Psychobiological mechanisms of socioeconomic differences in health

Social Science and Medicine

Volumn 58, Issue 8, 2004, Pages 1511-1522

  Kristenson, M ^a   Eriksen, H R ^b   Sluiter, J K ^c   Starke, D ^d   Ursin, H ^b  

^a LINKÖPING UNIVERSITY   (Sweden)

^b UNIVERSITY OF BERGEN   (Norway)

^c UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM   (Netherlands)

^d HEINRICH HEINE UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

Author keywords

Coping; Cortisol; Inequalities in health; Psychobiology; Psychosocial effects; Stress

Indexed keywords

CATECHOLAMINE; HYDROCORTISONE;

HEALTH STATUS;

ARTICLE; COGNITION; CONTROL STRATEGY; COPING BEHAVIOR; ENDOCRINE FUNCTION; HEALTH STATUS; HUMAN; LIFESTYLE; PSYCHOBIOLOGY; PSYCHOSOCIAL ENVIRONMENT; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL STATUS; SOCIOECONOMICS; STRESS;

EID: 0842305116     PISSN: 02779536     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0277-9536(03)00353-8     Document Type: Article

References (138)

1. Aardahl-Eriksson, E. (2002). Salivary cortisol and post-traumatic stress reactions. Methodological and applied studies before and after trauma, Thesis, Linköping.
2. Aardahl-Eriksson E., Eriksson T.E., Thorell L.H. Salivary cortisol, post-traumatic stress symptoms and general health in the acute phase and during 9-months-follow-up. Biological Psychiatry. 50:2001;986-993.
3. Adler N.E., Ostrove J.M. Socioeconomic status and health. What we know and what we don't Annals of New York Academy of Sciences. 896:1999;3-15.
4. Antonovsky A. Social class, life expectancy and overall mortality. Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly. 45:1967;37-73.
5. Antonovsky A. A call for a new question - salutogenesis - and a proposed answer - the sense of coherence. Journal of Preventive Psychiatry. 2:1984;1-13.
6. Bandura A. Self-efficacy. Towards a unifying theory of behavior change Psychological Review. 84:1977;191-215.
7. Bandura A. Self-efficacy in changing societies. 1995;University Press, Cambridge.
8. Barefoot J.C., Dodge K A., Peterson B.L., Dahlstrom W.G., Williams R.B. The Cook-Medley hostility scale. Item content and ability to predict survival Psychosomatic Medicine. 51:1989;46-57.
9. Baum A., Garofalo J.P., Yali A.M. Socioeconomic status and chronic stress. Does stress account for SES effects on health? Annals of New York Academy of Sciences. 896:1999;131-144.
10. Bernard C. Leçons sur le système nerveux. 1858;Ballière, Paris.
11. Björklund M., Fridlund B. Cancer patients' education experiences of nurses' behaviour and health promotion activities. A critical incidence analysis European Journal of Cancer Care. 8:1999;204-212.
12. Blane D. The life course, the social gradient, and health. Marmot M., Wilkinson R. Social determinants of health. 2000;64-80 Oxford University Press, Oxford.
13. Bloomgarden Z.T., Karmally W., Metzger J., Ginsberg-Fellner F., Rayfield E., Brown W.V. Randomized, controlled trial of diabetic patient education. Improved knowledge with improved metabolic status Diabetic Care. 10:1987;263-272.
14. Bobak M., Marmot M. East-West health divide and potential explanations. Hertzman C., Kelly S., Bobak M. East-West life expectancy gap in Europe. 1996;17-44 Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.
15. Bobak M., Marmot M. East-West mortality divide and its potential explanations. Proposed research agenda British Medical Journal. 312:1996;421-425.
16. Bosma H., Peter R., Siegrist J., Marmot M. Two alternative job stress models and the risk of coronary heart disease. American Journal of Public Health. 88:1998;68-74.
17. Brandstädter J., Baltes-Götz B., Kirschbaum C., Hellhammer D. Developmental and personality correlates of adrenocortical activity as indexed by salivary cortisol. Observations in the age range of 35-65 yr Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 35:1991;173-185.
18. Brosschot J.F., Benschop R.J., Godaert G.L.R., de Smet M.B., Olff M., Heijnen C.J., Ballieux R.E. Effects of experimental psychological stress on distribution and function of peripheral blood cells. Psychosomatic Medicine. 54:1992;394-406.
19. Brunner E., Smith G.D., Marmot M., Canner R., Beksinska M., O'Brien J. Childhood social circumstances and psychosocial and behavioral factors as determinants of plasma fibrinogen. Lancet. 347:1996;1008-1013.
20. Checkley S. The neuroendocrinology of depression and chronic stress. British Medical Bulletin. 52:1996;597-617.
21. Coiro V., Vescovi P.P. Effect of cigarette smoking on ACTH/cortisol secretion in alcoholics after short and medium term abstinence. Alcohol Clinical Experimental Research. 23:1999;1515-1518.
22. Cornia G.A., Paniccia R. The transition mortality crisis. Evidence, interpretation and policy responses Cornia G.A., Paniccia R. The mortality crisis in transitional economies. 2000;3-37 Oxford University Press, New York.
23. Dalgaard O.S., Håheim L.L. Psychosocial risk factors and mortality. A prospective study with special focus on social support, social participation, and locus of control in Norway Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 5:1998;476-481.
24. Danzer, R. (1989). Neuroendocrine correlates of control and coping. In A. Steptoe, & A. Appels (Eds.), Stress, personal control and health. New York: Wiley.
25. Dettling A., Gunnar M.R., Donazella B. Cortisol levels of young children in full-day childcare centers. Relations with age and temperament Psychoneuroendocrinology. 24:1999;505-518.
26. Drever F., Whitehead M., Roden M. Current patterns and trends in male mortality by occupational class (based on occupation). Population Trends. 86:1996;15-20.
27. Duffy E. Activation and behaviour. 1962;Wiley, New York.
28. Eriksen H.R., Olff M., Ursin H. The CODE; A revised battery for coping and defence and its relations to subjective health. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology. 38:1997;175-182.
29. Eriksen H.R., Olff M., Murison M., Ursin H. The time dimension in stress responses. Relevance for survival and health Psychiatry Research. 85:1999;39-50.
30. Eriksen H.R., Ursin H. Subjective health complaints. Is coping more important than control? Work and Stress. 13:1999;238-252.
31. Eriksen H.R., Ursin H. Sensitization and subjective health complaints. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology. 43:2002;189-196.
32. Eriksen H.R., Ursin H. Social inequalities in health. Biological, cognitive and learning theory perspectives Norsk Epidemiologi. 12:2002;33-38.
33. Feldman J., Makuc D., Kleinman J., Cornoni-Huntley J. National trends in educational differentials in mortality. American Journal of Epidemiology. 129:1989;919-933.
34. Folkman S. Personal control and stress and coping process. A theoretical analysis Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 46:1984;839-852.
35. Frankenheuser M., Lundberg U., Forsman L. Dissociation between sympathetic-adrenal and pituitary-adrenal responses to an achievement situation characterised by high controllability. comparison between Type A and Type B males and females Biological Psychology. 10:1980;79-91.
36. Friedhoff A.J., Miller J.C. Clinical implications of receptor sensitivity modification. Annals of Reviews Neuroscience. 6:1983;121-148.
37. Glass D.C. Stress, behaviour patterns and coronary heart disease. American Scientist. 65:1977;177-187.
38. Gunnar M., Vazquez D.M. Low cortisol and a flattening of expected daytime rhythm. Potential indices of risk in human development Development and Psychopathology. 13:2001;515-538.
39. Haan N. Processes of self-environment organisations. 1977;Academic Press, New York.
40. Hellhammer D.H., Buchtal J., Gutberlet I., Kirschbaum C. Social hierarchy and adrenocortical stress reactivity in men. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 22:1997;643-650.
41. Helmers K.F., Krantz D.S., Merz C.N., Klein J., Kop W.J., Gottdiener J.S., Rozanski A. Defensive hostility. Relationships to multiple markers of cardiac ischemia in patients with coronary heart disease Health Psychology. 14:1995;202-209.
42. Hemingway H., Marmot M. Psychosocial factors in the aetiology and prognosis of coronary heart disease. Systematic review of prospective cohort studies British Medical Journal. 318:1999;1460-1467.
43. Hobson J.A., Brazier M.A.B. The reticular formation revisited. Specifying function for a non-specific system:1980;Raven Press, New York.
44. Jarvis M.J., Wardle J. Social pattering of individual health behaviours. The case of cigarette smoking Marmot M., Wilkinson R. Social determinants of health. 1999;240-255 University Press, Oxford.
45. Johnsson J.V., Hall E.M. Job strain, workplace support and cardiovascular disease. A cross-sectional study of a random sample of the Swedish working population American Journal of Public Health. 78:1988;1336-1342.
46. Kaplan G.A. Socioeconomic factors and cardiovascular disease. A review of the literature Circulation. 88:1993;1973-1998.
47. Karasek, R.A., Theorell, T. (1990). In: B. Books (Eds.), Healthy work: Stress, productivity and the reconstruction of working life (pp. 31-83). New York: New York Basic Books.
48. King A., Wold B., Tudor-Smith C., Havel Y. The health of the youth. A cross-national survey. WHO Regional Publications, European Series. 69:1996;1-222.
49. Kirschbaum C., Strasburger J., Langkrär J. Attenuated cortisol response to psychological stress but not to CRH or ergometry in young habitual smokers. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behaviour. 44:1993;527-531.
50. Kristenson, M. (1998). Possible causes for the differences in coronary heart disease between Lithuania and Sweden, Thesis, Linköping.
51. Kristenson M., Kucinskiene Z., Bergdahl B., Orth-Gomér K. Increased psychosocial strain in Lithuanian vs. Swedish men. The LiVicordia study Psychosomatic Medicine. 60:1998;277-282.
52. Kristenson M., Kucinskiene Z., Bergdahl B., Orth-Gomér K. Risk factors for ischemic heart disease in different socioeconomic groups of Lithuania and Sweden. The LiVicordia study Scandinavian Journal of Public Health. 29:2001;140-150.
53. Kristenson M., Orth-Gomér K., Kucinskiene Z., Bergdahl B., Calcauskas H., Balnyiene I., Olsson A.G. Attenuated cortisol response to a standardised stress test in Lithuanian vs. Swedish men. The LiVicordia study Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 5:1998;17-30.
54. Kristenson M., Ziedén B., Kucinskiene Z., Schäfer-Elinder L., Bergdahl B., Elwing B., Abaravicius A., Razinkoviene L., Calcauskas H., Olsson A.G. Antioxidant state and mortality from coronary heart disease in Lithuanian and Swedish men. Concomitant cross sectional study of men aged 50 British Medical Journal. 314:1997;629-633.
55. Kuhn C. Adrenocortical and gonadal steroids in behavioural cardiovascular medicine. Schneiderman N., Weiss S., Kaufmann P. Handbook on research methods in cardiovascular behavioural medicine. 1989;185-204 Plenum Publishing Corporation, New York.
56. Kunst, A.E., Groenhof, F., Mackenbach, J.P., & the EU working group on socioeconomic inequalities in health (1998). Occupational class and cause specific mortality in middle aged populations in 11 European countries: Comparison of population based studies. British Medical Journal, 316, 1636-1642.
57. Laitinen J., Ek E., Soivo U. Stress-related eating and drinking behavior and body mass index and predictors of this behavior. Preventive Medicine. 34:2002;29-39.
58. Lantz P.M., House .J.S., Lepowski L.M., Williams D.R., Mero R.P., Chen J. Socioeconomic factors, health behaviours and mortality. Journal of American Medical Association. 279:1998;1703-1708.
59. Lantz P.M., Lynch J.W., House J.S., Lepowski J.M., Mero R.P., Musick M.A., Williams D.R. Socioeconomic disparities in health change in a longitudinal study of US adults. The role of health behaviors Social Science and Medicine. 53:2001;29-40.
60. Lazarus R.S., Folkman S. Stress, appraisal, and coping. 1984;Springer, New York.
61. Levine S., Ursin H. What is stress? Brown M.R., Rivier C., Koob G. Stress, neurobiology and neuroendocrinology. 1991;3-21 Marcel Decker, New York.
62. Liu J.M.A. Stress, ageing and brain oxidative damage. Neurochemical Research. 24:1999;1479-1497.
63. Macintyre, S. (1998). Social inequalities and health in the contemporary world: a comparative overview. In: S. Strickland, P. Shetty (Eds.), Human biology and social inequality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
64. Malmo R.B. Studies of anxiety. Some clinical origins of the activation concept. Spielberger C.D. Anxiety and behavior. 1966;157-177 Academic Press, New York.
65. Marmot M., Bosma H., Hemingway H., Brunner E., Stansfield S. Contribution of job control and other risk factors to social variations in coronary heart disease. Lancet. 350:1997;235-239.
66. Marmot M., Ryff C.D., Bumpass L.L., Shipley M., Marks N. Social inequalities in health. Next questions and converging evidence Social Science and Medicine. 6:1997;901-910.
67. Marmot M., Siegrist J., Theorell T., Feeney A. Health and the psychosocial environment at work. Marmot M., Wilkinson R.G. Social determinants of health. 1999;105-131 Oxford University Press, Oxford.
68. Marmot M., Wilkinson R. Social determinants of health. 1999;Oxford University Press, Oxford.
69. Marmot M., Wilkinson R. Psychosocial and material pathways in the relation between income and health. A response to Lynch et al British Medical Journal. 19:2001;322.
70. Mason J.W. A review of psychoneuroendocrine research on the pituitary-adrenal cortical system. Psychosomatic Medicine. 30:1968;576-607.
71. Mason J.W., Wang S., Yehuda R., Riney S., Charney D.S., Southwick S.M. Psychogenic lowering of urinary cortisol levels linked to increased emotional numbing and a shame-depressive syndrome in combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychosomatic Medicine. 24:2001;387-401.
72. McEven B., Stellar E. Stress and the individual. Mechanisms leading to disease. Archives of Internal Medicine. 153:1993;2093-2101.
73. McEwen B. Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators. The New England Journal of Medicine. 338:1998;171-179.
74. Mikkelsen A., Saksvik P.Ö., Eriksen H., Ursin H. The impact of learning opportunities and decision authority on occupational health. Work and Stress. 13:1999;20-31.
75. Mizoguchi K., Yuzurihara M., Ishige A., Saskai H., Tabira T. Effects of chronic stress on cholinergic transmission in rat hippocampus. Brain Research. 915:2001;108-111.
76. Moruzzi G., Magoun H.W. Brain stem reticular formation and activation of the EEG. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology. 1:1949;455-473.
77. Munck A., Guyre P., Holbrook N. Physiological functions of glucocorticoids in stress and their relation to pharmacological actions. Endocrine Reviews. 5:1984;25-44.
78. Murison R., Overmier J.B. Some psychosomatic causal factors of restraint-in-water stress ulcers. Physiology and Behaviour. 53:1993;577-581.
79. Myhre G., Ursin H., Hansen I. Corticosterone and body temperature during acquisition of social hierarchy in the captive willow ptarmigan (Lagopus l lagopus). Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie. 57:1981;123-130.
80. Myrtek M. Meta-analyses of prospective studies on coronary heart disease, type A personality, and hostility. International Journal of Cardiology. 79:2001;245-251.
81. Nicolson N.A., van Diest R. Salivary cortisol patterns in vital exhaustion. Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 49:2000;335-342.
82. Orth-Gomér K. International epidemiological evidence for a relationship between social support and cardiovascular disease. Shumaker S., Czajkowski S.M. Social support and cardiovascular disease. 1994;97-117 Plenum Press, New York.
83. Overmeier J.B., Seligman M.E.P. Effect of inescapable shock upon subsequent escape and avoidance responding. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology. 63:1967;28-33.
84. Parkes K.R. Locus of control in three behavioral domains. Factor structure and correlates of the "spheres of control" scale Personality and Individual Differences. 9:1988;28-33.
85. Pearlin L.I., Schooler C. The structure of coping. Journal of Health and Social Behaviour. 19:1978;2-21.
86. Peter R., Siegrist J. Chronic psychosocial stress at work and cardiovascular disease. The role of effort-reward imbalance International Law Psychiatry. 22:1999;441-449.
87. Preussner J.C., Hellhammer D.H., Kirshbaum C . Burnout, perceived stress and cortisol responses to awakening. Psychosomatic Medicine. 61:1999;197-204.
88. Preussner J.C., Wolf O.T., Hellhammer D.H., Buske-Kirschbaum A., Jobst S., Kaspers F., Kirschbaum C. Free cortisol levels after awakening. A reliable marker for the assessment of adrenocortical activity Life Sciences. 61:1997;2539-2549.
89. Rappaport J. Terms of empowerment/exemplars of prevention toward a theory for community psychology. American Journal of Community Psychology. 15:1987;121-148.
90. Robson P.J. Self-esteem-a psychiatric view. British Journal of Psychiatry. 153:1988;6-15.
91. Rose G., Marmot M.G. Social class and coronary heart disease. British Heart Journal. 45:1981;13-19.
92. Rosengren A., Orth-Gomér K., Wilhemsen L. Socioeconomic differences in health indices, social networks and mortality among Swedish men A study of men born in 1933. Scandinavian Journal of Social Medicine. 26:1998;272-280.
93. Rosmond, R., Holm, G., & Björntorp, P. (1999). Food induced cortisol secretion in men: relationships with abdominal obesity, hormones, metabolism and circulation. International Journal of Obesity Related Metabolic Disorder.
94. Roy M.P., Steptoe A., Kirschbaum C. Association between smoking status and cortisol stress responsivity in healthy young men. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 3:1994;264-283.
95. Sallis J.F., Zakarian J.M., Howell M.F., Hofstetter C.R. Ethnic, socioeconomic and sex differences in physical activity among adolescents. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology. 49:1996;125-134.
96. Sandahl G.M. The effects of personality and interpersonal relations on crew performance during space simulation studies. Life Support & Biosphere Science. 5:1998;461-470.
97. Sapolsky R.M. Hypercortisolism among socially subordinate wild baboons originates at the CNS level. Archives of Gen Psychiatry. 46:1989;1047-1051.
98. Sapolsky R.M. The physiological relevance of glucocorticoid endangerment of the hippocampus. Annals of New York Academy of Sciences. 30:1994;294-304.
99. Schedlowski M., Jacobs R., Alker J., Pröhl F., Stratmann G., Richter S., Hädicke A., Wagner T.O.F., Schmidt R.E., Tewes U. Psychophysiological, neuroendocrine and cellular immune reactions under psychological stress. Neuropsychobiology. 28:1993;87-90.
100. Siegrist, J., & Joksimovic, L. (2001). Soziale Ungleichheit und Gesundheit in Europa. Teilbericht Deutschland. Köln: BZgA.
101. Siegrist J., Klein D., Voigt K.-H. Linking sociological with physiological data. The model of effort-reward imbalance at work Acta Physiologica Scandinavica. 161:1997;112-116.
102. Siegrist J., Peter R., Junge A., Cremer P., Seidel D. Low status control, high effort at work and ischemic heart disease. Prospective evidence from blue collar men Social Science and Medicine. 31:1990;1127-1134.
103. Skinner E.A. A guide to constructs of control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 71:1996;549-570.
104. Sluiter J.K., Frings-Dresen M.H.W., Meijman T.F., van der Beek A.J. Reactivity and recovery from different types of work measured by catecholamines and cortisol. A systematic overview Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 57:2000;298-315.
105. Sluiter J.K., Frings-Dresen M.H.W., van der Beek A.J., Meijman T.F., Heisterkamp S.M. Neuroendocrine reactivity and recovery from work with different physical and mental demands. Scandinavian Journal of Work and Environmental Health. 26:2000;306-316.
106. Sluiter J.K., van der Beek A.J., Frings-Dresen M.H.W. Work stress and recovery measured by urinary catecholamines and cortisol excretion in long distance coach drivers. Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 55:1998;407-413.
107. Sluiter J.K., van der Beek A.J., Frings-Dresen M.H.W. The influence of work characteristics on the need of recovery and experienced health. A study on coach drivers Ergonomics. 42:1999;573-583.
108. Sluiter J.K., van der Beek A.J., Frings-Dresen M.H.W. Medical staff in emergency situations. Severity of patient status predicts stress hormone reactivity and recovery Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 60:2003;373-375.
109. Smith G.D., Hart C., Hole D., MacKinnon P., Gillis C., Watt G., Blane D., Hawthorne V. Education and occupational social class. Which is the more important indicator of mortality risk? Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 52:1998;153-160.
110. Sokolov Y.N. Perception and the conditioned reflex. 1963;Pergamon Press, Oxford.
111. Starke, D. (2000). http://www.univie.ac.at/oengk/5-konf-publikationen. html .
112. Starrin, B., Rantakeisu, U., Forsberg, E., Kalander-Blomqvist, M. (2000). Understanding the health consequences of unemployment - The Finance/Shame model. In: T. Kieselbach (Ed.), Unemployment and health. A comparison of six European countries. Opladen: Leske and Budrich.
113. Steptoe A., Butler N. Sports participation and emotional wellbeing in adolescents. Lancet. 29:1996;1789-1792.
114. Steptoe A., Cropley M., Griffith J., Kirschbaum C. Job strain and anger expression predict early morning elevations in saliva cortisol. Psychosomatic Medicine. 62:2000;286-292.
115. Steptoe A., Vögele C. Methodology of mental stress testing in cardiovascular research. Circulation. 4:1991;14-24.
116. Sterling P., Eyer J. Allostasis. A new paradigm to explain arousal pathology Fisher S., Reason J. Handbook on life stress, cognition and health. 1990;629-649 Wiley, Chichester.
117. Sternberg E.M., Gold P.W. The mind-body interaction in disease. Scientific American Special issue: Mysteries of the mind. 1997;8-15.
118. Stonks K., van de Mheen D., Looman C., Mackenbach J. Behavioral and structural factors in the explanation on socioeconomic inequalities in health; and empirical analysis. Sociology of health and illness. 18:1996;653-674.
119. Sturdevant M.S., Kohler C.L., Williams L.F., Johnsson J.E. The University of Alabama teenage access project. Journal of Adolescence and Health. 23:1998;107-114.
120. Taylor S.E., Seeman T.E. Psychosocial resources and the SES-health relationship. Annals of New York Academy of Science. 896:1999;2110-2125.
121. Theorell T., Tsutsumi A., Hallquist J., Reuterwall C., Hogstedt C., Fredlund P., Emlund N., Johnsson J.V. Decision latitude, job strain, and myocardial infarction. A study of working men in Stockholm. The Sheep Study Group Stockholm Heart Epidemiology Program American Journal of Public Health. 88:1998;382-388.
122. Toates F. Stress. Conceptual and biological aspects:1995;Wiley, Chichester.
123. Tveito T.H., Halvorsen A., Lauvålien J.V., Eriksen H.R. Room for everyone in working life? 10% of the employees - 82% of the sickness leave. Norsk Epidemiologi. 12:2002;38-63.
124. Ursin, H. (1980). Personality, activation and somatic health. A new psychosomatic theory. In: S. Levine, H. Ursin (Eds.), Coping and Health. New York: Plenum Press.
125. Ursin, H. (1988). Expectancy and activation: an attempt to systematise stress theory. In: D. Hellheimer, L. Florin, H. Weiner (Eds.), Neurobiological approaches to human disease (pp. 313-334).
126. Ursin H. The psychology in psychoneuroendocrinology; Invited review. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 23:1998;555-570.
127. Ursin H., Baade E., Levine S. Psychobiology of stress. A study of coping men. 1978;Academic Press, New York.
128. Ursin H., Murison R. Biological and psychological basis of psychosomatic disease. 1983;Pergamon Press, Oxford.
129. Vanderwolf C.H., Robinson T.E. Reticulo-cortical activity and behavior. A critique of the arousal theory and a new synthesis. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 4:1981;459-514.
130. Wellman C.L., Cullen M.J., Pelleymounter M.A. Effects of uncontrollability of stress on hippocampal pharmacology. Psychobiology. 26:1998;65-72.
131. Wilkinson R.G. The psychosocial causes of illness. Wilkinson R.G. Why society kills. 1996;173-193 Routledge, London.
132. Wilkinson R.G. Why society kills. Wilkinson R.G. Unhealthy societies. 1996;193-211 Routledge, London.
133. Wilkinson R.G. Health, hierarchy and social anxiety. Annals of New York Academy of Sciences. 896:1999;48-63.
134. Wold, B., & Hendry, L. (1998). Social and environmental factors associated with physical activity in young people. In: S. Biddle, J. Sallis, N. Cavil (Eds.), Young and active? Young people and health-enhancing physical activity-evidence and implications. London: Health Education Authority.
135. World Health Organisation. (1986). Ottawa charter for health promotion. Copenhagen: WHO Europe.
136. Wust S., Federenko I., Hellhammer D.H., Kirschbaum C. Genetic factors, perceived chronic stress and the free cortisol response to awakening. Psychoneuroimmunology. 25:2000;707-720.
137. Yehuda R., Boisoneau D., Lowy M.T., Giller E.L. Jr. Dose-response change in plasma cortisol and lymphocyte glucocorticoid receptors following dexametazone administration in combat veterans with and without post-traumatic disorder. Archives General Psychiatry. 52:1995;583-593.
138. Zeidner, M., & Endler, N. (1996). Handbook of coping. Theory, research applications. New York: Wiley.