Colonial matriarchs: Garveyism, maternalism, and Belize's Black Cross Nurses, 1920-1952

Gender and History

Volumn 15, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 507-527

  Macpherson, Anne S ^a  

^a STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COLONIALISM; GENDER ROLE; HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE; RACIAL IDENTITY;

BELIZE; CENTRAL AMERICA;

EID: 0347538001     PISSN: 09535233     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.0953-5233.2003.00318.x     Document Type: Article

References (76)

1. Zee Edgell, Beka Lamb (London: Heinemann, 1982), p. 27.
2. Mimi Sheller, 'Quasheba, Mother, Queen: Black Women's Public Leadership and Political Protest in Post-emancipation Jamaica, 1834-65', Slavery and Abolition 19 (1998), pp. 90-117.
3. Olive Senior, Working Miracles. Women's Lives in the English-speaking Caribbean (Cave Hill: ISER/UWI, 1991), chapters 4 and 8.
4. Tony Martin, Race First: The Ideological and Organizational Struggles of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association (Westport: Greenwood, 1976), pp. 15-16.
5. Wilson Jeremiah Moses, Black Messiahs and Uncle Toms: Social and Literary Manipulations of a Religious Myth (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1982), chapter 8
6. Afrotopia: The Roots of African American Popular History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 193-8;
7. Judith Stein, The World of Marcus Garvey: Race and Class in Modern Society (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1986).
8. Anne S. Macpherson, 'Imagining the Colonial Nation: Race, Gender and Middle-Class Politics in Belize, 1888-1898', in Race and Nation in Modern Latin America, ed. Nancy Appelbaum, Anne S. Macpherson and Karin Alejandra Rosemblatt (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003) pp. 108-31.
9. Antoinette Burton, 'Introduction', in Gender, Sexuality, and Colonial Modernities, ed. Burton (New York: Routledge, 1999), p. 10.
10. Theodore Vincent, Black Power and the Garvey Movement (Berkeley: The Ramparts Press, 1972), p. 175.
11. Mark Matthews, '"Our Women and What They Think", Amy Jacques Garvey and The Negro World', Black Scholar 10 (1979), pp. 7-8.
12. Tony Martin, 'Women in the Garvey Movement', in Garvey: His Work and Impact, ed. Rupert Lewis and Patrick Bryan (Trenton NJ: Africa World Press, 1991), pp. 67-72.
13. Barbara Bair, 'Universal Negro Improvement Association', in Black Women in America: A Historical Encyclopedia, ed. Darlene Clark Hine (Brooklyn: Carlson Publishing, 1993), p. 1188.
14. Barbara Bair, 'Pan-Africanism as Process: Adelaide Casely Hayford, Garveyism, and the Cultural Roots of Nationalism', in Imagining Home: Class, Culture and Nationalism in the African Diaspora, ed. Sidney Lemelle and Robin Kelley (New York: Verso, 1994), p. 122;
15. Honor Ford-Smith, 'Women and the Garvey Movement in Jamaica', in Garvey: His Work and Impact, p. 73;
16. Robert A. Hill, 'General Introduction', in The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, vol. 1, ed. Robert A. Hill (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), pp. i-ii
17. Barbara Bair, 'True Women, Real Men: Gender, Ideology, and Social Roles in the Garvey Movement', in Gendered Domains: Rethinking Public and Private in Women's History, ed. Susan Reverby and Dorothy O. Helly (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992), pp. 154-66;
18. Honor Ford-Smith, Making White Ladies: Race, Gender and the Production of Identities in Late Colonial Jamaica', Resources for Feminist Research/Documentation sur la Recherche Feministe 23 (1994/95), p. 65.
19. Ula Taylor, 'Universal African Black Cross Nurses', Black Women in America, p. 1187
20. Karen S. Adler, '"Always Leading our Men in Service and Sacrifice" Amy Jacques Garvey, Feminist Black Nationalist', Gender and Society 6 (1992): pp. 346-75;
21. Winston James, Holding Aloft the Banner of Ethiopia: Caribbean Radicalism in Early Twentieth-Century America (New York: Verso, 1998), pp. 141-55;
22. Ula Y. Taylor, '"Negro Women are Great Thinkers as well as Doers": Amy Jacgues-Garvey and Community Feminism in the United State, 1924-1927', Journal of Women's History 12 (2000), pp. 104-26.
23. William Seraile, 'Henrietta Vinton Davis and the Garvey Movement', Afro-Americans in New York Life and History 7 (1983), pp. 7-24;
24. Ashwood, Amy'. in Marcus Garvey: Life and Lessons, ed. Robert A. Hill and Barbara Bair (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), pp. 358-9;
25. Lionel M. Yard, Biography of Amy Ashwood Garvey, 1897-1969 (Associated Publishers, Inc., nd).
26. Rupert Lewis, Marcus Garvey: Anti-Colonial Champion (Trenton NJ: Africa World Press, 1988), p. 67,
27. Ford-Smith, 'Women and the Garvey Movement in Jamaica'; Rhoda Reddock, Women, Labour and Politics in Trinidad and Tobago: A History (London: Zed Books, 1994).
28. Karen Mead, 'Beneficent Maternalism: Argentine Motherhood in Comparatie Perspective, 1880-1920', Journal of Women's History 12 (2000), pp. 120-45
29. Karin Rosemblatt, '"What we can Reclaim of the Old Values of the Past": Sexual Morality and Politics in Twentieth Century Chile', Comparative Studies in Society and History 43 (2001), pp. 149-80.
30. Ann Laura Stoler and Frederick Cooper, eds, Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), p. 1;
31. Antoinette Burton, 'The White Woman's Burden: British Feminists and "The Indian Woman", 1865-1915', in Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance, ed. Nupur Chaudhuri and Margaret Strobel (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992), pp. 137-8.
32. Eileen Suárez Findlay, Imposing Decency: The Politics of Sexuality and Race in Puerto Rico, 1870-1920 (Durham: Duke University Press, 1998);
33. Francesca Miller, Latin American Women and the Search for Social Justice (Hanover: University Press of New England, 1991), chapter 4;
34. Rosalyn Terborg-Penn, 'Enfranchising Women of Color: Woman Suffragists as Agents of Imperialism', in Nation, Empire, Colony: Historicizing Gender and Race, ed. Ruth Roach Pierson and Nupur Chaudhuri (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998), pp. 41-56.
35. Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender, and Sexuality in the Colonial Context (New York: Routledge, 1995),
36. Clare Midgley, 'Anti-slavery and the roots of "imperial feminism"', in Gender and Imperialism, ed. Midgley (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998), pp. 161-79.
37. 'maternalist imperialism' ('Cultural Missionaires, Maternalist Imperialists, Feminist Allies: British Woemn Activists in India, 1865-1945', in Western Women and Imperialism, pp. 119-36).
38. Catherine Hall, 'Gender Politics and Imperial Politics: Rethinking the Histories of Empire', in Engendering History: Caribbean Women in Historical Perspective, ed. Verene Shepherd, Bridget Brereton, and Barbara Bailey, (New York: St. Martin's, 1995), pp. 48-59.
39. Thomas Holt, The Problem of Freedom: Race, Labor, and Politics in Jamaica and Britain, 1832-1938 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991).
40. Catherine Hall, 'Competing Masculinities: Thomas Carlyle, John Stuart Mill, and the case of Governor Eyre', in White, Male and Middle Class: Explorations in Feminism and History (New York: Routledge, 1992), pp. 255-95.
41. Mary Hancock, 'Gendering the Modern: Women and Home Science in British India', in Gender, Sexuality, and Colonial Modernities, p. 153.
42. C. L. R. James, 'The West Indian Middle Classes', in Spheres of Existence: Selected Writings (Westport: Lawrence Hill & Co., 1980 , pp. 131-40.
43. Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, trans. Charles Lam Markmann (New York: Grove Press, 1967).
44. Nancy Rose Hunt, 'Domesticity and Colonialism in Belgian Africa: Usumbura's Foyer Social, 1946-1960', Signs 15 (1990), pp. 447-74,
45. Carol Summers, 'Intimate Colonialism: The Imperial Production of Reproduction in Uganda, 1907-1925', Signs 16 (1991), pp. 787-807.
46. Dea Birkett, 'The "White Woman's Burden" in "The White Man's Grave" The Introduction of British Nurses in Colonial West Africa', in Western Women and Imperialism, pp. 177-88.
47. Eileen Boris, 'The Power of Motherhood: Black and White Activist Women Redefine the "Political"', in Mothers of a New World: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States, ed. Seth Koven and Sonya Michel (New York: Routledge, 1993), pp. 213-45;
48. Margaret Jolly, 'Introduction: Colonial and postcolonial plots in the histories of maternities and modernities', in Maternities and modernities. Colonial and postcolonial experiences in Asia and the Pacific, ed. Jolly and Kalpana Ram (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 1-10;
49. Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, 'Womanly Duties: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States in France, Germany, Great Britain, and the United States, 1880-1920', American Historical Review 95 (1990), pp. 1076-1108;
50. Asunción Lavrin, Women, Feminism, & Social Change in Argentina, Chile & Uruguay, 1890-1940 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995), pp. 82-3;
51. Jane Lewis, 'Motherhood Issues', in Delivering Motherhood: Maternal Ideologies and Practices in the 19th and 20th Centuries, ed. Katherine Arnup, Andrée Lévesque, and Ruth Roach Pierson (New York: Routledge, 1990), pp. 1-19;
52. Susan Pedersen, 'Gender Welfare and Citizenship in Britain during the Great War', American Historical Review 95 (1990), pp. 983-1006;
53. Susan Pedersen, 'National Bodies, Unspeakable Acts: The Sexual Politics of Colonial Policy-making', Journal of Modern History 63 (1991), pp. 647 80;
54. Wayne Roberts, '"Rocking the Cradle for the World": The New Woman and Maternal Feminism, Toronto 1877-1914', in A Not Unreasonable Claim: Women and Reform in Canada, 1880s-1920s, ed. Linda Kealey (Toronto: The Women's Press, 1979), pp. 15-45;
55. Terborg-Penn, 'Enfranchising Women of Color; Mariana Valverde, review essay in Signs 20 (1994), pp. 209-15;
56. Patrick Wilkinson, 'The Selfless and the Helpless: Maternalist Origins of the U.S. Welfare State', Feminist Studies 25 (1999): pp. 571-97.
57. Nancy Cott, 'Comment on Karen Offen's "Defining Feminism; A Comparative Historical Approach"', Signs 15 (1989), pp. 203-05.
58. Seth Koven, 'The Ambivalence of Agency: Women, Families, and Social Policy in France, Britain, and the United States', Journal of Women's History 9 (1997), p. 168.
59. 'Report of UNIA Meeting' (Philadelphia, 28 April 1920), in the Garvey Papers, vol. 2 (1983), p. 303.
60. Peter Ashdown, 'Race Riot, Class Warfare and Coup d'etat: The Ex-Servicemen's Riot of July 1919', Belcast Journal of Belizean Affairs 3 (1986), pp. 13-14;
61. 'Marcus Garvey, the UNIA and the Black Cause in British Honduras 1914-1949', Journal of Caribbean History 15 (1981), pp. 46-7, 54.
62. Peter Ashdown, 'The Growth of Black Consciousness in Belize 1914-1919: The Background to the Ex-Servicemen's Riot of 1919', Belcast Journal of Belizean Affairs 2 (1985), pp. 1-5.
63. Mark Moberg, 'Crown Colony as Banana Republic: The United Fruit Company in British Honduras, 1900-1920', Journal of Latin American Studies 28 (1996), pp. 357-81.
64. Richard E. Hadel, SJ, 'Builders of Belize (3): Nurse Seay, National Studies 2 (1974), pp, 8-11;
65. Eleanor Krohn Herrmann, Origins of Tomorrow: A History of Belizean Nursing Education (Belize: Ministry of Health, 1985), chapter 3.
66. Deborah Gray White, Too Heavy a Load: Black Women in Defense of Themselves, 1894-1994 (New York: W.W. Norton, 1999), chapter 5,
67. John Everitt, 'The Growth and Development of Belize City', Journal of Latin American Studies 18 (1986), pp. 75-112;
68. O. Nigel Bolland, The Politics of Labour in the British Caribbean (Markus Weiner, 2001), pp. 126-27,
69. 'John Burdon, Governor, British Honduras, to L.C.M.S. Amery, Secretary of State for the Colonies', 3 March 1928, in The Garvey Papers vol. 7 (1990), pp. 134-35;
70. British Honduras Annual Medical Report for the Year 1920 (Belize Prison, 1922);
71. 'Report of Interview', in The Garvey Papers, vol. 3 (1984), pp. 508-9.
72. Belize Independent, 26 June 1935.
73. Black Cross Nurses, Compendium of the Living Conditions and Dietary Statistics of the Labouring Classes in the Town of Belize, British Honduras (Belize, 1938).
74. British Honduras Medical Reports and Jamaica Central Bureau of Statistics, West India Census 1946, Part E: Census of Population of British Honduras (Department of Statistics, Kingston 1948), pp. xxiii, xxxi.
75. Cedric Grant, The Making of Modern Belize: Politics, Society and British Colonialism in Central America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), p. 148.
76. Belize Billboard, 22 January 1950.