Spongiform Leucoencephalopathy after Inhaling Illicit Heroin and Due to Carbonmonoxide-Intoxication;Spongiforme Leukenzephalopathie nach Inhalation von Illegal Gehandeltem Heroin und bei Kohlenmonoxid-Intoxikation

Fortschritte der Neurologie Psychiatrie

Volumn 72, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 26-35

  Egan, Patrick John ^a,c   Becker, F W ^a   Schumm, F ^b  

^a Fachkrankhs Neurol und Psychiat   (Germany)

^b Klinik fur Neurologie   (Germany)

^c Klinikum Christophsbad   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CARBON MONOXIDE; DIAMORPHINE;

ARTICLE; BRAIN; BRAIN DISEASE; CARBON MONOXIDE INTOXICATION; DEATH; DRUG DEPENDENCE; EDEMA; HEROIN DEPENDENCE; HUMAN; IATROGENIC DISEASE; INHALATIONAL DRUG ADMINISTRATION; LEUKOENCEPHALOPATHY; METABOLISM; MITOCHONDRION; NEURORADIOLOGY; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; OLIGODENDROGLIA; PATHOLOGY; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; SMOKING; SPONGIFORM LEUKOENCEPHALOPATHY; TOMOGRAPHY; WHITE MATTER;

ADMINISTRATION, INHALATION; BRAIN; BRAIN DISEASES; CARBON MONOXIDE POISONING; HEROIN; HEROIN DEPENDENCE; HUMANS; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; TOMOGRAPHY, X-RAY COMPUTED;

EID: 1042300158     PISSN: 07204299     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1055/s-2003-812455     Document Type: Article

References (161)

1. Wolters EC, Stam FC, Lousberg RJ, Wijngaarden GK van, Rengelink H, Schipper ME, Verbeeten B. Leucoencephalopathy after inhaling "heroin" pyrolisate. Lancet 1982; 2: 1233-1237
2. Schiffer D, Brignolio F, Giordana T, Mongini T, Migheli A, Palmucci L. Spongiform encephalopathy in addicts inhaling pre-heated heroin. Clin Neuropathol 1985; 4: 174-180
3. Hungerbühler H, Waespe W. Leukenzephalopathie nach Inhalation von Heroin-Pyrolysat. Schweiz Med Wochenschr 1990; 120: 1801-1805
4. Sempere AP, Posada I, Ramo C, Cabello A. Spongiform leucoencephalopathy after inhaling heroin. The Lancet (letter) 1991; 338: 320
5. Poen Tan T, Algra PR, Valk J, Wolters EC. Toxic leukoencephalopathy after inhalation of poisoned heroin: MR findings. AJNR 1994; 15: 175-178
6. Stoltenburg-Didinger G, Wiese J, Fink U. Diffuse progressive multifokale spongiöse Leukoencephalopathie nach Inhalation von Heroin - Ein Fallbericht. Akt Neurol 1995; 22: 107-110
7. Celius EG, Andersson S. Leucoencephalopathy after inhalation of heroin: a case report. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1996; 60: 694-695
8. Weber W, Henkes H, Möller P, Bade K, Kühne D. Toxic spongiform leucoencephalopathy after inhaling heroin vapour. Eur Radiol 1998; 8: 749-755
9. Scheuerle A, Seidl S, Egan PJ, Schachenmayr W. Spongiforme Leukenzephalopathie nach Heroininhalation. Rechtsmedizin 2000; 10: 110-113
10. Haan J, Müller E, Gerhard L. Spongiöse Leukodystrophie nach Drogenmissbrauch. Nervenarzt 1983; 54: 489-490
11. Kriegstein AR, Armitage BA, Millar WS, Shungu DC, Brust JC, Goldmann JE, Lynch T. Toxic heroin-induced spongiform leukoencephalopathy in two american patients. Neurology 1998; 50: A81-A82
12. Kriegstein AR, Shungu DC, Millar WS, Armitage BA, Brust JC, Chillrud S, Golgmann J, Lynch T. Leukoencephalopathy and raised brain lactate from heroin vapor inhalation ("chasing the dragon"). Neurology 1999; 53: 1765-1773
13. Brust JC. Neurological aspects of substance abuse. Butterworth-Heinemann, 1993
14. Stam FC. Leukoencephalopathies due to intoxications. In: Koetsier JC (ed.). Demyelinating diseases (Handbook of clinical neurology). 1985; 47: 551-581
15. Brust JC, Richter RW. Quinine amblyopia related to heroin addiction. Ann Int Med 1971; 74: 84-86
16. Frand UI, Shim CS, Williams MH. Sequential studies of pulmonary function. Ann Intern Med 1972; 77: 29-35
17. Schwartzfarb L, Singh G, Marcus D. Heroin-associated rhabdomyolysis with cardiac involvement. Arch Intern Med 1977; 137: 1255-1257
18. Loizou LA, Boddie HG. Polyradiculopathy associated with heroin abuse. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1978; 41: 855-857
19. Kaye R, Fainstat M. Cerebral vasculitis associated with cocaine abuse. JAMA 1987; 258: 2104-2106
20. King J, Richards M, Tress B. Cerebral arteritis associated with heroin abuse. Med J Aust 1978; 2: 444-445
21. Glick RP, Anson JA. Vasculitis related to substance abuse. In: Churg A, Churg J (eds.). Systemic vasculitis. Tokyo, New York: Igaku-Shoin, 1991: 315-325
22. Brust JC. Opiate addiction and toxicity. In: Vinken PJ, Bruyn GW, Wolff FA (eds.). Intoxications of the nervous system 11 (Handbook of Clinical Neurology). 1995; 65: 349-361
23. Gossop M, Griffiths P, Strang J. Chasing the dragon: a comparison of heroin chasers and injectors seen by a London community drug team. Brit J Addict 1988; 83: 1159-1162
24. Griffiths P, Gossop M, Powis B, StrangJ. Extent and nature of transitions of route among heroin addicts in treatment - preliminary data from the Drug Transitions Study (UK Transitions Report). Brit J Addict 1992; 87: 485-491
25. Strang J, Griffiths P, Gossop M. Heroin smoking by 'chasing the dragon': origins and history. Addiction 1997; 92: 673-683
26. Jahresbericht über den Stand der Drogenproblematik in der Europäischen Union. 1998: 3-25
27. Fuente L de la, Barrio G, Bravo M, Royuela L. Heroin smoking by "chasing the dragon": its evolution in Spain. Addiction (letters) 1999; 94: 444-446
28. Smolka M, Schmidt LG. The influence of heroin dose and route of administration on the severity of the opiate withdrawal syndrome. Addiction 1999; 94: 1191-1198
29. Huizer H. Analytical studies on illicit heroin. V. Efficacy of volatilisation during heroin smoking. Pharm Weekbl (Sci) 1987; 9: 203-211
30. Westermeyer J. The switch from opium to heroin smoking. Addiction (commentaries) 1997; 92: 686-687
31. San L. Why is the administration route of heroin changing? Addiction (commentaries) 1997; 92: 688-689
32. Cone EJ. Recent discoveries in pharmacokinetics of drugs of abuse. Toxicol Lett 1998; 102-103: 97-101
33. Darke S, Zador D. Fatal heroin 'overdose': a review. Addiction 1996; 91: 1765-1772
34. Benowitz NL. Clinical pharmacology of inhaled drugs of abuse: implications in understanding nicotine dependence. NIDA Research Monograph 1990; 99: 12-29
35. Cook CE. Pyrolytic characteristics, pharmacokinetics, and bioavailability of smoked heroin, cocaine, phencyclidine, and methamphetamine. NIDA-research-monograph 1991; 115: 6-23
36. Levine SR, Brust JC, Futrell N, Brass LM, Blake D, Fayad P, Schultz LR, Millikan CH, Ho K-L, Welch KM. A comparative study of the cerebrovascular complications of cocaine: Alkaloidal versus hydrochloride - a review. Neurology 1991; 41: 1173-1177
37. Evans SM, Cone EJ, Henningfield JE. Arterial and venous cocaine plasma concentrations in humans: relationship to route of administration, cardiovascular effects and subjective effects. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1996; 279: 1345-1356
38. Cook CE, Brine DR. Pyrolysis products of heroin. J Forensic Sci 1985; 30: 251-261
39. Erzouki HK, Allen AC, Newman AH, Goldberg SR, Schindler CW. Effects of cocaine metabolites and cocaine pyrolysis products on the hindbrain cardiac and respiratory centers of the rabbit. Life Sci 1995;, 57: 1861-1868
40. Eskes D, Brown JK. Heroin-caffeine-strychnine mixtures - Where and why? Bull Narcot 1975; 27: 67-69
41. Mo BP, Way EL. An assessment of inhalation as a mode of administration of heroin by addicts. J Pharmac exp Ther 1966; 154: 142-151
42. Larm LC. "Chasing the dragon": how did it evolve? Addiction (commentaries) 1997; 92: 685
43. Jenkins A, Keenan RM, Henningfield JE, Cone EJ. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of smoked heroin. J Anal Toxicol 1994; 18: 317-330
44. Swift W, Maher L, Sunjic S. Transitions between routes of heroin administration: a study of Caucasian and Indochinese heroin users in south-western Sydney, Australia. Addiction 1999; 94: 71-82
45. Kalant H. Supply reduction vs. demand reduction: the uses of history. Addiction (commentaries) 1997; 92: 689-690
46. Kolb D, Nail CR, Gunderson EK. Differences in family characteristics of heroin injectors and inhalers. J Nerv Ment Dis 1974; 158: 446-449
47. Musto DF. Opium, cocaine and marijuana in american history. Sci Am 1991; 265: 40-47
48. Kalant H. Opium revisited: a brief review of its nature, composition, non medical use and relative risks. Addiction 1997; 92 (3): 267-277
49. Paulshock BZ. William Heberden and Opium - some relief to all. NEJM 1983; 308: 53-56
50. Dreser H. Über die Wirkung einiger Derivate des Morphins auf die Atmung. Arch f d ges Physiol 1898; 72: 485-521
51. Helpern M. Fatalities from narcotic addiction in New York City, Incidence, circumstances, and pathologic findings. Hum Pathol 1972: 3 (1): 13-21
52. Pickworth WB, Henningfield JE. Smokable drugs: pharmacological basis for consumer appeal. Addiction (commentaries) 1997; 92: 691-692
53. Weisman M, Lerner N, Vogel W, Schnoll SH, Banford T. Quality of street heroin. N Engl J Med 1973; 289: 698-699
54. Bundeskriminalamt. Rauschgiftjahresbericht. 1998
55. Bundeskriminalamt. Rauschgiftjahresbericht. 1999
56. Gruhzit CC. Pharmacological investigation and evaluation of the effects of combined barbiturate and heroin inhalation by addicts. Bull Narcot 1958; 10: 8-11
57. Schmidbauer W, Scheidt J vom. Handbuch der Rauschdrogen. Frankfurt: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1992
58. Cramer A. Anatomischer Befund im Gehirn bei einer Kohlenoxydgasvergiftung. Centralbl f Allg Pathol und Pathol Anat 1891; 13: 545-550
59. Grinker RR. Über einen Fall von Leuchtgasvergiftung mit doppelseitiger Pallidumerweichung und schwerer Degeneration des tieferen Großhirnmarklagers. Z f ges Neurol und Psych 1925; 98: 433-456
60. Jervis GA, Kindwall JA. Schilder's disease in ergotamine intoxication. Am J Psychiatry 1942; 98: 650-655
61. Schwedenberg TH. Leukoencephalopathy following carbon monoxide asphyxia. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1959; 18: 597-608
62. Lindenberg R. Patterns of CNS vulnerability in acute hypoxaemia, including anaesthesia accidents. In: Schadé JP, McMenemey WH (eds.). Selective vulnerability of the brain in hypoxaemia. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1963: 189-209
63. Sudo K. Über einen Fall mit ausgedehnten fleckförmigen Entmarkungen als Folge eines protrahierten Ödems nach akuter Morphium-Intoxikation. Kyushu Shinkei Seishin Igaku 1968; 14: 198-206
64. Lipski J, Stimmel B, Donoso E. The effect of heroin and multiple drug abuse on the electrocardiogram. Am Heart J 1973; 86: 663-668
65. Richter RW, Pearson J, Bruun B, Challenor YB, Brust JC, Baden MM. Neurological complications of addiction to heroin. Bull NY Acad Med 1973; 49 (1): 3-21
66. Rige M, Weiler G. Heroinsucht als seltene Ursache einer symmetrischen Pallidumnekrose. Z Rechtsmed 1984; 93: 227-235
67. Roulet Perez E, Maeder P, Rivier L, Deonna T. Toxic leucoencephalopathy after heroin ingestion in a 2 1/2-year-old child. The Lancet 1992; 340: 729
68. Feigin I, Budzilovich G, Weinberg S, Ogata J. Degeneration of white matter in hypoxia, acidosis and edema. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1973; 32: 125-143
69. Maschke M, Fehlings T, Kastrup O, Wilhelm HW, Leonhardt G. Toxic leukoencephalopathy after intravenous consumption of heroin and cocaine with unexpected clinical recovery. J Neurol 1999; 246: 850-851
70. Bertram M, Egelhoff T, Schwarz S, Schwab S. Toxic leukencephalopathy following "ecstasy" ingestion. J Neurol 1999; 246: 617-618
71. Verity MA. Toxic disorders. In: Greenfieldaposs Neuropathology, 6th ed., London: Arnold, 1997: 755-811
72. Love S, Wiley CA. Viral diseases. In: Graham DI, Lantos PL (eds.). Greenfieldaposs Neuropathology, 7th ed. Arnold, 2002; 2: 1-105
73. Oehmichen M. Intoxikationen. In: Peiffer J, Schröder JM, Paulus W (Hrsg.). Neuropathologie, 3. Aufl. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, 2002: 395-433
74. Olsson Y. Protective barriers in the peripheral nervous system to neurotoxic agents. In: Herken H, Hucho F (eds.). Selective neurotoxicity. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer, 1992: 29-65
75. Ernst A, Zirbrak JD. Carbon monoxide poisoning. NEJM 1998; 339: 1603-1608
76. Moser HW. Leukoencephalopathies caused by metabolic disorders. In: Vinken PJ, Bruyn GW, Klawans HL, Koetsier JC (eds.). Handbook of clinical neurology. Demyelinating diseases, 1985; 3 (47): 583-604
77. Lapresle J, Fardeau M. Les leuco-encéphalopathies de l'intoxication oxycarbonée. Acta Neuropathol 1966; 6: 327-348
78. Lapresle J, Fardeau M. The central nervous system and carbon monoxide poisoning. 11. Anatomical study of brain lesions following intoxication with carbon monoxide (22 cases). Prog Brain Res 1967; 24: 31-74
79. Plum F, Posner JB, Hain RF. Delayed neurological detoriation after anoxia. Arch Intern Med 1962; 110: 18-25
80. Roos RA. Neurological complications of carbon monoxide intoxication. In: de Wolff FA (ed.). Handbook of clinical neurology. Intoxications of the nervous system. Part 11994; 64: 31-38
81. Brucher JM. La leucoencéphalopthie de l'intoxication oxycarbonée. Revue Neurologique 1962; 106: 731-744
82. Louria DB, Hensle T, Rose J. The major medical complications of heroin addiction. Ann Intern Med 1967; 67: 1-22
83. Weimann W, Marenholtz F von. Doppelseitige Linsenkernerweichung nach akuter Morphiumvergiftung. Zschr Ges Neurol Psychiat 1928; 105: 297-308
84. Richardson JC, Chambers RA, Heywood PM. Encephalopathies of anoxia and hypoglycemia. AMA Arch Neurol 1959; 1: 178-190
85. Steinberg AD, Karliner JS. The clinical spectrum of heroin pulmonary edema. Arch Intern Med 1968; 122: 122-127
86. 4) mit Leukoencephalopathie. Arch Toxikol 1969; 25: 109-126
87. Salama J, Gherardi R, Amiel H, Poirier J, Delaporte P, Gray F. Post-anoxic delayed encephalopathy with leukoencephalopathy and non-hemorrhagic cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Clin Neuropathol 1986; 5: 153-156
88. Artigas J, Niedobitek F, Grosse G, Heise W, Gosztonyi G. Spongiform encephalopathy in AIDS dementia complex: Report of 5 cases. J Acq Imm Def Syndr 1989; 2: 374-381
89. Protass LM. Delayed postanoxic encephalopathy after heroin use. Ann Intern Med 1971; 74: 738-739
90. Knaap MS van der, Valk J. Selective vulnerability. In: Magnetic resonance of myelin, myelination, and myelin disorders. 2nd ed. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, 1995: 22-30
91. Knaap MS van der, Valk J. Posthypoxid-ischemic damage. In: Magnetic resonance of myelin, myelination, and myelin disorders. 2nd ed. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer Verlag, 1995: 370-373
92. Knaap MS van der, Valk J. Delayed posthypoxid leukoencephalopathy of maturity. In: Magnetic resonance of myelin, myelination, and myelin disorders. 2nd ed. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer Verlag, 1995: 387-389
93. Nusbaum AO, Fung K-M, Atlas SW. White matter diseases and inherited metabolic disorders. In: Atlas SW (ed.). Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain and spine, 3rd ed. Lippincott: Williams & Wilkins, 2002: 457-563
94. Rudkin TM, Arnold DL. MR-Spectroscopy and the biochemical basis of neurological disease. In: Atlas SW (ed.). Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain and spine, 3rd ed. Lippincott: Williams & Wilkins, 2002: 2021-2040
95. Falini A, Barkovich AJ, Calabrese G, Origgi D, Triulzi F, Scotti G. Progressive brain failure after diffuse hypoxic ischemic brain injury: a serial MR and proton MR spectroscopic study. AJNR 1998; 19: 648-652
96. Kobayashi K, Isaki K, Fukutani Y, Kurachi M, Eboshida A, Matsubara R, Yamaguchi N. CT findings of the interval form of carbon monoxide poisoning compared with neuropathological findings. Eur Neurol 1984; 23: 34-43
97. Kamada K, Houkin K, Aoki T, Koiwa M, Kashiwaba T, Iwasaki Y, Abe H. Cerebral metabolic changes in delayed carbon monoxide sequelae studied by proton MR spectroscopy. Neuroradiology 1994; 36: 104-106
98. Vieregge P, Klostermann W, Blümm RG, Borgis KJ. Carbon monoxide poisoning: clinical, neurophysiological, and brain imaging observations in acute disease and follow-up. J Neurol 1989; 236: 478-481
99. Kono E, Kono R, Shida K. Computerized tomographies of 34 patients at the chronic stage of acute carbon monoxide poisoning. Arch Psychiatr Nervenkr 1983; 233: 271-278
100. Strassmann G, Sturner W, Helpern M. Gehirnschädigungen, insbesondere Linsenkernerweichungen bei Heroinsüchtigen, nach Barbituratvergiftung, Spättod nach Erhängen und Herzstillstand in der Narkose. Beitr Gerichtl Med 1969; 25: 236-242
101. Andersen SN, Skullerud K. Hypoxic/ischaemic brain damage, especially pallidal lesions, in heroin addicts. Forensic Sci Int 1999; 102: 51-59
102. Chang KH, Han MH, Kim HS, Wie Ba, Han MC. Delayed encephalopathy after acute carbon monoxide intoxication: MR imaging features and distribution of cerebral white matter lesions. Radiology 1992; 184: 117-122
103. Uchino A, Hasuo K, Shida K, Matsumoto S, Yasumori K, Masuda K. MRI of the brain in chronic carbon monoxide poisoning. Neuroradiology 1994; 36: 399-401
104. Kastrup A, Li T-Q, Takahashi A, Glover GH, Moseley ME. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of regional cerebral blood oxigenation changes during breath holding. Stroke 1998; 29: 2641-2645
105. Teksam M, Casey SO, Michel E, Liu H, Truwit CL. Diffusion-weighted imaging findings in carbon monoxide poisoning. Neuroradiology 2002; 44: 109-113
106. Banati RB, Gehrmann J, Schubert P, Kreutzberg GW. Cytotoxicity of microglia. Glia 1993; 7: 111-118
107. Graeber MB, Blakemore WF, Kreutzberg GW. Cellular pathology of the central nervous system. In: Graham DI, Lantos PL (eds.). Greenfield's Neuropathology, 7th ed. Arnold, 2002; 1: 123-191
108. Davis JN. The use of small animals to study the effects of hypoxia. In: Fahn S (ed.). Advances in Neurology. Vol. 26. New York: Raven Press, 1979: 167-172
109. Gogate N, Verma L, Zhou JM, Milward E, Rusten R, OaposConnor M, Kufta C, Hudson L, Dubois-Dalcq M. Plasticity in the adult human oligodendrocyte lineage. J Neurosci 1994; 14 (8): 4571-4587
110. Hahm H, Ferszt R, Müller J, Cervós-Navarro J. Topography of diffuse brain edema. In: Cervós-Navarro J, Ferszt R (eds.). Advances in Neurology. Vol. 28. New York: Raven Press, 1980: 299-315
111. Horita N, Ando S, Seino S, Hagiwara I. Experimental carbon monoxide leucoencephalopathy in the cat. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1980; 39: 197-211
112. Connor JR, Menzies SL. Relationship of iron to oligodendrocytes and myelination. Glia 1996; 17: 83-93
113. Gaab MR, Poch B, Heller V. Oxygen tension, oxygen metabolism, and microcirculation in vasogenic brain edema. In: Long D et al (eds.). Advances in Neurology. Vol. 52. New York: Raven Press, 1990: 247-256
114. Penney DG. Acute carbon monoxide poisoning: animal models: A review. Toxicology 1990; 62: 123-160
115. Shillito FH, Drinker CK, Shaughnessy TJ. The problem of nervous and mental sequelae in carbon monoxide poisoning. JAMA 1936; 106: 669-674
116. Ginsberg MD. Delayed neurological detoriation following hypoxia. In: Fahn S (ed.). Advances in Neurology. Vol. 26. New York: Raven Press, 1979: 21-44
117. Jacob H. Über die diffuse Hemisphärenmarkerkrankung nach Kohlenoxidvergiftung bei Fällen mit klinisch intervallärer Verlaufsform. Zschr Ges Neurol Psych 1939; 167: 161-179
118. Jacob H. Über die diffuse Markdestruktion im Gefolge eines Hirnödems. Zschr Ges Neurol Psychiat 1939; 168: 382-395
119. Adachi M, Feigin I. Cerebral oedema and water content of normal white matter. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatr 1966; 29: 446-450
120. Ironside JW, Pickard JD. Raised intracranial pressure, oedema and hydrocephalus. In: Graham DI, Lantos PL (eds). Greenfield's Neuropathology, 7th ed. Arnold, 2002; 1: 193-231
121. Okeda R, Funata N, Takano T, Miyazaki Y, Higashino F, Yokoyama K, Manabe M. The pathogenesis of carbon moboxide encephalopathy in the acute phase - physiological and morphological correlation. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1981; 54: 1-10
122. Baethmann A, Oettinger W, Rothenfußer W, Kempski O, Unterberg A, Geiger R. Brain edema factors: current state with particular reference to plasma constituents and glutamate. In: Cervós-Navarro J, Ferszt R (ed.). Advances in Neurology. Vol. 28. New York: Raven Press, 1980: 171-195
123. Fishman RA, Chan PH. Metabolic basis of brain edema. In: Cervós-Navarro J, Ferszt R (eds.). Advances in Neurology.; 28 New York: Raven Press, 1980: 207-215
124. Bazán NG, Rodríguez de Turco EB. Membrane lipids in the pathogenesis of brain edema: Phospholipids and arachidonic acid, the earliest membrane components changed on the onset of ischemia. In: Cervós-Navarro J, Ferszt R (eds.). Advances in Neurology. Vol. 28. New York: Raven Press, 1980: 197-205
125. Okeda R, Song S-Y, Funta N, Higashino F. An experimental study of the pathogenesis of Grinker's myelinopathy in carbon monoxide intoxication. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1983; 59: 200-206
126. Hirano A. Fine structure of edematous encephalopathy. In: Cervós-Navarro J, Ferszt R (eds.). Advances in Neurology.; 28 New York: Raven Press, 1980: 83-97
127. Ginsberg MD, Myers RE. Experimental carbon monoxide encephalopathy in the primate. I. Physiology and metabolic aspects. Arch Neurol 1974; 30: 202-208
128. Lübbers DW. Physiologie der Gehirndurchblutung. In: Gänshirt H (Hrsg.). Der Hirnkreislauf. Stuttgart: Georg Thieme Verlag, 1972: 214-260
129. Berry M, Butt AM, Wilkin G, Perry H. Structure and function of glia in the central nervous system. In: Graham DI, Lantos PL (eds.). Greenfield's Neuropathology, 7th ed. Arnold, 2002; 1: 75-121
130. Pannese E. Neurocytology. Stuttgart: Georg Thieme Verlag, 1994
131. Martin DL. Synthesis and release of neuroactive substances by glial cells. Glia 1992; 5: 81-94
132. Auer RN, Sutherland GR. Hypoxia and related conditions. In: Graham DI, Lantos PL (eds.). Greenfield's Neuropathology, 7th ed. Arnold, 2002; 1: 233-280
133. Siesjö BK. Cerebral circulation and metabolism. J Neurosurg 1984; 60: 883-908
134. Baumann N, Pham-Dinh D. Biology of oligodendrocyte and myelin in the mammalian central nervous system. Physiol Rev 2001; 81 (2): 871-927
135. Löffler G. Stoffwechsel von Glukose und Glykogen. In: Löffler G, Petrides PE (Hrsg.). Biochemie und Pathobiochemie, 7. Auflage. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer, 2003: 395-431
136. Sánchez-Abarca LI, Tabernero A, Medina JM. Oligodendrocytes use lactate as source of energy and as a precursor of lipids. Glia 2001; 36: 321-329
137. Potanos JN, Wolf A. Cytochemical localization of oxidative enzymes in human nerve cells and neuroglia. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1959; 18: 617-635
138. Lumsden SE. Pathogenic mechanisms in the leucoencephalopathies in anoxic-ischaemic process, in disorders of the blood and in intoxications. In: Vinken PI, Bruyn GW (eds.). Handbook of clinical neurology, Vol. 9. North-Holland Publishing Group, 1970: 572-663
139. Benn T, Halfpenny C, Scolding N. Glial cells as targets for cytotoxic immune mediators. Glia 2001; 36: 200-211
140. Bauer J, Rauschka H, Lassmann H. Inflammation in the nervous system: The human perspective. Glia 2001; 36: 235-342
141. Courville CB. The process of demyelination in the central nervous system. IV. Demyelination as a delayed residual of carbon monoxide asphyxia. J Nerv Ment Dis 1957; 125: 534-546
142. Blass JP, Gibson GE. Consequences of mild, graded hypoxia. In: Fahn S (ed.). Advances in Neurology. Vol. 26. New York: Raven Press, 1979: 229-250
143. Simon RP. Hypoxia versus ischemia. Neurology 1999; 52: 7-8
144. Ginsberg MD, Myers RE, McDonagh BF. Experimental carbon monoxide encephalopathy in the primate. 11. Clinical aspects, neuropathology, and physiologic correlation. Arch Neurol 1974; 30: 209-216
145. Ginsberg MD, Hedley-White T, Richardson EP. Hypoxic-ischemic leukoencephalopathy in man. Arch Neurol 1976; 33: 5-14
146. Myers RE. A unitary theory of causation of anoxic and hypoxic brain pathology. In: Fahn S (ed.). Advances in Neurology. Vol. 26. New York: Raven Press, 1979: 195-213
147. Kempski O, Staub F, Jansen M, Baethmann A. Molecular mechanisms of glial swelling in acidosis. In: Long et al (eds.). Advances in Neurology. Vol. 52. New York: Raven Press, 1990: 39-45
148. Brucher JM. Leukoencephalopathies in anoxic-ischemic processes. In: Koetsier JC (ed.). Demyelinating diseases (Handbook of clinical neurology). 1985; 47: 525-549
149. Herre S, Pragst F, Rießelmann R, Roscher S, Tenczer J, Klug E. Zur toxikologischen Bewertung der Lokalanästhetika Lidocain und Tetracain bei Drogentodesfällen. Rechtsmedizin 1999; 9: 174-183
150. Challenor YB, Richter W, Bruun B, Pearson J. Nontraumatic plexitis and heroin addiction. JAMA 1973; 225 (8): 958-961
151. Ell JJ, Uttley D, Silver JR. Acute myelopathy in association with heroin addiction. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1981; 44: 448-450
152. Citron BP, Halpern M, McCarron M, Lundberg GD, McCormick R, Pincus IJ, Tatter D, Haverback BJ. Necrotizing angiitis associated with drug abuse. New Eng J Med 1970; 283: 1003-1011
153. Bartholomé E et al. (Hrsg). In: Ullmanns Encyklopädie der toxischen Chemie. 4. Aufl. Neuheim, Deerfield Beach, Basel: Verlag Chemie, 1981: 300
154. Bartholomé E et al (Hrsg). In: Ullmanns Encyklopädie der toxischen Chemie, 4. Aufl. Neuheim, Deerfield Beach, Basel: Verlag Chemie, 1983: 686
155. Pfeiffer SE, Warrington AE, Bansal R. The oligodendrocyte and its many cellular processes. Trends Cell Biol 1993; 3: 191-197
156. Knaap MS van der, Valk J. Defects of mitochondrial DNA. In: Magnetic resonance of myelin, myelination, and myelin disorders. 2nd ed. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, 1995: 146-157
157. Brandt U. Redoxreaktionen, Sauerstoff und oxidative Phosphorylierung. In: Löffler G, Petrides PE (Hrsg.). Biochemie und Pathobiochemie, 7. Aufl. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer, 2003: 531-555
158. Rich P. The cost of living. Nature 2003; 421: 583
159. Tunving K. Fatal outcome in drug addiction. Acta psychiatr scand 1988; 77: 551-566
160. Risser D, Schneider B. Drug-related deaths between 1985 and 1992 examined at the Institute of forensic medicine in Vienna, Austria. Addiction 1994; 89: 851-857
161. Püschel K. Drug-related death - an update. Forensic Sci Int 1993; 62: 121-128