60 1994 796 805
93. R.G. Feachem Interventions for the control of diarrhoeal diseases among young children. Promotion of personal and domestic hygiene WHO Bulletin 62 1984 467 476
94. V. Curtis, A. Biran, Deverell, C. Hughes, K. Bellamy, and B. Drasar Hygiene in the home: relating bugs and behaviour Soc Sci Med 57 2003 657 672
95. P.M. Hateley, and P. Jumaa Hand washing is more common among healthcare workers than the public BMJ 319 1999 519
96. O.O. Omotade, C.M. Kotode, A.A. Adeyemo, and O. Oladepo Observations on handwashing practices of mothers and environmental conditions in Ona-Ara local government area of Oyo State, Nigeria J Diarrhoeal Dis Res 13 1995 224 228
97. E.C. Kaltenthaler, and B.S. Drasar Understanding of hygiene behaviour and diarrhoea in two villages in Botswana J Diarrhoeal Dis Res 14 1996 75 80
98. A. Weeks Why I don't wash my hands between each patient contact BMJ 319 1999 518
99. S.A. Sattar, V.S. Springthorpe, J. Tetro, R. Vashon, and B. Keswick Hygienic hand antiseptics: Should they not have activity and label claims against viruses? Am J Infect Control 30 2002 355 372
100. A.F. Widmer Replace hand washing with use of a waterless alcohol hand rub? Clin Infect Dis 31 2000 136 143
101. C.A. O'Boyle, S.J. Henley, and E. Larson Understanding adherence to hand hygiene recommendations: The theory of planned behaviour Am J Infect Control 29 2001 352 360
102. M.A. Katme Muslim teaching gives rules for when hands must be washed BMJ 319 1999 519
103. G. Akhtar Nursing with dignity. Part 8 Islam Nurs Times 98 2002 40 42
104. V. Curtis, B. Kanki, S. Cousens, A. Sanou, I. Diallo, and T. Mertens Dirt and diarrhoea: formative research in hygiene promotion programmes Health Pol Plan 12 1997 122 131
105. M.G. Lankford, T.R. Zembower, W.E. Trick, D.M. Hacek, G.A. Noskin, and L.R. Peterson Influence of role models and hospital design on hand hygiene of healthcare workers Emerg Infect Dis 9 2003 217 223
106. www.jcaho.org/accredited+organizations.
107. S. King Provision of alcohol hand rub at the hospital bedside: a case study J Hosp Infect 56 2004 10 12
108. L.M. Kaplan, and M. McGuckin Increasing hand washing compliance with more accessible sinks Infect Control 7 1986 408 410
109. M.O. Vernon, W.E. Trick, S.F. Welbel, B.J. Peterson, and R.A. Weinstein Adherence to hand hygiene: does the number of sinks matter? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 24 2003 224 225
110. S. Harbarth, P. Sudre, S. Dharan, M. Cadenas, and D. Pittet Outbreak of Enterobacter cloacae related to understaffing, overcrowding and poor hygiene practices Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 20 1999 598 603
111. S.J. Dancer How do we assess hospital cleaning? A proposal for microbiological standards for surface hygiene in hospitals J Hosp Infect 56 2004 10 15
112. D.P. Strachan Hay fever, hygiene and household size BMJ 299 1989 1259 1260
113. P.M. Matricardi, F. Rosmini, S. Riondino, M. Fortini, L. Ferrigno, and M. Rapicetta Exposure to foodborne and orofecal microbes versus airborne viruses in relation to atopy and allergic asthma: epidemiological study BMJ 320 2000 412 417