What we can reclaim of the old values of the past: Sexual morality and politics in twentieth-century Chile

Comparative Studies in Society and History

Volumn 43, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 149-180

  Rosemblatt, Karin Alejandra ^b  

^a SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; MEMORY; MORALITY; POLITICAL PROCESS; TWENTIETH CENTURY; WOMENS STATUS;

ARTICLE; CHILE; ETHNOLOGY; FEMALE; GENDER IDENTITY; HISTORY; LEGAL ASPECT; MEMORY; MORALITY; POLITICS; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; PUBLIC OPINION; SEXUALITY; SOCIAL CHANGE; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; SOCIAL WELFARE; SOCIOECONOMICS; WOMEN'S RIGHTS;

CHILE; GENDER IDENTITY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; MEMORY; MORALS; POLITICS; PUBLIC OPINION; SEXUALITY; SOCIAL CHANGE; SOCIAL VALUES; SOCIAL WELFARE; VALUE OF LIFE; WOMEN; WOMEN'S RIGHTS;

CHILE;

EID: 0035061464     PISSN: 00104175     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0010417501003620     Document Type: Article

References (187)

1. Works that provide an overview of military rule and the transition from authoritarian rule in Chile include The Struggle for Democracy in Chile, 1982-1990, ed. Paul Drake and Iván Jaksic (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991); El modelo chileno: Democracia y desarrollo en los noventa, ed. Paul Drake and Iván Jaksic (Santiago: LOM, 1999); Lois Hecht Oppenheim, Politics in Chile: Democracy, Authoritarianism, and the Search for Development (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993); Philip D. Oxhorn, Organizing Civil Society: The Popular Sectors and the Struggle for Democracy in Chile (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995). My assertions regarding the prevalence of public debate on moral issues since 1990 are based on observations I made while in Chile during 1988, 1991-1993. and December 1996.
2. Works that provide an overview of military rule and the transition from authoritarian rule in Chile include The Struggle for Democracy in Chile, 1982-1990, ed. Paul Drake and Iván Jaksic (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991); El modelo chileno: Democracia y desarrollo en los noventa, ed. Paul Drake and Iván Jaksic (Santiago: LOM, 1999); Lois Hecht Oppenheim, Politics in Chile: Democracy, Authoritarianism, and the Search for Development (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993); Philip D. Oxhorn, Organizing Civil Society: The Popular Sectors and the Struggle for Democracy in Chile (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995). My assertions regarding the prevalence of public debate on moral issues since 1990 are based on observations I made while in Chile during 1988, 1991-1993. and December 1996.
3. Works that provide an overview of military rule and the transition from authoritarian rule in Chile include The Struggle for Democracy in Chile, 1982-1990, ed. Paul Drake and Iván Jaksic (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991); El modelo chileno: Democracia y desarrollo en los noventa, ed. Paul Drake and Iván Jaksic (Santiago: LOM, 1999); Lois Hecht Oppenheim, Politics in Chile: Democracy, Authoritarianism, and the Search for Development (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993); Philip D. Oxhorn, Organizing Civil Society: The Popular Sectors and the Struggle for Democracy in Chile (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995). My assertions regarding the prevalence of public debate on moral issues since 1990 are based on observations I made while in Chile during 1988, 1991-1993. and December 1996.
4. Works that provide an overview of military rule and the transition from authoritarian rule in Chile include The Struggle for Democracy in Chile, 1982-1990, ed. Paul Drake and Iván Jaksic (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991); El modelo chileno: Democracia y desarrollo en los noventa, ed. Paul Drake and Iván Jaksic (Santiago: LOM, 1999); Lois Hecht Oppenheim, Politics in Chile: Democracy, Authoritarianism, and the Search for Development (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993); Philip D. Oxhorn, Organizing Civil Society: The Popular Sectors and the Struggle for Democracy in Chile (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995). My assertions regarding the prevalence of public debate on moral issues since 1990 are based on observations I made while in Chile during 1988, 1991-1993. and December 1996.
5. Important works on the 1920-1950 period include Paul Drake. Socialism and Populism in Chile, 1932-1952 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978); Tomás Moulian, "Violencia, gradualismo y reformas en el desarrollo político chileno," in Estudios sobre el sistema de partidos en Chile, ed. Adolfo Aldunate, Angel Flisfisch and Tomás Moulian (Santiago: FLACSO, 1985); Atilio Borón, "Movilización política y crisis política en Chile (1920-1970)." Aportes 20 (April 1971):41-69; María Angélica Illanes, "En el nombre del pueblo, del estado y de la ciencia (. . .)": Historia social de la salud pública, Chile 1880-1973 (Santiago; Colectivo de Atención Primaria, 1993); James Morris, Elites, Intellectuals, and Consensus: A Study of the Social Question and the Industrial Relations System in Chile (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1966); Thomas Miller Klubock, Contested Communities: Class, Gender, and Politics in Chile's El Teniente Copper Mine, 1904-1951 (Durham: Duke University Press. 1998). Following Moulian, I use the term "popular fronts" and the adjective "popular-front" to designate the various governing coalitions of the 1939-1949 period that were made up of sectors of the center and left, and eventually sectors of the right.
6. Important works on the 1920-1950 period include Paul Drake. Socialism and Populism in Chile, 1932-1952 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978); Tomás Moulian, "Violencia, gradualismo y reformas en el desarrollo político chileno," in Estudios sobre el sistema de partidos en Chile, ed. Adolfo Aldunate, Angel Flisfisch and Tomás Moulian (Santiago: FLACSO, 1985); Atilio Borón, "Movilización política y crisis política en Chile (1920-1970)." Aportes 20 (April 1971):41-69; María Angélica Illanes, "En el nombre del pueblo, del estado y de la ciencia (. . .)": Historia social de la salud pública, Chile 1880-1973 (Santiago; Colectivo de Atención Primaria, 1993); James Morris, Elites, Intellectuals, and Consensus: A Study of the Social Question and the Industrial Relations System in Chile (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1966); Thomas Miller Klubock, Contested Communities: Class, Gender, and Politics in Chile's El Teniente Copper Mine, 1904-1951 (Durham: Duke University Press. 1998). Following Moulian, I use the term "popular fronts" and the adjective "popular-front" to designate the various governing coalitions of the 1939-1949 period that were made up of sectors of the center and left, and eventually sectors of the right.
7. Important works on the 1920-1950 period include Paul Drake. Socialism and Populism in Chile, 1932-1952 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978); Tomás Moulian, "Violencia, gradualismo y reformas en el desarrollo político chileno," in Estudios sobre el sistema de partidos en Chile, ed. Adolfo Aldunate, Angel Flisfisch and Tomás Moulian (Santiago: FLACSO, 1985); Atilio Borón, "Movilización política y crisis política en Chile (1920-1970)." Aportes 20 (April 1971):41-69; María Angélica Illanes, "En el nombre del pueblo, del estado y de la ciencia (. . .)": Historia social de la salud pública, Chile 1880-1973 (Santiago; Colectivo de Atención Primaria, 1993); James Morris, Elites, Intellectuals, and Consensus: A Study of the Social Question and the Industrial Relations System in Chile (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1966); Thomas Miller Klubock, Contested Communities: Class, Gender, and Politics in Chile's El Teniente Copper Mine, 1904-1951 (Durham: Duke University Press. 1998). Following Moulian, I use the term "popular fronts" and the adjective "popular-front" to designate the various governing coalitions of the 1939-1949 period that were made up of sectors of the center and left, and eventually sectors of the right.
8. Important works on the 1920-1950 period include Paul Drake. Socialism and Populism in Chile, 1932-1952 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978); Tomás Moulian, "Violencia, gradualismo y reformas en el desarrollo político chileno," in Estudios sobre el sistema de partidos en Chile, ed. Adolfo Aldunate, Angel Flisfisch and Tomás Moulian (Santiago: FLACSO, 1985); Atilio Borón, "Movilización política y crisis política en Chile (1920-1970)." Aportes 20 (April 1971):41-69; María Angélica Illanes, "En el nombre del pueblo, del estado y de la ciencia (. . .)": Historia social de la salud pública, Chile 1880-1973 (Santiago; Colectivo de Atención Primaria, 1993); James Morris, Elites, Intellectuals, and Consensus: A Study of the Social Question and the Industrial Relations System in Chile (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1966); Thomas Miller Klubock, Contested Communities: Class, Gender, and Politics in Chile's El Teniente Copper Mine, 1904-1951 (Durham: Duke University Press. 1998). Following Moulian, I use the term "popular fronts" and the adjective "popular-front" to designate the various governing coalitions of the 1939-1949 period that were made up of sectors of the center and left, and eventually sectors of the right.
9. Important works on the 1920-1950 period include Paul Drake. Socialism and Populism in Chile, 1932-1952 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978); Tomás Moulian, "Violencia, gradualismo y reformas en el desarrollo político chileno," in Estudios sobre el sistema de partidos en Chile, ed. Adolfo Aldunate, Angel Flisfisch and Tomás Moulian (Santiago: FLACSO, 1985); Atilio Borón, "Movilización política y crisis política en Chile (1920-1970)." Aportes 20 (April 1971):41-69; María Angélica Illanes, "En el nombre del pueblo, del estado y de la ciencia (. . .)": Historia social de la salud pública, Chile 1880-1973 (Santiago; Colectivo de Atención Primaria, 1993); James Morris, Elites, Intellectuals, and Consensus: A Study of the Social Question and the Industrial Relations System in Chile (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1966); Thomas Miller Klubock, Contested Communities: Class, Gender, and Politics in Chile's El Teniente Copper Mine, 1904-1951 (Durham: Duke University Press. 1998). Following Moulian, I use the term "popular fronts" and the adjective "popular-front" to designate the various governing coalitions of the 1939-1949 period that were made up of sectors of the center and left, and eventually sectors of the right.
10. Important works on the 1920-1950 period include Paul Drake. Socialism and Populism in Chile, 1932-1952 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978); Tomás Moulian, "Violencia, gradualismo y reformas en el desarrollo político chileno," in Estudios sobre el sistema de partidos en Chile, ed. Adolfo Aldunate, Angel Flisfisch and Tomás Moulian (Santiago: FLACSO, 1985); Atilio Borón, "Movilización política y crisis política en Chile (1920-1970)." Aportes 20 (April 1971):41-69; María Angélica Illanes, "En el nombre del pueblo, del estado y de la ciencia (. . .)": Historia social de la salud pública, Chile 1880-1973 (Santiago; Colectivo de Atención Primaria, 1993); James Morris, Elites, Intellectuals, and Consensus: A Study of the Social Question and the Industrial Relations System in Chile (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1966); Thomas Miller Klubock, Contested Communities: Class, Gender, and Politics in Chile's El Teniente Copper Mine, 1904-1951 (Durham: Duke University Press. 1998). Following Moulian, I use the term "popular fronts" and the adjective "popular-front" to designate the various governing coalitions of the 1939-1949 period that were made up of sectors of the center and left, and eventually sectors of the right.
11. Works that explore gender during this period include Klubock. Contested Communities; Illanes, "En el nombre"; Asunción Lavrin. Women, Feminism, and Social Change in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay, 1890-1940 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995); Elizabeth Quay Hutchison, Labors Appropriate to Their Sex: Gender. Labor, and Politics in Urban Chile, 1900-1930 (Durham: Duke University Press, forthcoming 2001); Edda Gaviola et al., Queremos votar en las próximas elecciones: Historia del movimiento femenino chileno, 1913-1952 (Santiago: CEM. 1986); and the essays in Disciplina y desacato: Construcción de identidad en Chile, siglos XIX y XX. ed. Lorena Godoy, Elizabeth Hutchison, Karin Rosemblatt, and M. Soledad Zárate (Santiago: SUR/CEDEM, 1995).
12. Works that explore gender during this period include Klubock. Contested Communities; Illanes, "En el nombre"; Asunción Lavrin. Women, Feminism, and Social Change in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay, 1890-1940 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995); Elizabeth Quay Hutchison, Labors Appropriate to Their Sex: Gender. Labor, and Politics in Urban Chile, 1900-1930 (Durham: Duke University Press, forthcoming 2001); Edda Gaviola et al., Queremos votar en las próximas elecciones: Historia del movimiento femenino chileno, 1913-1952 (Santiago: CEM. 1986); and the essays in Disciplina y desacato: Construcción de identidad en Chile, siglos XIX y XX. ed. Lorena Godoy, Elizabeth Hutchison, Karin Rosemblatt, and M. Soledad Zárate (Santiago: SUR/CEDEM, 1995).
13. Works that explore gender during this period include Klubock. Contested Communities; Illanes, "En el nombre"; Asunción Lavrin. Women, Feminism, and Social Change in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay, 1890-1940 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995); Elizabeth Quay Hutchison, Labors Appropriate to Their Sex: Gender. Labor, and Politics in Urban Chile, 1900-1930 (Durham: Duke University Press, forthcoming 2001); Edda Gaviola et al., Queremos votar en las próximas elecciones: Historia del movimiento femenino chileno, 1913-1952 (Santiago: CEM. 1986); and the essays in Disciplina y desacato: Construcción de identidad en Chile, siglos XIX y XX. ed. Lorena Godoy, Elizabeth Hutchison, Karin Rosemblatt, and M. Soledad Zárate (Santiago: SUR/CEDEM, 1995).
14. Works that explore gender during this period include Klubock. Contested Communities; Illanes, "En el nombre"; Asunción Lavrin. Women, Feminism, and Social Change in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay, 1890-1940 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995); Elizabeth Quay Hutchison, Labors Appropriate to Their Sex: Gender. Labor, and Politics in Urban Chile, 1900-1930 (Durham: Duke University Press, forthcoming 2001); Edda Gaviola et al., Queremos votar en las próximas elecciones: Historia del movimiento femenino chileno, 1913-1952 (Santiago: CEM. 1986); and the essays in Disciplina y desacato: Construcción de identidad en Chile, siglos XIX y XX. ed. Lorena Godoy, Elizabeth Hutchison, Karin Rosemblatt, and M. Soledad Zárate (Santiago: SUR/CEDEM, 1995).
15. Works that explore gender during this period include Klubock. Contested Communities; Illanes, "En el nombre"; Asunción Lavrin. Women, Feminism, and Social Change in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay, 1890-1940 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995); Elizabeth Quay Hutchison, Labors Appropriate to Their Sex: Gender. Labor, and Politics in Urban Chile, 1900-1930 (Durham: Duke University Press, forthcoming 2001); Edda Gaviola et al., Queremos votar en las próximas elecciones: Historia del movimiento femenino chileno, 1913-1952 (Santiago: CEM. 1986); and the essays in Disciplina y desacato: Construcción de identidad en Chile, siglos XIX y XX. ed. Lorena Godoy, Elizabeth Hutchison, Karin Rosemblatt, and M. Soledad Zárate (Santiago: SUR/CEDEM, 1995).
16. Works that explore gender during this period include Klubock. Contested Communities; Illanes, "En el nombre"; Asunción Lavrin. Women, Feminism, and Social Change in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay, 1890-1940 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995); Elizabeth Quay Hutchison, Labors Appropriate to Their Sex: Gender. Labor, and Politics in Urban Chile, 1900-1930 (Durham: Duke University Press, forthcoming 2001); Edda Gaviola et al., Queremos votar en las próximas elecciones: Historia del movimiento femenino chileno, 1913-1952 (Santiago: CEM. 1986); and the essays in Disciplina y desacato: Construcción de identidad en Chile, siglos XIX y XX. ed. Lorena Godoy, Elizabeth Hutchison, Karin Rosemblatt, and M. Soledad Zárate (Santiago: SUR/CEDEM, 1995).
17. I use the terms "socialist" (which I do not capitalize) and "leftist" to refer to members of both the Socialist and Communist parties. I use "Socialist" (with a capital "S") to denote members of the Socialist Party.
18. The classic work on elite and nationalist uses of history is The Invention of Traditions, ed. T. O. Ranger and E. J. Hobsbawm (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); for critiques of this approach see Joanne Rappaport, The Politics of Memory: Native Historical Interpretation in the Colombian Andes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1990), 187-8, and Prasenjit Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1995). For postcolonial perspectives on elite and nationalist uses of history, see Duara, Rescuing History; Gyan Prakash, "Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Indian Historiography is Good to Think" in Colonialism and Culture, ed. Nicholas B. Dirks (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992). 253-388; Dipesh Chakrabarty, "Post-coloniality and the Artifice of History: Who Speaks for the 'Indian' Pasts?" Representations, no. 37 (Winter 1992): 1-26; Partha Chatterjee. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), esp. chapters 4 and 5. Duara conceptualizes history as a process of transmittal and reconstruction. For similar arguments that also raise the possibilities of narratives closer to subaltern perspectives, see Florencia Mallon, "The Promise and Dilemma of Subaltern Studies: Perspectives from Latin American History," American Historical Review 99, no. 5 (December 1994): 1505-7; Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995), 2. For a useful theorization of the different modes of writing history, see Dominick LaCapra, Representing the Holocaust: History, Theory, Trauma (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), esp. 31-5, 38, 64, 174-5. My approach in this essay draws inspiration from attempts to incorporate the narratives of various participants at various moments in time into historical accounts. See Shahid Amin, Event, Metaphor, Memory: Chauri Chaura, 1922-1992 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), and David William Cohen, The Combing of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).
19. The classic work on elite and nationalist uses of history is The Invention of Traditions, ed. T. O. Ranger and E. J. Hobsbawm (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); for critiques of this approach see Joanne Rappaport, The Politics of Memory: Native Historical Interpretation in the Colombian Andes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1990), 187-8, and Prasenjit Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1995). For postcolonial perspectives on elite and nationalist uses of history, see Duara, Rescuing History; Gyan Prakash, "Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Indian Historiography is Good to Think" in Colonialism and Culture, ed. Nicholas B. Dirks (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992). 253-388; Dipesh Chakrabarty, "Post-coloniality and the Artifice of History: Who Speaks for the 'Indian' Pasts?" Representations, no. 37 (Winter 1992): 1-26; Partha Chatterjee. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), esp. chapters 4 and 5. Duara conceptualizes history as a process of transmittal and reconstruction. For similar arguments that also raise the possibilities of narratives closer to subaltern perspectives, see Florencia Mallon, "The Promise and Dilemma of Subaltern Studies: Perspectives from Latin American History," American Historical Review 99, no. 5 (December 1994): 1505-7; Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995), 2. For a useful theorization of the different modes of writing history, see Dominick LaCapra, Representing the Holocaust: History, Theory, Trauma (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), esp. 31-5, 38, 64, 174-5. My approach in this essay draws inspiration from attempts to incorporate the narratives of various participants at various moments in time into historical accounts. See Shahid Amin, Event, Metaphor, Memory: Chauri Chaura, 1922-1992 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), and David William Cohen, The Combing of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).
20. The classic work on elite and nationalist uses of history is The Invention of Traditions, ed. T. O. Ranger and E. J. Hobsbawm (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); for critiques of this approach see Joanne Rappaport, The Politics of Memory: Native Historical Interpretation in the Colombian Andes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1990), 187-8, and Prasenjit Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1995). For postcolonial perspectives on elite and nationalist uses of history, see Duara, Rescuing History; Gyan Prakash, "Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Indian Historiography is Good to Think" in Colonialism and Culture, ed. Nicholas B. Dirks (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992). 253-388; Dipesh Chakrabarty, "Post-coloniality and the Artifice of History: Who Speaks for the 'Indian' Pasts?" Representations, no. 37 (Winter 1992): 1-26; Partha Chatterjee. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), esp. chapters 4 and 5. Duara conceptualizes history as a process of transmittal and reconstruction. For similar arguments that also raise the possibilities of narratives closer to subaltern perspectives, see Florencia Mallon, "The Promise and Dilemma of Subaltern Studies: Perspectives from Latin American History," American Historical Review 99, no. 5 (December 1994): 1505-7; Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995), 2. For a useful theorization of the different modes of writing history, see Dominick LaCapra, Representing the Holocaust: History, Theory, Trauma (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), esp. 31-5, 38, 64, 174-5. My approach in this essay draws inspiration from attempts to incorporate the narratives of various participants at various moments in time into historical accounts. See Shahid Amin, Event, Metaphor, Memory: Chauri Chaura, 1922-1992 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), and David William Cohen, The Combing of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).
21. The classic work on elite and nationalist uses of history is The Invention of Traditions, ed. T. O. Ranger and E. J. Hobsbawm (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); for critiques of this approach see Joanne Rappaport, The Politics of Memory: Native Historical Interpretation in the Colombian Andes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1990), 187-8, and Prasenjit Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1995). For postcolonial perspectives on elite and nationalist uses of history, see Duara, Rescuing History; Gyan Prakash, "Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Indian Historiography is Good to Think" in Colonialism and Culture, ed. Nicholas B. Dirks (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992). 253-388; Dipesh Chakrabarty, "Post-coloniality and the Artifice of History: Who Speaks for the 'Indian' Pasts?" Representations, no. 37 (Winter 1992): 1-26; Partha Chatterjee. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), esp. chapters 4 and 5. Duara conceptualizes history as a process of transmittal and reconstruction. For similar arguments that also raise the possibilities of narratives closer to subaltern perspectives, see Florencia Mallon, "The Promise and Dilemma of Subaltern Studies: Perspectives from Latin American History," American Historical Review 99, no. 5 (December 1994): 1505-7; Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995), 2. For a useful theorization of the different modes of writing history, see Dominick LaCapra, Representing the Holocaust: History, Theory, Trauma (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), esp. 31-5, 38, 64, 174-5. My approach in this essay draws inspiration from attempts to incorporate the narratives of various participants at various moments in time into historical accounts. See Shahid Amin, Event, Metaphor, Memory: Chauri Chaura, 1922-1992 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), and David William Cohen, The Combing of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).
22. The classic work on elite and nationalist uses of history is The Invention of Traditions, ed. T. O. Ranger and E. J. Hobsbawm (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); for critiques of this approach see Joanne Rappaport, The Politics of Memory: Native Historical Interpretation in the Colombian Andes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1990), 187-8, and Prasenjit Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1995). For postcolonial perspectives on elite and nationalist uses of history, see Duara, Rescuing History; Gyan Prakash, "Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Indian Historiography is Good to Think" in Colonialism and Culture, ed. Nicholas B. Dirks (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992). 253-388; Dipesh Chakrabarty, "Post-coloniality and the Artifice of History: Who Speaks for the 'Indian' Pasts?" Representations, no. 37 (Winter 1992): 1-26; Partha Chatterjee. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), esp. chapters 4 and 5. Duara conceptualizes history as a process of transmittal and reconstruction. For similar arguments that also raise the possibilities of narratives closer to subaltern perspectives, see Florencia Mallon, "The Promise and Dilemma of Subaltern Studies: Perspectives from Latin American History," American Historical Review 99, no. 5 (December 1994): 1505-7; Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995), 2. For a useful theorization of the different modes of writing history, see Dominick LaCapra, Representing the Holocaust: History, Theory, Trauma (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), esp. 31-5, 38, 64, 174-5. My approach in this essay draws inspiration from attempts to incorporate the narratives of various participants at various moments in time into historical accounts. See Shahid Amin, Event, Metaphor, Memory: Chauri Chaura, 1922-1992 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), and David William Cohen, The Combing of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).
23. The classic work on elite and nationalist uses of history is The Invention of Traditions, ed. T. O. Ranger and E. J. Hobsbawm (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); for critiques of this approach see Joanne Rappaport, The Politics of Memory: Native Historical Interpretation in the Colombian Andes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1990), 187-8, and Prasenjit Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1995). For postcolonial perspectives on elite and nationalist uses of history, see Duara, Rescuing History; Gyan Prakash, "Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Indian Historiography is Good to Think" in Colonialism and Culture, ed. Nicholas B. Dirks (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992). 253-388; Dipesh Chakrabarty, "Post-coloniality and the Artifice of History: Who Speaks for the 'Indian' Pasts?" Representations, no. 37 (Winter 1992): 1-26; Partha Chatterjee. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), esp. chapters 4 and 5. Duara conceptualizes history as a process of transmittal and reconstruction. For similar arguments that also raise the possibilities of narratives closer to subaltern perspectives, see Florencia Mallon, "The Promise and Dilemma of Subaltern Studies: Perspectives from Latin American History," American Historical Review 99, no. 5 (December 1994): 1505-7; Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995), 2. For a useful theorization of the different modes of writing history, see Dominick LaCapra, Representing the Holocaust: History, Theory, Trauma (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), esp. 31-5, 38, 64, 174-5. My approach in this essay draws inspiration from attempts to incorporate the narratives of various participants at various moments in time into historical accounts. See Shahid Amin, Event, Metaphor, Memory: Chauri Chaura, 1922-1992 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), and David William Cohen, The Combing of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).
24. The classic work on elite and nationalist uses of history is The Invention of Traditions, ed. T. O. Ranger and E. J. Hobsbawm (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); for critiques of this approach see Joanne Rappaport, The Politics of Memory: Native Historical Interpretation in the Colombian Andes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1990), 187-8, and Prasenjit Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1995). For postcolonial perspectives on elite and nationalist uses of history, see Duara, Rescuing History; Gyan Prakash, "Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Indian Historiography is Good to Think" in Colonialism and Culture, ed. Nicholas B. Dirks (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992). 253-388; Dipesh Chakrabarty, "Post-coloniality and the Artifice of History: Who Speaks for the 'Indian' Pasts?" Representations, no. 37 (Winter 1992): 1-26; Partha Chatterjee. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), esp. chapters 4 and 5. Duara conceptualizes history as a process of transmittal and reconstruction. For similar arguments that also raise the possibilities of narratives closer to subaltern perspectives, see Florencia Mallon, "The Promise and Dilemma of Subaltern Studies: Perspectives from Latin American History," American Historical Review 99, no. 5 (December 1994): 1505-7; Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995), 2. For a useful theorization of the different modes of writing history, see Dominick LaCapra, Representing the Holocaust: History, Theory, Trauma (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), esp. 31-5, 38, 64, 174-5. My approach in this essay draws inspiration from attempts to incorporate the narratives of various participants at various moments in time into historical accounts. See Shahid Amin, Event, Metaphor, Memory: Chauri Chaura, 1922-1992 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), and David William Cohen, The Combing of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).
25. The classic work on elite and nationalist uses of history is The Invention of Traditions, ed. T. O. Ranger and E. J. Hobsbawm (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); for critiques of this approach see Joanne Rappaport, The Politics of Memory: Native Historical Interpretation in the Colombian Andes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1990), 187-8, and Prasenjit Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1995). For postcolonial perspectives on elite and nationalist uses of history, see Duara, Rescuing History; Gyan Prakash, "Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Indian Historiography is Good to Think" in Colonialism and Culture, ed. Nicholas B. Dirks (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992). 253-388; Dipesh Chakrabarty, "Post-coloniality and the Artifice of History: Who Speaks for the 'Indian' Pasts?" Representations, no. 37 (Winter 1992): 1-26; Partha Chatterjee. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), esp. chapters 4 and 5. Duara conceptualizes history as a process of transmittal and reconstruction. For similar arguments that also raise the possibilities of narratives closer to subaltern perspectives, see Florencia Mallon, "The Promise and Dilemma of Subaltern Studies: Perspectives from Latin American History," American Historical Review 99, no. 5 (December 1994): 1505-7; Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995), 2. For a useful theorization of the different modes of writing history, see Dominick LaCapra, Representing the Holocaust: History, Theory, Trauma (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), esp. 31-5, 38, 64, 174-5. My approach in this essay draws inspiration from attempts to incorporate the narratives of various participants at various moments in time into historical accounts. See Shahid Amin, Event, Metaphor, Memory: Chauri Chaura, 1922-1992 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), and David William Cohen, The Combing of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).
26. The classic work on elite and nationalist uses of history is The Invention of Traditions, ed. T. O. Ranger and E. J. Hobsbawm (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); for critiques of this approach see Joanne Rappaport, The Politics of Memory: Native Historical Interpretation in the Colombian Andes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1990), 187-8, and Prasenjit Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1995). For postcolonial perspectives on elite and nationalist uses of history, see Duara, Rescuing History; Gyan Prakash, "Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Indian Historiography is Good to Think" in Colonialism and Culture, ed. Nicholas B. Dirks (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992). 253-388; Dipesh Chakrabarty, "Post-coloniality and the Artifice of History: Who Speaks for the 'Indian' Pasts?" Representations, no. 37 (Winter 1992): 1-26; Partha Chatterjee. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), esp. chapters 4 and 5. Duara conceptualizes history as a process of transmittal and reconstruction. For similar arguments that also raise the possibilities of narratives closer to subaltern perspectives, see Florencia Mallon, "The Promise and Dilemma of Subaltern Studies: Perspectives from Latin American History," American Historical Review 99, no. 5 (December 1994): 1505-7; Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995), 2. For a useful theorization of the different modes of writing history, see Dominick LaCapra, Representing the Holocaust: History, Theory, Trauma (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), esp. 31-5, 38, 64, 174-5. My approach in this essay draws inspiration from attempts to incorporate the narratives of various participants at various moments in time into historical accounts. See Shahid Amin, Event, Metaphor, Memory: Chauri Chaura, 1922-1992 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), and David William Cohen, The Combing of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).
27. The classic work on elite and nationalist uses of history is The Invention of Traditions, ed. T. O. Ranger and E. J. Hobsbawm (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); for critiques of this approach see Joanne Rappaport, The Politics of Memory: Native Historical Interpretation in the Colombian Andes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1990), 187-8, and Prasenjit Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1995). For postcolonial perspectives on elite and nationalist uses of history, see Duara, Rescuing History; Gyan Prakash, "Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Indian Historiography is Good to Think" in Colonialism and Culture, ed. Nicholas B. Dirks (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992). 253-388; Dipesh Chakrabarty, "Post-coloniality and the Artifice of History: Who Speaks for the 'Indian' Pasts?" Representations, no. 37 (Winter 1992): 1-26; Partha Chatterjee. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), esp. chapters 4 and 5. Duara conceptualizes history as a process of transmittal and reconstruction. For similar arguments that also raise the possibilities of narratives closer to subaltern perspectives, see Florencia Mallon, "The Promise and Dilemma of Subaltern Studies: Perspectives from Latin American History," American Historical Review 99, no. 5 (December 1994): 1505-7; Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995), 2. For a useful theorization of the different modes of writing history, see Dominick LaCapra, Representing the Holocaust: History, Theory, Trauma (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), esp. 31-5, 38, 64, 174-5. My approach in this essay draws inspiration from attempts to incorporate the narratives of various participants at various moments in time into historical accounts. See Shahid Amin, Event, Metaphor, Memory: Chauri Chaura, 1922-1992 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), and David William Cohen, The Combing of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).
28. The classic work on elite and nationalist uses of history is The Invention of Traditions, ed. T. O. Ranger and E. J. Hobsbawm (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); for critiques of this approach see Joanne Rappaport, The Politics of Memory: Native Historical Interpretation in the Colombian Andes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1990), 187-8, and Prasenjit Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1995). For postcolonial perspectives on elite and nationalist uses of history, see Duara, Rescuing History; Gyan Prakash, "Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Indian Historiography is Good to Think" in Colonialism and Culture, ed. Nicholas B. Dirks (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992). 253-388; Dipesh Chakrabarty, "Post-coloniality and the Artifice of History: Who Speaks for the 'Indian' Pasts?" Representations, no. 37 (Winter 1992): 1-26; Partha Chatterjee. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), esp. chapters 4 and 5. Duara conceptualizes history as a process of transmittal and reconstruction. For similar arguments that also raise the possibilities of narratives closer to subaltern perspectives, see Florencia Mallon, "The Promise and Dilemma of Subaltern Studies: Perspectives from Latin American History," American Historical Review 99, no. 5 (December 1994): 1505-7; Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995), 2. For a useful theorization of the different modes of writing history, see Dominick LaCapra, Representing the Holocaust: History, Theory, Trauma (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), esp. 31-5, 38, 64, 174-5. My approach in this essay draws inspiration from attempts to incorporate the narratives of various participants at various moments in time into historical accounts. See Shahid Amin, Event, Metaphor, Memory: Chauri Chaura, 1922-1992 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), and David William Cohen, The Combing of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).
29. The classic work on elite and nationalist uses of history is The Invention of Traditions, ed. T. O. Ranger and E. J. Hobsbawm (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); for critiques of this approach see Joanne Rappaport, The Politics of Memory: Native Historical Interpretation in the Colombian Andes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1990), 187-8, and Prasenjit Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1995). For postcolonial perspectives on elite and nationalist uses of history, see Duara, Rescuing History; Gyan Prakash, "Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Indian Historiography is Good to Think" in Colonialism and Culture, ed. Nicholas B. Dirks (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992). 253-388; Dipesh Chakrabarty, "Post-coloniality and the Artifice of History: Who Speaks for the 'Indian' Pasts?" Representations, no. 37 (Winter 1992): 1-26; Partha Chatterjee. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), esp. chapters 4 and 5. Duara conceptualizes history as a process of transmittal and reconstruction. For similar arguments that also raise the possibilities of narratives closer to subaltern perspectives, see Florencia Mallon, "The Promise and Dilemma of Subaltern Studies: Perspectives from Latin American History," American Historical Review 99, no. 5 (December 1994): 1505-7; Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995), 2. For a useful theorization of the different modes of writing history, see Dominick LaCapra, Representing the Holocaust: History, Theory, Trauma (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), esp. 31-5, 38, 64, 174-5. My approach in this essay draws inspiration from attempts to incorporate the narratives of various participants at various moments in time into historical accounts. See Shahid Amin, Event, Metaphor, Memory: Chauri Chaura, 1922-1992 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), and David William Cohen, The Combing of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).
30. During 1991-1993, I conducted over thirty-five interviews with socialist activists. On the notion of contrapunctual comparison, which I apply not over space but over time, see Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism (New York: Knopf, 1993), cited in Fernando Coronil, "Beyond Occidentalism: Toward Nonimperial Geohistorical Categories," Cultural Anthropology 11, no. 1 (1996):73.
31. During 1991-1993, I conducted over thirty-five interviews with socialist activists. On the notion of contrapunctual comparison, which I apply not over space but over time, see Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism (New York: Knopf, 1993), cited in Fernando Coronil, "Beyond Occidentalism: Toward Nonimperial Geohistorical Categories," Cultural Anthropology 11, no. 1 (1996):73.
32. Interview with Mercedes Fuentealba, 28 April 1993. All interviews took place in Santiago. All translations are my own.
33. Ibid.
34. Ibid.
35. Ibid.
36. Ibid.
37. Interview with Elena Varela (pseudonym), 30 July 1993. The book she was referring to is Nicomedes Guzmán, La sangre y la esperanza (Buenos Aires: Ediciones Siglo Veinte, 1947). The book was written in 1940 and 1941.
38. Interview with Iris Figueroa, 5 April 1993.
39. On the need for continued popular pressure on political leaders and state officials see, for example, Mundo Nuevo, 22 February 1941, 6; La Voz del Gremio, April-May 1948, 3. The need to rout vices is discussed in El Santiago Watt 3, nos. 38-39 (March-April 1946): 14; interview with Clara Velarde. 25 March 1993; interview with Emperatriz Villarroel. 6 April 1993; and Vida Sana, a government propaganda magazine for workers that was published in Valparaíso, Temuco, and Iquique. See also Karin Alejandra Rosemblatt, Gendered Compromises: Political Cultures and the State in Chile, 1920-1950 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), chapters 5 and 6. Unless otherwise noted, all periodicals were published in Santiago.
40. On the need for continued popular pressure on political leaders and state officials see, for example, Mundo Nuevo, 22 February 1941, 6; La Voz del Gremio, April-May 1948, 3. The need to rout vices is discussed in El Santiago Watt 3, nos. 38-39 (March-April 1946): 14; interview with Clara Velarde. 25 March 1993; interview with Emperatriz Villarroel. 6 April 1993; and Vida Sana, a government propaganda magazine for workers that was published in Valparaíso, Temuco, and Iquique. See also Karin Alejandra Rosemblatt, Gendered Compromises: Political Cultures and the State in Chile, 1920-1950 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), chapters 5 and 6. Unless otherwise noted, all periodicals were published in Santiago.
41. On the need for continued popular pressure on political leaders and state officials see, for example, Mundo Nuevo, 22 February 1941, 6; La Voz del Gremio, April-May 1948, 3. The need to rout vices is discussed in El Santiago Watt 3, nos. 38-39 (March-April 1946): 14; interview with Clara Velarde. 25 March 1993; interview with Emperatriz Villarroel. 6 April 1993; and Vida Sana, a government propaganda magazine for workers that was published in Valparaíso, Temuco, and Iquique. See also Karin Alejandra Rosemblatt, Gendered Compromises: Political Cultures and the State in Chile, 1920-1950 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), chapters 5 and 6. Unless otherwise noted, all periodicals were published in Santiago.
42. On the need for continued popular pressure on political leaders and state officials see, for example, Mundo Nuevo, 22 February 1941, 6; La Voz del Gremio, April-May 1948, 3. The need to rout vices is discussed in El Santiago Watt 3, nos. 38-39 (March-April 1946): 14; interview with Clara Velarde. 25 March 1993; interview with Emperatriz Villarroel. 6 April 1993; and Vida Sana, a government propaganda magazine for workers that was published in Valparaíso, Temuco, and Iquique. See also Karin Alejandra Rosemblatt, Gendered Compromises: Political Cultures and the State in Chile, 1920-1950 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), chapters 5 and 6. Unless otherwise noted, all periodicals were published in Santiago.
43. On the need for continued popular pressure on political leaders and state officials see, for example, Mundo Nuevo, 22 February 1941, 6; La Voz del Gremio, April-May 1948, 3. The need to rout vices is discussed in El Santiago Watt 3, nos. 38-39 (March-April 1946): 14; interview with Clara Velarde. 25 March 1993; interview with Emperatriz Villarroel. 6 April 1993; and Vida Sana, a government propaganda magazine for workers that was published in Valparaíso, Temuco, and Iquique. See also Karin Alejandra Rosemblatt, Gendered Compromises: Political Cultures and the State in Chile, 1920-1950 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), chapters 5 and 6. Unless otherwise noted, all periodicals were published in Santiago.
44. On the need for continued popular pressure on political leaders and state officials see, for example, Mundo Nuevo, 22 February 1941, 6; La Voz del Gremio, April-May 1948, 3. The need to rout vices is discussed in El Santiago Watt 3, nos. 38-39 (March-April 1946): 14; interview with Clara Velarde. 25 March 1993; interview with Emperatriz Villarroel. 6 April 1993; and Vida Sana, a government propaganda magazine for workers that was published in Valparaíso, Temuco, and Iquique. See also Karin Alejandra Rosemblatt, Gendered Compromises: Political Cultures and the State in Chile, 1920-1950 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), chapters 5 and 6. Unless otherwise noted, all periodicals were published in Santiago.
45. On the need for continued popular pressure on political leaders and state officials see, for example, Mundo Nuevo, 22 February 1941, 6; La Voz del Gremio, April-May 1948, 3. The need to rout vices is discussed in El Santiago Watt 3, nos. 38-39 (March-April 1946): 14; interview with Clara Velarde. 25 March 1993; interview with Emperatriz Villarroel. 6 April 1993; and Vida Sana, a government propaganda magazine for workers that was published in Valparaíso, Temuco, and Iquique. See also Karin Alejandra Rosemblatt, Gendered Compromises: Political Cultures and the State in Chile, 1920-1950 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), chapters 5 and 6. Unless otherwise noted, all periodicals were published in Santiago.
46. La Crítica, 4 November 1939, 8.
47. On right-wing obstructionism see Drake, Socialism and Populism, 232-4; John Reese Stevenson, The Chilean Popular Front (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1942), 94-112 (the anticommunist bill is mentioned on p. 103). On the fears of popular-front congressmen in 1940 see Cámara de Diputados, 18 January 1940, 48a. sesión (sesiones extraordinarias, IV, 1939-1940, 2675-96). On the right's lack on unity and direction, see Tomás Moulian and Isabel Torres Dujisin, Discusiones entre honorables: Las candidaturas presidenciales de la derecha, 1938-1946 (Santiago: FLACSO, n.d.), 153-299 passim.
48. On right-wing obstructionism see Drake, Socialism and Populism, 232-4; John Reese Stevenson, The Chilean Popular Front (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1942), 94-112 (the anticommunist bill is mentioned on p. 103). On the fears of popular-front congressmen in 1940 see Cámara de Diputados, 18 January 1940, 48a. sesión (sesiones extraordinarias, IV, 1939-1940, 2675-96). On the right's lack on unity and direction, see Tomás Moulian and Isabel Torres Dujisin, Discusiones entre honorables: Las candidaturas presidenciales de la derecha, 1938-1946 (Santiago: FLACSO, n.d.), 153-299 passim.
49. On right-wing obstructionism see Drake, Socialism and Populism, 232-4; John Reese Stevenson, The Chilean Popular Front (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1942), 94-112 (the anticommunist bill is mentioned on p. 103). On the fears of popular-front congressmen in 1940 see Cámara de Diputados, 18 January 1940, 48a. sesión (sesiones extraordinarias, IV, 1939-1940, 2675-96). On the right's lack on unity and direction, see Tomás Moulian and Isabel Torres Dujisin, Discusiones entre honorables: Las candidaturas presidenciales de la derecha, 1938-1946 (Santiago: FLACSO, n.d.), 153-299 passim.
50. On right-wing obstructionism see Drake, Socialism and Populism, 232-4; John Reese Stevenson, The Chilean Popular Front (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1942), 94-112 (the anticommunist bill is mentioned on p. 103). On the fears of popular-front congressmen in 1940 see Cámara de Diputados, 18 January 1940, 48a. sesión (sesiones extraordinarias, IV, 1939-1940, 2675-96). On the right's lack on unity and direction, see Tomás Moulian and Isabel Torres Dujisin, Discusiones entre honorables: Las candidaturas presidenciales de la derecha, 1938-1946 (Santiago: FLACSO, n.d.), 153-299 passim.
51. Germán Urzúa Valenzuela. Historia política de Chile y su evolución electoral (desde 1810 a 1992) (Santiago: Editorial Jurídica. 1992), 501-2, 531-2, 541-2.
52. Eduardo Cruz-Coke, Historia electoral de Chile, 1925-1973 (Santiago: Editorial Jurídica, 1984), 81; Drake, Socialism and Populism, 203-5, 257-65, 275-7, 293-6.
53. Eduardo Cruz-Coke, Historia electoral de Chile, 1925-1973 (Santiago: Editorial Jurídica, 1984), 81; Drake, Socialism and Populism, 203-5, 257-65, 275-7, 293-6.
54. Vanguardia Socialista (Yungay), 16 October 1938, 1; La Crítica, 8 November 1939, 3; Unidad Grdfica, 9 October 1938, 1. See also Partido Comunista, "¡Adelante por el cumplimiento del programa del Frente Popular!: Sesión plenaria del Comité Central del Partido Comunista de Chile" (Santiago, c. 1941), 43-4.
55. Vanguardia Socialista (Yungay), 16 October 1938, 1; La Crítica, 8 November 1939, 3; Unidad Grdfica, 9 October 1938, 1. See also Partido Comunista, "¡Adelante por el cumplimiento del programa del Frente Popular!: Sesión plenaria del Comité Central del Partido Comunista de Chile" (Santiago, c. 1941), 43-4.
56. Vanguardia Socialista (Yungay), 16 October 1938, 1; La Crítica, 8 November 1939, 3; Unidad Grdfica, 9 October 1938, 1. See also Partido Comunista, "¡Adelante por el cumplimiento del programa del Frente Popular!: Sesión plenaria del Comité Central del Partido Comunista de Chile" (Santiago, c. 1941), 43-4.
57. Vanguardia Socialista (Yungay), 16 October 1938, 1; La Crítica, 8 November 1939, 3; Unidad Grdfica, 9 October 1938, 1. See also Partido Comunista, "¡Adelante por el cumplimiento del programa del Frente Popular!: Sesión plenaria del Comité Central del Partido Comunista de Chile" (Santiago, c. 1941), 43-4.
58. Pedro Aguirre Cerda, 27 April 1938, 2.
59. Rosemblatt, Gendered Compromises, chapters 1, 4, 5.
60. Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 1, no. 4 (August 1942):8.
61. Vida Sana 1, no. 1 (May 1942):8; ibid. 2, no. 10 (February-March 1943):3; Vida Sana (Temuco) 1, no. 1 (November 1938):2, 7-8; ibid. 1, no. 3 (February 1939):2.
62. Vida Sana 1, no. 1 (May 1942):8; ibid. 2, no. 10 (February-March 1943):3; Vida Sana (Temuco) 1, no. 1 (November 1938):2, 7-8; ibid. 1, no. 3 (February 1939):2.
63. Vida Sana 1, no. 1 (May 1942):8; ibid. 2, no. 10 (February-March 1943):3; Vida Sana (Temuco) 1, no. 1 (November 1938):2, 7-8; ibid. 1, no. 3 (February 1939):2.
64. Vida Sana 1, no. 1 (May 1942):8; ibid. 2, no. 10 (February-March 1943):3; Vida Sana (Temuco) 1, no. 1 (November 1938):2, 7-8; ibid. 1, no. 3 (February 1939):2.
65. Vida Sana (Temuco) 1, no. 1 (November 1938):7; Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 1, no. 1 (May 1942):7; ibid. 1, no. 5 (September 1942):6; ibid. 2, no. 10 (February-March 1943):3; Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio 8, nos. 93-105 (April-May 1943): 144-8.
66. Vida Sana (Temuco) 1, no. 1 (November 1938):7; Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 1, no. 1 (May 1942):7; ibid. 1, no. 5 (September 1942):6; ibid. 2, no. 10 (February-March 1943):3; Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio 8, nos. 93-105 (April-May 1943): 144-8.
67. Vida Sana (Temuco) 1, no. 1 (November 1938):7; Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 1, no. 1 (May 1942):7; ibid. 1, no. 5 (September 1942):6; ibid. 2, no. 10 (February-March 1943):3; Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio 8, nos. 93-105 (April-May 1943): 144-8.
68. Vida Sana (Temuco) 1, no. 1 (November 1938):7; Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 1, no. 1 (May 1942):7; ibid. 1, no. 5 (September 1942):6; ibid. 2, no. 10 (February-March 1943):3; Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio 8, nos. 93-105 (April-May 1943): 144-8.
69. Vida Sana (Temuco) 1, no. 1 (November 1938):7; Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 1, no. 1 (May 1942):7; ibid. 1, no. 5 (September 1942):6; ibid. 2, no. 10 (February-March 1943):3; Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio 8, nos. 93-105 (April-May 1943): 144-8.
70. Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 2, no. 10 (February-March 1943): 1; ibid. 3, nos. 28-29 (September-October 1944):1; Vida Sana (Temuco), second period, 1, no. 6 (June 1941):3; Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio, no. 140 (May 1946):199. The quotation is from Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 2, no. 9 (January 1943):5.
71. Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 2, no. 10 (February-March 1943): 1; ibid. 3, nos. 28-29 (September-October 1944):1; Vida Sana (Temuco), second period, 1, no. 6 (June 1941):3; Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio, no. 140 (May 1946):199. The quotation is from Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 2, no. 9 (January 1943):5.
72. Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 2, no. 10 (February-March 1943): 1; ibid. 3, nos. 28-29 (September-October 1944):1; Vida Sana (Temuco), second period, 1, no. 6 (June 1941):3; Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio, no. 140 (May 1946):199. The quotation is from Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 2, no. 9 (January 1943):5.
73. Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 2, no. 10 (February-March 1943): 1; ibid. 3, nos. 28-29 (September-October 1944):1; Vida Sana (Temuco), second period, 1, no. 6 (June 1941):3; Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio, no. 140 (May 1946):199. The quotation is from Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 2, no. 9 (January 1943):5.
74. Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 2, no. 10 (February-March 1943): 1; ibid. 3, nos. 28-29 (September-October 1944):1; Vida Sana (Temuco), second period, 1, no. 6 (June 1941):3; Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio, no. 140 (May 1946):199. The quotation is from Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 2, no. 9 (January 1943):5.
75. Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 2, no. 9 (January 1943):6.
76. On Communist organizing among women, see interviews with Elena Pedraza, 23 April 1993 and 28 May 1993; Juventud en Marcha (Concepcion). 17April 1937, 1; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 21 August 1937, n.p.; Alianza Libertadora de la Juventud (Antofagasta), December 1936, 1,4; El Popular (Antofagasta), 6 October 1938, 2; El Mensaje Obrero (Rancagua), 1 May 1939, n.p., 4; El Organizador, 1 June 1940. On the AMS and Socialist Party organizing among women, see La Palabra Socialist (Valdivia), 29 July 1939, 2; El Socialista (Puerto Natales), 22 March 1935, n.p.; Consigna, 13 July 1935, 4; Julio Barrenechea (Temuco), 27 March 1937,4; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 15 June 1937, n.p.; Barricada, first fortnight November 1937, 4; ibid., second fortnight October 1938, 2. On MEMCH, see MEMCH Antología (n.p., c. 1983); Gaviola et al., Queremos votar; Corinne Antezana-Pernet, "Mobilizing Women in the Popular Front Era: Feminism, Class, and Politics in the Movimiento
77. On Communist organizing among women, see interviews with Elena Pedraza, 23 April 1993 and 28 May 1993; Juventud en Marcha (Concepcion). 17April 1937, 1; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 21 August 1937, n.p.; Alianza Libertadora de la Juventud (Antofagasta), December 1936, 1,4; El Popular (Antofagasta), 6 October 1938, 2; El Mensaje Obrero (Rancagua), 1 May 1939, n.p., 4; El Organizador, 1 June 1940. On the AMS and Socialist Party organizing among women, see La Palabra Socialist (Valdivia), 29 July 1939, 2; El Socialista (Puerto Natales), 22 March 1935, n.p.; Consigna, 13 July 1935, 4; Julio Barrenechea (Temuco), 27 March 1937,4; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 15 June 1937, n.p.; Barricada, first fortnight November 1937, 4; ibid., second fortnight October 1938, 2. On MEMCH, see MEMCH Antología (n.p., c. 1983); Gaviola et al., Queremos votar; Corinne Antezana-Pernet, "Mobilizing Women in the Popular Front Era: Feminism, Class, and Politics in the Movimiento Pro-Emancipación de la Mujer Chilena (MEMCH), 1935-1950" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Irvine, 1996).
78. On Communist organizing among women, see interviews with Elena Pedraza, 23 April 1993 and 28 May 1993; Juventud en Marcha (Concepcion). 17April 1937, 1; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 21 August 1937, n.p.; Alianza Libertadora de la Juventud (Antofagasta), December 1936, 1,4; El Popular (Antofagasta), 6 October 1938, 2; El Mensaje Obrero (Rancagua), 1 May 1939, n.p., 4; El Organizador, 1 June 1940. On the AMS and Socialist Party organizing among women, see La Palabra Socialist (Valdivia), 29 July 1939, 2; El Socialista (Puerto Natales), 22 March 1935, n.p.; Consigna, 13 July 1935, 4; Julio Barrenechea (Temuco), 27 March 1937,4; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 15 June 1937, n.p.; Barricada, first fortnight November 1937, 4; ibid., second fortnight October 1938, 2. On MEMCH, see MEMCH Antología (n.p., c. 1983); Gaviola et al., Queremos votar; Corinne Antezana-Pernet, "Mobilizing Women in the Popular Front Era: Feminism, Class, and Politics in the Movimiento Pro-Emancipación de la Mujer Chilena (MEMCH), 1935-1950" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Irvine, 1996).
79. On Communist organizing among women, see interviews with Elena Pedraza, 23 April 1993 and 28 May 1993; Juventud en Marcha (Concepcion). 17April 1937, 1; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 21 August 1937, n.p.; Alianza Libertadora de la Juventud (Antofagasta), December 1936, 1,4; El Popular (Antofagasta), 6 October 1938, 2; El Mensaje Obrero (Rancagua), 1 May 1939, n.p., 4; El Organizador, 1 June 1940. On the AMS and Socialist Party organizing among women, see La Palabra Socialist (Valdivia), 29 July 1939, 2; El Socialista (Puerto Natales), 22 March 1935, n.p.; Consigna, 13 July 1935, 4; Julio Barrenechea (Temuco), 27 March 1937,4; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 15 June 1937, n.p.; Barricada, first fortnight November 1937, 4; ibid., second fortnight October 1938, 2. On MEMCH, see MEMCH Antología (n.p., c. 1983); Gaviola et al., Queremos votar; Corinne Antezana-Pernet, "Mobilizing Women in the Popular Front Era: Feminism, Class, and Politics in the Movimiento Pro-Emancipación de la Mujer Chilena (MEMCH), 1935-1950" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Irvine, 1996).
80. On Communist organizing among women, see interviews with Elena Pedraza, 23 April 1993 and 28 May 1993; Juventud en Marcha (Concepcion). 17April 1937, 1; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 21 August 1937, n.p.; Alianza Libertadora de la Juventud (Antofagasta), December 1936, 1,4; El Popular (Antofagasta), 6 October 1938, 2; El Mensaje Obrero (Rancagua), 1 May 1939, n.p., 4; El Organizador, 1 June 1940. On the AMS and Socialist Party organizing among women, see La Palabra Socialist (Valdivia), 29 July 1939, 2; El Socialista (Puerto Natales), 22 March 1935, n.p.; Consigna, 13 July 1935, 4; Julio Barrenechea (Temuco), 27 March 1937,4; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 15 June 1937, n.p.; Barricada, first fortnight November 1937, 4; ibid., second fortnight October 1938, 2. On MEMCH, see MEMCH Antología (n.p., c. 1983); Gaviola et al., Queremos votar; Corinne Antezana-Pernet, "Mobilizing Women in the Popular Front Era: Feminism, Class, and Politics in the Movimiento Pro-Emancipación de la Mujer Chilena (MEMCH), 1935-1950" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Irvine, 1996).
81. On Communist organizing among women, see interviews with Elena Pedraza, 23 April 1993 and 28 May 1993; Juventud en Marcha (Concepcion). 17April 1937, 1; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 21 August 1937, n.p.; Alianza Libertadora de la Juventud (Antofagasta), December 1936, 1,4; El Popular (Antofagasta), 6 October 1938, 2; El Mensaje Obrero (Rancagua), 1 May 1939, n.p., 4; El Organizador, 1 June 1940. On the AMS and Socialist Party organizing among women, see La Palabra Socialist (Valdivia), 29 July 1939, 2; El Socialista (Puerto Natales), 22 March 1935, n.p.; Consigna, 13 July 1935, 4; Julio Barrenechea (Temuco), 27 March 1937,4; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 15 June 1937, n.p.; Barricada, first fortnight November 1937, 4; ibid., second fortnight October 1938, 2. On MEMCH, see MEMCH Antología (n.p., c. 1983); Gaviola et al., Queremos votar; Corinne Antezana-Pernet, "Mobilizing Women in the Popular Front Era: Feminism, Class, and Politics in the Movimiento Pro-Emancipación de la Mujer Chilena (MEMCH), 1935-1950" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Irvine, 1996).
82. On Communist organizing among women, see interviews with Elena Pedraza, 23 April 1993 and 28 May 1993; Juventud en Marcha (Concepcion). 17April 1937, 1; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 21 August 1937, n.p.; Alianza Libertadora de la Juventud (Antofagasta), December 1936, 1,4; El Popular (Antofagasta), 6 October 1938, 2; El Mensaje Obrero (Rancagua), 1 May 1939, n.p., 4; El Organizador, 1 June 1940. On the AMS and Socialist Party organizing among women, see La Palabra Socialist (Valdivia), 29 July 1939, 2; El Socialista (Puerto Natales), 22 March 1935, n.p.; Consigna, 13 July 1935, 4; Julio Barrenechea (Temuco), 27 March 1937,4; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 15 June 1937, n.p.; Barricada, first fortnight November 1937, 4; ibid., second fortnight October 1938, 2. On MEMCH, see MEMCH Antología (n.p., c. 1983); Gaviola et al., Queremos votar; Corinne Antezana-Pernet, "Mobilizing Women in the Popular Front Era: Feminism, Class, and Politics in the Movimiento Pro-Emancipación de la Mujer Chilena (MEMCH), 1935-1950" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Irvine, 1996).
83. On Communist organizing among women, see interviews with Elena Pedraza, 23 April 1993 and 28 May 1993; Juventud en Marcha (Concepcion). 17April 1937, 1; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 21 August 1937, n.p.; Alianza Libertadora de la Juventud (Antofagasta), December 1936, 1,4; El Popular (Antofagasta), 6 October 1938, 2; El Mensaje Obrero (Rancagua), 1 May 1939, n.p., 4; El Organizador, 1 June 1940. On the AMS and Socialist Party organizing among women, see La Palabra Socialist (Valdivia), 29 July 1939, 2; El Socialista (Puerto Natales), 22 March 1935, n.p.; Consigna, 13 July 1935, 4; Julio Barrenechea (Temuco), 27 March 1937,4; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 15 June 1937, n.p.; Barricada, first fortnight November 1937, 4; ibid., second fortnight October 1938, 2. On MEMCH, see MEMCH Antología (n.p., c. 1983); Gaviola et al., Queremos votar; Corinne Antezana-Pernet, "Mobilizing Women in the Popular Front Era: Feminism, Class, and Politics in the Movimiento Pro-Emancipación de la Mujer Chilena (MEMCH), 1935-1950" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Irvine, 1996).
84. On Communist organizing among women, see interviews with Elena Pedraza, 23 April 1993 and 28 May 1993; Juventud en Marcha (Concepcion). 17April 1937, 1; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 21 August 1937, n.p.; Alianza Libertadora de la Juventud (Antofagasta), December 1936, 1,4; El Popular (Antofagasta), 6 October 1938, 2; El Mensaje Obrero (Rancagua), 1 May 1939, n.p., 4; El Organizador, 1 June 1940. On the AMS and Socialist Party organizing among women, see La Palabra Socialist (Valdivia), 29 July 1939, 2; El Socialista (Puerto Natales), 22 March 1935, n.p.; Consigna, 13 July 1935, 4; Julio Barrenechea (Temuco), 27 March 1937,4; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 15 June 1937, n.p.; Barricada, first fortnight November 1937, 4; ibid., second fortnight October 1938, 2. On MEMCH, see MEMCH Antología (n.p., c. 1983); Gaviola et al., Queremos votar; Corinne Antezana-Pernet, "Mobilizing Women in the Popular Front Era: Feminism, Class, and Politics in the Movimiento Pro-Emancipación de la Mujer Chilena (MEMCH), 1935-1950" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Irvine, 1996).
85. On Communist organizing among women, see interviews with Elena Pedraza, 23 April 1993 and 28 May 1993; Juventud en Marcha (Concepcion). 17April 1937, 1; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 21 August 1937, n.p.; Alianza Libertadora de la Juventud (Antofagasta), December 1936, 1,4; El Popular (Antofagasta), 6 October 1938, 2; El Mensaje Obrero (Rancagua), 1 May 1939, n.p., 4; El Organizador, 1 June 1940. On the AMS and Socialist Party organizing among women, see La Palabra Socialist (Valdivia), 29 July 1939, 2; El Socialista (Puerto Natales), 22 March 1935, n.p.; Consigna, 13 July 1935, 4; Julio Barrenechea (Temuco), 27 March 1937,4; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 15 June 1937, n.p.; Barricada, first fortnight November 1937, 4; ibid., second fortnight October 1938, 2. On MEMCH, see MEMCH Antología (n.p., c. 1983); Gaviola et al., Queremos votar; Corinne Antezana-Pernet, "Mobilizing Women in the Popular Front Era: Feminism, Class, and Politics in the Movimiento Pro-Emancipación de la Mujer Chilena (MEMCH), 1935-1950" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Irvine, 1996).
86. On Communist organizing among women, see interviews with Elena Pedraza, 23 April 1993 and 28 May 1993; Juventud en Marcha (Concepcion). 17April 1937, 1; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 21 August 1937, n.p.; Alianza Libertadora de la Juventud (Antofagasta), December 1936, 1,4; El Popular (Antofagasta), 6 October 1938, 2; El Mensaje Obrero (Rancagua), 1 May 1939, n.p., 4; El Organizador, 1 June 1940. On the AMS and Socialist Party organizing among women, see La Palabra Socialist (Valdivia), 29 July 1939, 2; El Socialista (Puerto Natales), 22 March 1935, n.p.; Consigna, 13 July 1935, 4; Julio Barrenechea (Temuco), 27 March 1937,4; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 15 June 1937, n.p.; Barricada, first fortnight November 1937, 4; ibid., second fortnight October 1938, 2. On MEMCH, see MEMCH Antología (n.p., c. 1983); Gaviola et al., Queremos votar; Corinne Antezana-Pernet, "Mobilizing Women in the Popular Front Era: Feminism, Class, and Politics in the Movimiento Pro-Emancipación de la Mujer Chilena (MEMCH), 1935-1950" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Irvine, 1996).
87. On Communist organizing among women, see interviews with Elena Pedraza, 23 April 1993 and 28 May 1993; Juventud en Marcha (Concepcion). 17April 1937, 1; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 21 August 1937, n.p.; Alianza Libertadora de la Juventud (Antofagasta), December 1936, 1,4; El Popular (Antofagasta), 6 October 1938, 2; El Mensaje Obrero (Rancagua), 1 May 1939, n.p., 4; El Organizador, 1 June 1940. On the AMS and Socialist Party organizing among women, see La Palabra Socialist (Valdivia), 29 July 1939, 2; El Socialista (Puerto Natales), 22 March 1935, n.p.; Consigna, 13 July 1935, 4; Julio Barrenechea (Temuco), 27 March 1937,4; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 15 June 1937, n.p.; Barricada, first fortnight November 1937, 4; ibid., second fortnight October 1938, 2. On MEMCH, see MEMCH Antología (n.p., c. 1983); Gaviola et al., Queremos votar; Corinne Antezana-Pernet, "Mobilizing Women in the Popular Front Era: Feminism, Class, and Politics in the Movimiento Pro-Emancipación de la Mujer Chilena (MEMCH), 1935-1950" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Irvine, 1996).
88. On Communist organizing among women, see interviews with Elena Pedraza, 23 April 1993 and 28 May 1993; Juventud en Marcha (Concepcion). 17April 1937, 1; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 21 August 1937, n.p.; Alianza Libertadora de la Juventud (Antofagasta), December 1936, 1,4; El Popular (Antofagasta), 6 October 1938, 2; El Mensaje Obrero (Rancagua), 1 May 1939, n.p., 4; El Organizador, 1 June 1940. On the AMS and Socialist Party organizing among women, see La Palabra Socialist (Valdivia), 29 July 1939, 2; El Socialista (Puerto Natales), 22 March 1935, n.p.; Consigna, 13 July 1935, 4; Julio Barrenechea (Temuco), 27 March 1937,4; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 15 June 1937, n.p.; Barricada, first fortnight November 1937, 4; ibid., second fortnight October 1938, 2. On MEMCH, see MEMCH Antología (n.p., c. 1983); Gaviola et al., Queremos votar; Corinne Antezana-Pernet, "Mobilizing Women in the Popular Front Era: Feminism, Class, and Politics in the Movimiento Pro-Emancipación de la Mujer Chilena (MEMCH), 1935-1950" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Irvine, 1996).
89. On Communist organizing among women, see interviews with Elena Pedraza, 23 April 1993 and 28 May 1993; Juventud en Marcha (Concepcion). 17April 1937, 1; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 21 August 1937, n.p.; Alianza Libertadora de la Juventud (Antofagasta), December 1936, 1,4; El Popular (Antofagasta), 6 October 1938, 2; El Mensaje Obrero (Rancagua), 1 May 1939, n.p., 4; El Organizador, 1 June 1940. On the AMS and Socialist Party organizing among women, see La Palabra Socialist (Valdivia), 29 July 1939, 2; El Socialista (Puerto Natales), 22 March 1935, n.p.; Consigna, 13 July 1935, 4; Julio Barrenechea (Temuco), 27 March 1937,4; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 15 June 1937, n.p.; Barricada, first fortnight November 1937, 4; ibid., second fortnight October 1938, 2. On MEMCH, see MEMCH Antología (n.p., c. 1983); Gaviola et al., Queremos votar; Corinne Antezana-Pernet, "Mobilizing Women in the Popular Front Era: Feminism, Class, and Politics in the Movimiento Pro-Emancipación de la Mujer Chilena (MEMCH), 1935-1950" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Irvine, 1996).
90. On Communist organizing among women, see interviews with Elena Pedraza, 23 April 1993 and 28 May 1993; Juventud en Marcha (Concepcion). 17April 1937, 1; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 21 August 1937, n.p.; Alianza Libertadora de la Juventud (Antofagasta), December 1936, 1,4; El Popular (Antofagasta), 6 October 1938, 2; El Mensaje Obrero (Rancagua), 1 May 1939, n.p., 4; El Organizador, 1 June 1940. On the AMS and Socialist Party organizing among women, see La Palabra Socialist (Valdivia), 29 July 1939, 2; El Socialista (Puerto Natales), 22 March 1935, n.p.; Consigna, 13 July 1935, 4; Julio Barrenechea (Temuco), 27 March 1937,4; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 15 June 1937, n.p.; Barricada, first fortnight November 1937, 4; ibid., second fortnight October 1938, 2. On MEMCH, see MEMCH Antología (n.p., c. 1983); Gaviola et al., Queremos votar; Corinne Antezana-Pernet, "Mobilizing Women in the Popular Front Era: Feminism, Class, and Politics in the Movimiento Pro-Emancipación de la Mujer Chilena (MEMCH), 1935-1950" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Irvine, 1996).
91. On Communist organizing among women, see interviews with Elena Pedraza, 23 April 1993 and 28 May 1993; Juventud en Marcha (Concepcion). 17April 1937, 1; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 21 August 1937, n.p.; Alianza Libertadora de la Juventud (Antofagasta), December 1936, 1,4; El Popular (Antofagasta), 6 October 1938, 2; El Mensaje Obrero (Rancagua), 1 May 1939, n.p., 4; El Organizador, 1 June 1940. On the AMS and Socialist Party organizing among women, see La Palabra Socialist (Valdivia), 29 July 1939, 2; El Socialista (Puerto Natales), 22 March 1935, n.p.; Consigna, 13 July 1935, 4; Julio Barrenechea (Temuco), 27 March 1937,4; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 15 June 1937, n.p.; Barricada, first fortnight November 1937, 4; ibid., second fortnight October 1938, 2. On MEMCH, see MEMCH Antología (n.p., c. 1983); Gaviola et al., Queremos votar; Corinne Antezana-Pernet, "Mobilizing Women in the Popular Front Era: Feminism, Class, and Politics in the Movimiento Pro-Emancipación de la Mujer Chilena (MEMCH), 1935-1950" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Irvine, 1996).
92. On Communist organizing among women, see interviews with Elena Pedraza, 23 April 1993 and 28 May 1993; Juventud en Marcha (Concepcion). 17April 1937, 1; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 21 August 1937, n.p.; Alianza Libertadora de la Juventud (Antofagasta), December 1936, 1,4; El Popular (Antofagasta), 6 October 1938, 2; El Mensaje Obrero (Rancagua), 1 May 1939, n.p., 4; El Organizador, 1 June 1940. On the AMS and Socialist Party organizing among women, see La Palabra Socialist (Valdivia), 29 July 1939, 2; El Socialista (Puerto Natales), 22 March 1935, n.p.; Consigna, 13 July 1935, 4; Julio Barrenechea (Temuco), 27 March 1937,4; Frente Popular (Valparaíso), 15 June 1937, n.p.; Barricada, first fortnight November 1937, 4; ibid., second fortnight October 1938, 2. On MEMCH, see MEMCH Antología (n.p., c. 1983); Gaviola et al., Queremos votar; Corinne Antezana-Pernet, "Mobilizing Women in the Popular Front Era: Feminism, Class, and Politics in the Movimiento Pro-Emancipación de la Mujer Chilena (MEMCH), 1935-1950" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Irvine, 1996).
93. On this process, see Rosemblatt, Gendered Compromises, chapter 6. Interview with Graciela Trujillo, 20 April 1993.
94. Rosemblatt, Gendered Compromises, chapter 6; interview with Blanca Flores and Edmundo Sepúlveda, 4 June 1993. On socialist morality prior to the popular-front era, see Tomás Moulian and Isabel Torres Dujisin, "Concepción de la política e ideal moral en la prensa obrera: 1919-1922" (FLACSO, Documento de Trabajo no. 336, Santiago, 1987); Hutchison, Labors Appropriate. Cf. Klubock, Contested Communities, chapter 2.
95. Rosemblatt, Gendered Compromises, chapter 6; interview with Blanca Flores and Edmundo Sepúlveda, 4 June 1993. On socialist morality prior to the popular-front era, see Tomás Moulian and Isabel Torres Dujisin, "Concepción de la política e ideal moral en la prensa obrera: 1919-1922" (FLACSO, Documento de Trabajo no. 336, Santiago, 1987); Hutchison, Labors Appropriate. Cf. Klubock, Contested Communities, chapter 2.
96. Rosemblatt, Gendered Compromises, chapter 6; interview with Blanca Flores and Edmundo Sepúlveda, 4 June 1993. On socialist morality prior to the popular-front era, see Tomás Moulian and Isabel Torres Dujisin, "Concepción de la política e ideal moral en la prensa obrera: 1919-1922" (FLACSO, Documento de Trabajo no. 336, Santiago, 1987); Hutchison, Labors Appropriate. Cf. Klubock, Contested Communities, chapter 2.
97. Servicio Social 9, no. 4 (October-December 1935):306-7. Interview with Irma Moreno, 14 June 1993; interview with Tomy Romeo, 4 June 1993.
98. Servicio Social 9, no. 4 (October-December 1935):306-7. Interview with Irma Moreno, 14 June 1993; interview with Tomy Romeo, 4 June 1993.
99. Servicio Social 9, no. 4 (October-December 1935):306-7. Interview with Irma Moreno, 14 June 1993; interview with Tomy Romeo, 4 June 1993.
100. Sewell (Santiago: Ediciones Cultura, 1946), 72-5. See also Obrero Textil, 4 August 1937, 1-4; Juventud en Marcha (Concepción), 5 June 1937, 3.
101. Sewell (Santiago: Ediciones Cultura, 1946), 72-5. See also Obrero Textil, 4 August 1937, 1-4; Juventud en Marcha (Concepción), 5 June 1937, 3.
102. Sewell (Santiago: Ediciones Cultura, 1946), 72-5. See also Obrero Textil, 4 August 1937, 1-4; Juventud en Marcha (Concepción), 5 June 1937, 3.
103. Diego Muñoz, Carbón (Santiago: Editora Austral, 1953). The quotation is on pp. 126-7.
104. Partido Comunista, "Estatutos del Partido Comunista de Chile aprobados por el XII Congreso Nacional celebrado en 1946" (Santiago, n.d.), 7. 2.6-7.
105. Luis Corvalán, Algo de mi vida (Barcelona: Editorial Crítica, 1978), 80.
106. Interview with Elena Pedraza, 23 April 1993;
107. iAdelante por el cumplimiento del programadel Frente Popular!", 51;
108. Principios, no. 33 (March 1944), 26-1.
109. Although the Socialist Party did not punish or correct deviant militants, its statutes demanded that before being admitted to the party potential militants prove that they led "an honorable public and private life." Partido Socialista, "Declaración de principios, estatutos, y reglamento orgánico del Partido Socialista de Chile" (Santiago, 1947), 19-20.
110. La Voz del Campo (Talca), 19 June 1937, 3. El Fideero, January 1944, 3. Partido Comunista, "XI Congreso del Partido Comunista de Chile" (Santiago, c. 1940), 16.
111. La Voz del Campo (Talca), 19 June 1937, 3. El Fideero, January 1944, 3. Partido Comunista, "XI Congreso del Partido Comunista de Chile" (Santiago, c. 1940), 16.
112. La Voz del Campo (Talca), 19 June 1937, 3. El Fideero, January 1944, 3. Partido Comunista, "XI Congreso del Partido Comunista de Chile" (Santiago, c. 1940), 16.
113. Partido Socialista. "Reglamento nacional de defensa" (Santiago, 1940), 33. Volodia Teitelboim, Hijo del salitre (Santiago: Editora Austral, n.d.), 145; Ricardo Boizard, Cuatro retratos (Santiago, n.d.), 98, 110-1; interview with Blanca Flores and Edmundo Sepúlveda, 4 June 1993.
114. Partido Socialista. "Reglamento nacional de defensa" (Santiago, 1940), 33. Volodia Teitelboim, Hijo del salitre (Santiago: Editora Austral, n.d.), 145; Ricardo Boizard, Cuatro retratos (Santiago, n.d.), 98, 110-1; interview with Blanca Flores and Edmundo Sepúlveda, 4 June 1993.
115. Partido Socialista. "Reglamento nacional de defensa" (Santiago, 1940), 33. Volodia Teitelboim, Hijo del salitre (Santiago: Editora Austral, n.d.), 145; Ricardo Boizard, Cuatro retratos (Santiago, n.d.), 98, 110-1; interview with Blanca Flores and Edmundo Sepúlveda, 4 June 1993.
116. Partido Socialista. "Reglamento nacional de defensa" (Santiago, 1940), 33. Volodia Teitelboim, Hijo del salitre (Santiago: Editora Austral, n.d.), 145; Ricardo Boizard, Cuatro retratos (Santiago, n.d.), 98, 110-1; interview with Blanca Flores and Edmundo Sepúlveda, 4 June 1993.
117. Interview with Iris Figueroa, 5 April 1993; interview with Graciela Trujillo, 20 April 1993; interview with Clara Velarde, 25 March 1993; interview with Carmen Lazo, 21 April 1993.
118. Interview with Iris Figueroa, 5 April 1993; interview with Graciela Trujillo, 20 April 1993; interview with Clara Velarde, 25 March 1993; interview with Carmen Lazo, 21 April 1993.
119. Interview with Iris Figueroa, 5 April 1993; interview with Graciela Trujillo, 20 April 1993; interview with Clara Velarde, 25 March 1993; interview with Carmen Lazo, 21 April 1993.
120. Interview with Iris Figueroa, 5 April 1993; interview with Graciela Trujillo, 20 April 1993; interview with Clara Velarde, 25 March 1993; interview with Carmen Lazo, 21 April 1993.
121. Interview with Carmen Lazo, 21 April 1993.
122. Ibid.; interview with Carmen Lazo, 15 July 1999.
123. Ibid.; interview with Carmen Lazo, 15 July 1999.
124. Tribuna, c. 1940, 3.
125. Interview with Violeta de la Cruz, 26 April 1993.
126. Ibid; interview with Mercedes Fuentealba, 28 April 1993.
127. Ibid; interview with Mercedes Fuentealba, 28 April 1993.
128. Many of these working-class beliefs coincide with the plebeian and peasant notions of "gender right" analyzed in Steve J. Stern, The Secret History of Gender: Women, Men, and Power in Late Colonial Mexico (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995).
129. Figures on illegitimate births come from Estadística Chilena 18, no. 12 (December 1945):542; ibid. 23, no. 12 (December 1950):601; Chile, Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario estadístico, año 1939: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, [1941?]), 18; Anuario estadístico, año 1940: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, 1942), 19; Anuario estadístico, uño 1945: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, 1948). 14; Anuario estadístico, año 1950: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, 1954). 15. Interview with Elena Pedraza, 23 April 1993; Corvalán, Algo de mi vida, 93-4.
130. Figures on illegitimate births come from Estadística Chilena 18, no. 12 (December 1945):542; ibid. 23, no. 12 (December 1950):601; Chile, Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario estadístico, año 1939: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, [1941?]), 18; Anuario estadístico, año 1940: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, 1942), 19; Anuario estadístico, uño 1945: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, 1948). 14; Anuario estadístico, año 1950: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, 1954). 15. Interview with Elena Pedraza, 23 April 1993; Corvalán, Algo de mi vida, 93-4.
131. Figures on illegitimate births come from Estadística Chilena 18, no. 12 (December 1945):542; ibid. 23, no. 12 (December 1950):601; Chile, Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario estadístico, año 1939: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, [1941?]), 18; Anuario estadístico, año 1940: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, 1942), 19; Anuario estadístico, uño 1945: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, 1948). 14; Anuario estadístico, año 1950: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, 1954). 15. Interview with Elena Pedraza, 23 April 1993; Corvalán, Algo de mi vida, 93-4.
132. Figures on illegitimate births come from Estadística Chilena 18, no. 12 (December 1945):542; ibid. 23, no. 12 (December 1950):601; Chile, Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario estadístico, año 1939: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, [1941?]), 18; Anuario estadístico, año 1940: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, 1942), 19; Anuario estadístico, uño 1945: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, 1948). 14; Anuario estadístico, año 1950: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, 1954). 15. Interview with Elena Pedraza, 23 April 1993; Corvalán, Algo de mi vida, 93-4.
133. Figures on illegitimate births come from Estadística Chilena 18, no. 12 (December 1945):542; ibid. 23, no. 12 (December 1950):601; Chile, Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario estadístico, año 1939: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, [1941?]), 18; Anuario estadístico, año 1940: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, 1942), 19; Anuario estadístico, uño 1945: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, 1948). 14; Anuario estadístico, año 1950: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, 1954). 15. Interview with Elena Pedraza, 23 April 1993; Corvalán, Algo de mi vida, 93-4.
134. Figures on illegitimate births come from Estadística Chilena 18, no. 12 (December 1945):542; ibid. 23, no. 12 (December 1950):601; Chile, Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario estadístico, año 1939: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, [1941?]), 18; Anuario estadístico, año 1940: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, 1942), 19; Anuario estadístico, uño 1945: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, 1948). 14; Anuario estadístico, año 1950: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, 1954). 15. Interview with Elena Pedraza, 23 April 1993; Corvalán, Algo de mi vida, 93-4.
135. Figures on illegitimate births come from Estadística Chilena 18, no. 12 (December 1945):542; ibid. 23, no. 12 (December 1950):601; Chile, Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario estadístico, año 1939: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, [1941?]), 18; Anuario estadístico, año 1940: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, 1942), 19; Anuario estadístico, uño 1945: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, 1948). 14; Anuario estadístico, año 1950: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, 1954). 15. Interview with Elena Pedraza, 23 April 1993; Corvalán, Algo de mi vida, 93-4.
136. Figures on illegitimate births come from Estadística Chilena 18, no. 12 (December 1945):542; ibid. 23, no. 12 (December 1950):601; Chile, Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario estadístico, año 1939: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, [1941?]), 18; Anuario estadístico, año 1940: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, 1942), 19; Anuario estadístico, uño 1945: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, 1948). 14; Anuario estadístico, año 1950: Demografía y asistencia social (Santiago, 1954). 15. Interview with Elena Pedraza, 23 April 1993; Corvalán, Algo de mi vida, 93-4.
137. Rosa Navarro Torres, "El aborto como problema social" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social. Ministerio de Educación Pública, Concepción, 1944), 39.
138. When Chileans referred to single mothers, they meant primarily young unmarried women - and not, for example, widows. This stands in shaip relief to the United States, where early state programs for single mothers were aimed principally at widows, whose sexual propriety could not be called into question. See Linda Gordon, Pitied but Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935 (New York: Free Press, 1994).
139. Gudelia Seguel Morales, "Madre soltera" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Ministerio de Educación Pública, Temuco, 1946), 11. Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 2, nos. 20-21 (January-February 1944):7.
140. Gudelia Seguel Morales, "Madre soltera" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Ministerio de Educación Pública, Temuco, 1946), 11. Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 2, nos. 20-21 (January-February 1944):7.
141. Glasfira Orrego Navarro, "Estudio de los problemas económico-sociales presentados por 50 madres obreras y 50 madres dueñas de casa. Centra San Eugenio CSO" (Memoria, [Escuela de Servicio Social de la Beneficencia?], Santiago. 1941), 19; Servicio Social 14, no. 1 (January-March 1940):32; Blanca Urbina Moya, "Proyecciones del servicio social en la industria 'Fábricas Textiles Caupolicán-Chiguayante' S.A." (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Concepción, 1948). 88-90; Aída Sánchez Garrido, "Labor de la asistente social trente al enfermo sifilítico y su familia" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social. Ministerio de Educación Pública, Concepción, 1945), 26. Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 1, no. 5 (September 1942):8.
142. Glasfira Orrego Navarro, "Estudio de los problemas económico-sociales presentados por 50 madres obreras y 50 madres dueñas de casa. Centra San Eugenio CSO" (Memoria, [Escuela de Servicio Social de la Beneficencia?], Santiago. 1941), 19; Servicio Social 14, no. 1 (January-March 1940):32; Blanca Urbina Moya, "Proyecciones del servicio social en la industria 'Fábricas Textiles Caupolicán-Chiguayante' S.A." (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Concepción, 1948). 88-90; Aída Sánchez Garrido, "Labor de la asistente social trente al enfermo sifilítico y su familia" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social. Ministerio de Educación Pública, Concepción, 1945), 26. Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 1, no. 5 (September 1942):8.
143. Glasfira Orrego Navarro, "Estudio de los problemas económico-sociales presentados por 50 madres obreras y 50 madres dueñas de casa. Centra San Eugenio CSO" (Memoria, [Escuela de Servicio Social de la Beneficencia?], Santiago. 1941), 19; Servicio Social 14, no. 1 (January-March 1940):32; Blanca Urbina Moya, "Proyecciones del servicio social en la industria 'Fábricas Textiles Caupolicán-Chiguayante' S.A." (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Concepción, 1948). 88-90; Aída Sánchez Garrido, "Labor de la asistente social trente al enfermo sifilítico y su familia" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social. Ministerio de Educación Pública, Concepción, 1945), 26. Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 1, no. 5 (September 1942):8.
144. Glasfira Orrego Navarro, "Estudio de los problemas económico-sociales presentados por 50 madres obreras y 50 madres dueñas de casa. Centra San Eugenio CSO" (Memoria, [Escuela de Servicio Social de la Beneficencia?], Santiago. 1941), 19; Servicio Social 14, no. 1 (January-March 1940):32; Blanca Urbina Moya, "Proyecciones del servicio social en la industria 'Fábricas Textiles Caupolicán-Chiguayante' S.A." (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Concepción, 1948). 88-90; Aída Sánchez Garrido, "Labor de la asistente social trente al enfermo sifilítico y su familia" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social. Ministerio de Educación Pública, Concepción, 1945), 26. Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 1, no. 5 (September 1942):8.
145. Glasfira Orrego Navarro, "Estudio de los problemas económico-sociales presentados por 50 madres obreras y 50 madres dueñas de casa. Centra San Eugenio CSO" (Memoria, [Escuela de Servicio Social de la Beneficencia?], Santiago. 1941), 19; Servicio Social 14, no. 1 (January-March 1940):32; Blanca Urbina Moya, "Proyecciones del servicio social en la industria 'Fábricas Textiles Caupolicán-Chiguayante' S.A." (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Concepción, 1948). 88-90; Aída Sánchez Garrido, "Labor de la asistente social trente al enfermo sifilítico y su familia" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social. Ministerio de Educación Pública, Concepción, 1945), 26. Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 1, no. 5 (September 1942):8.
146. Isabel Norambuena Lagarde, "El servicio social en la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Junta de Beneficencia, 1943), 19. Servicio Social 12, no. 4 (October 1938): 180-1.
147. Isabel Norambuena Lagarde, "El servicio social en la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Junta de Beneficencia, 1943), 19. Servicio Social 12, no. 4 (October 1938): 180-1.
148. Barricada, second fortnight October 1938, 6.
149. Pedro Aguirre Cerda, 27 April 1938, 2. Salvador Allende, La realidad médico-social chilena (síntesis) (Santiago, c. 1939), 3, 196, and passim.
150. Pedro Aguirre Cerda, 27 April 1938, 2. Salvador Allende, La realidad médico-social chilena (síntesis) (Santiago, c. 1939), 3, 196, and passim.
151. Allende, La realidad, 101-2 and passim. On prostitution and working-class politics in Chile, see also Elizabeth Hutchison, "'El fruto envenenado del drbol capitalista': Women Workers and the Prostitution of Labor in Urban Chile, 1896-1925," Journal of Women's History 9, no. 4 (1998): 131-51; Thomas Miller Klubock, "Hombres y mujeres en El Teniente: La construcción de género en la miner a chilena del cobre. 1904-1951," in Disciplina y desacato, 223-53.
152. Allende, La realidad, 101-2 and passim. On prostitution and working-class politics in Chile, see also Elizabeth Hutchison, "'El fruto envenenado del drbol capitalista': Women Workers and the Prostitution of Labor in Urban Chile, 1896-1925," Journal of Women's History 9, no. 4 (1998): 131-51; Thomas Miller Klubock, "Hombres y mujeres en El Teniente: La construcción de género en la miner a chilena del cobre. 1904-1951," in Disciplina y desacato, 223-53.
153. Allende, La realidad, 101-2 and passim. On prostitution and working-class politics in Chile, see also Elizabeth Hutchison, "'El fruto envenenado del drbol capitalista': Women Workers and the Prostitution of Labor in Urban Chile, 1896-1925," Journal of Women's History 9, no. 4 (1998): 131-51; Thomas Miller Klubock, "Hombres y mujeres en El Teniente: La construcción de género en la miner a chilena del cobre. 1904-1951," in Disciplina y desacato, 223-53.
154. Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 2, nos. 20-21 (January-February 1944):7.
155. Rumbo (June 1940):79: Aurora de Chile (5 June 1939):17; Graciela Alvarez Pacheco, "El servicio social ante el problema de la madre soltera" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Ministerio de Educación Pública, 1944), 122, 132-3; Servicio Social 12, no. 4 (October 1938):183, 192-3; Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 1, no. 4 (August 1942);5-6; ibid. 1, nos. 6-7 (October-November 1942);3; ibid. 2, no. 9 (January 1943):6; ibid. 2, nos. 20-21 (January-February 1944):5. Domestic servants' specific need for protection is highlighted in the social case presented in Servicio Social 11, no. 3 (November 1937); 169, and in Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, nos. 117-119 (July-September 1944):351. The idea of setting up maternal refuges predated the popular fronts, yet before this period the Beneficencia Casa de la Mujer was the only existing refuge. Calls for CSO-run maternal refuges .ire contained in Acción Social, no. 14 (March 1933):33-4; ibid., no. 32 (November 934):66-8; Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, no. 22 (March 1936):95.
156. Rumbo (June 1940):79: Aurora de Chile (5 June 1939):17; Graciela Alvarez Pacheco, "El servicio social ante el problema de la madre soltera" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Ministerio de Educación Pública, 1944), 122, 132-3; Servicio Social 12, no. 4 (October 1938):183, 192-3; Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 1, no. 4 (August 1942);5-6; ibid. 1, nos. 6-7 (October-November 1942);3; ibid. 2, no. 9 (January 1943):6; ibid. 2, nos. 20-21 (January-February 1944):5. Domestic servants' specific need for protection is highlighted in the social case presented in Servicio Social 11, no. 3 (November 1937); 169, and in Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, nos. 117-119 (July-September 1944):351. The idea of setting up maternal refuges predated the popular fronts, yet before this period the Beneficencia Casa de la Mujer was the only existing refuge. Calls for CSO-run maternal refuges .ire contained in Acción Social, no. 14 (March 1933):33-4; ibid., no. 32 (November 934):66-8; Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, no. 22 (March 1936):95.
157. Rumbo (June 1940):79: Aurora de Chile (5 June 1939):17; Graciela Alvarez Pacheco, "El servicio social ante el problema de la madre soltera" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Ministerio de Educación Pública, 1944), 122, 132-3; Servicio Social 12, no. 4 (October 1938):183, 192-3; Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 1, no. 4 (August 1942);5-6; ibid. 1, nos. 6-7 (October-November 1942);3; ibid. 2, no. 9 (January 1943):6; ibid. 2, nos. 20-21 (January-February 1944):5. Domestic servants' specific need for protection is highlighted in the social case presented in Servicio Social 11, no. 3 (November 1937); 169, and in Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, nos. 117-119 (July-September 1944):351. The idea of setting up maternal refuges predated the popular fronts, yet before this period the Beneficencia Casa de la Mujer was the only existing refuge. Calls for CSO-run maternal refuges .ire contained in Acción Social, no. 14 (March 1933):33-4; ibid., no. 32 (November 934):66-8; Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, no. 22 (March 1936):95.
158. Rumbo (June 1940):79: Aurora de Chile (5 June 1939):17; Graciela Alvarez Pacheco, "El servicio social ante el problema de la madre soltera" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Ministerio de Educación Pública, 1944), 122, 132-3; Servicio Social 12, no. 4 (October 1938):183, 192-3; Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 1, no. 4 (August 1942);5-6; ibid. 1, nos. 6-7 (October-November 1942);3; ibid. 2, no. 9 (January 1943):6; ibid. 2, nos. 20-21 (January-February 1944):5. Domestic servants' specific need for protection is highlighted in the social case presented in Servicio Social 11, no. 3 (November 1937); 169, and in Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, nos. 117-119 (July-September 1944):351. The idea of setting up maternal refuges predated the popular fronts, yet before this period the Beneficencia Casa de la Mujer was the only existing refuge. Calls for CSO-run maternal refuges .ire contained in Acción Social, no. 14 (March 1933):33-4; ibid., no. 32 (November 934):66-8; Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, no. 22 (March 1936):95.
159. Rumbo (June 1940):79: Aurora de Chile (5 June 1939):17; Graciela Alvarez Pacheco, "El servicio social ante el problema de la madre soltera" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Ministerio de Educación Pública, 1944), 122, 132-3; Servicio Social 12, no. 4 (October 1938):183, 192-3; Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 1, no. 4 (August 1942);5-6; ibid. 1, nos. 6-7 (October-November 1942);3; ibid. 2, no. 9 (January 1943):6; ibid. 2, nos. 20-21 (January-February 1944):5. Domestic servants' specific need for protection is highlighted in the social case presented in Servicio Social 11, no. 3 (November 1937); 169, and in Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, nos. 117-119 (July-September 1944):351. The idea of setting up maternal refuges predated the popular fronts, yet before this period the Beneficencia Casa de la Mujer was the only existing refuge. Calls for CSO-run maternal refuges .ire contained in Acción Social, no. 14 (March 1933):33-4; ibid., no. 32 (November 934):66-8; Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, no. 22 (March 1936):95.
160. Rumbo (June 1940):79: Aurora de Chile (5 June 1939):17; Graciela Alvarez Pacheco, "El servicio social ante el problema de la madre soltera" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Ministerio de Educación Pública, 1944), 122, 132-3; Servicio Social 12, no. 4 (October 1938):183, 192-3; Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 1, no. 4 (August 1942);5-6; ibid. 1, nos. 6-7 (October-November 1942);3; ibid. 2, no. 9 (January 1943):6; ibid. 2, nos. 20-21 (January-February 1944):5. Domestic servants' specific need for protection is highlighted in the social case presented in Servicio Social 11, no. 3 (November 1937); 169, and in Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, nos. 117-119 (July-September 1944):351. The idea of setting up maternal refuges predated the popular fronts, yet before this period the Beneficencia Casa de la Mujer was the only existing refuge. Calls for CSO-run maternal refuges .ire contained in Acción Social, no. 14 (March 1933):33-4; ibid., no. 32 (November 934):66-8; Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, no. 22 (March 1936):95.
161. Rumbo (June 1940):79: Aurora de Chile (5 June 1939):17; Graciela Alvarez Pacheco, "El servicio social ante el problema de la madre soltera" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Ministerio de Educación Pública, 1944), 122, 132-3; Servicio Social 12, no. 4 (October 1938):183, 192-3; Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 1, no. 4 (August 1942);5-6; ibid. 1, nos. 6-7 (October-November 1942);3; ibid. 2, no. 9 (January 1943):6; ibid. 2, nos. 20-21 (January-February 1944):5. Domestic servants' specific need for protection is highlighted in the social case presented in Servicio Social 11, no. 3 (November 1937); 169, and in Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, nos. 117-119 (July-September 1944):351. The idea of setting up maternal refuges predated the popular fronts, yet before this period the Beneficencia Casa de la Mujer was the only existing refuge. Calls for CSO-run maternal refuges .ire contained in Acción Social, no. 14 (March 1933):33-4; ibid., no. 32 (November 934):66-8; Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, no. 22 (March 1936):95.
162. Rumbo (June 1940):79: Aurora de Chile (5 June 1939):17; Graciela Alvarez Pacheco, "El servicio social ante el problema de la madre soltera" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Ministerio de Educación Pública, 1944), 122, 132-3; Servicio Social 12, no. 4 (October 1938):183, 192-3; Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 1, no. 4 (August 1942);5-6; ibid. 1, nos. 6-7 (October-November 1942);3; ibid. 2, no. 9 (January 1943):6; ibid. 2, nos. 20-21 (January-February 1944):5. Domestic servants' specific need for protection is highlighted in the social case presented in Servicio Social 11, no. 3 (November 1937); 169, and in Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, nos. 117-119 (July-September 1944):351. The idea of setting up maternal refuges predated the popular fronts, yet before this period the Beneficencia Casa de la Mujer was the only existing refuge. Calls for CSO-run maternal refuges .ire contained in Acción Social, no. 14 (March 1933):33-4; ibid., no. 32 (November 934):66-8; Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, no. 22 (March 1936):95.
163. Rumbo (June 1940):79: Aurora de Chile (5 June 1939):17; Graciela Alvarez Pacheco, "El servicio social ante el problema de la madre soltera" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Ministerio de Educación Pública, 1944), 122, 132-3; Servicio Social 12, no. 4 (October 1938):183, 192-3; Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 1, no. 4 (August 1942);5-6; ibid. 1, nos. 6-7 (October-November 1942);3; ibid. 2, no. 9 (January 1943):6; ibid. 2, nos. 20-21 (January-February 1944):5. Domestic servants' specific need for protection is highlighted in the social case presented in Servicio Social 11, no. 3 (November 1937); 169, and in Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, nos. 117-119 (July-September 1944):351. The idea of setting up maternal refuges predated the popular fronts, yet before this period the Beneficencia Casa de la Mujer was the only existing refuge. Calls for CSO-run maternal refuges .ire contained in Acción Social, no. 14 (March 1933):33-4; ibid., no. 32 (November 934):66-8; Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, no. 22 (March 1936):95.
164. Rumbo (June 1940):79: Aurora de Chile (5 June 1939):17; Graciela Alvarez Pacheco, "El servicio social ante el problema de la madre soltera" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Ministerio de Educación Pública, 1944), 122, 132-3; Servicio Social 12, no. 4 (October 1938):183, 192-3; Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 1, no. 4 (August 1942);5-6; ibid. 1, nos. 6-7 (October-November 1942);3; ibid. 2, no. 9 (January 1943):6; ibid. 2, nos. 20-21 (January-February 1944):5. Domestic servants' specific need for protection is highlighted in the social case presented in Servicio Social 11, no. 3 (November 1937); 169, and in Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, nos. 117-119 (July-September 1944):351. The idea of setting up maternal refuges predated the popular fronts, yet before this period the Beneficencia Casa de la Mujer was the only existing refuge. Calls for CSO-run maternal refuges .ire contained in Acción Social, no. 14 (March 1933):33-4; ibid., no. 32 (November 934):66-8; Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, no. 22 (March 1936):95.
165. Rumbo (June 1940):79: Aurora de Chile (5 June 1939):17; Graciela Alvarez Pacheco, "El servicio social ante el problema de la madre soltera" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Ministerio de Educación Pública, 1944), 122, 132-3; Servicio Social 12, no. 4 (October 1938):183, 192-3; Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 1, no. 4 (August 1942);5-6; ibid. 1, nos. 6-7 (October-November 1942);3; ibid. 2, no. 9 (January 1943):6; ibid. 2, nos. 20-21 (January-February 1944):5. Domestic servants' specific need for protection is highlighted in the social case presented in Servicio Social 11, no. 3 (November 1937); 169, and in Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, nos. 117-119 (July-September 1944):351. The idea of setting up maternal refuges predated the popular fronts, yet before this period the Beneficencia Casa de la Mujer was the only existing refuge. Calls for CSO-run maternal refuges .ire contained in Acción Social, no. 14 (March 1933):33-4; ibid., no. 32 (November 934):66-8; Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, no. 22 (March 1936):95.
166. Rumbo (June 1940):79: Aurora de Chile (5 June 1939):17; Graciela Alvarez Pacheco, "El servicio social ante el problema de la madre soltera" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Ministerio de Educación Pública, 1944), 122, 132-3; Servicio Social 12, no. 4 (October 1938):183, 192-3; Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 1, no. 4 (August 1942);5-6; ibid. 1, nos. 6-7 (October-November 1942);3; ibid. 2, no. 9 (January 1943):6; ibid. 2, nos. 20-21 (January-February 1944):5. Domestic servants' specific need for protection is highlighted in the social case presented in Servicio Social 11, no. 3 (November 1937); 169, and in Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, nos. 117-119 (July-September 1944):351. The idea of setting up maternal refuges predated the popular fronts, yet before this period the Beneficencia Casa de la Mujer was the only existing refuge. Calls for CSO-run maternal refuges .ire contained in Acción Social, no. 14 (March 1933):33-4; ibid., no. 32 (November 934):66-8; Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, no. 22 (March 1936):95.
167. Rumbo (June 1940):79: Aurora de Chile (5 June 1939):17; Graciela Alvarez Pacheco, "El servicio social ante el problema de la madre soltera" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Ministerio de Educación Pública, 1944), 122, 132-3; Servicio Social 12, no. 4 (October 1938):183, 192-3; Vida Sana (Valparaíso) 1, no. 4 (August 1942);5-6; ibid. 1, nos. 6-7 (October-November 1942);3; ibid. 2, no. 9 (January 1943):6; ibid. 2, nos. 20-21 (January-February 1944):5. Domestic servants' specific need for protection is highlighted in the social case presented in Servicio Social 11, no. 3 (November 1937); 169, and in Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, nos. 117-119 (July-September 1944):351. The idea of setting up maternal refuges predated the popular fronts, yet before this period the Beneficencia Casa de la Mujer was the only existing refuge. Calls for CSO-run maternal refuges .ire contained in Acción Social, no. 14 (March 1933):33-4; ibid., no. 32 (November 934):66-8; Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, no. 22 (March 1936):95.
168. For cases where social workers found employment for women as laundresses or domestic servants, see Delia Arriagada Campos, "Acción del servicio social en la Gota de Leche 'Almirante Villarroel' de Talcahuano" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Ministerio de Educación Pública, Concepción, 1947), 31 ; Servicio 'Social 12, no. 4 (October 1938): 184-5; Norambuena Lagarde, "El servicio social en la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio," 266; Rina Schiappacasse Ferretti, "El problema económico de la madre soltera estudiado en el Centro de Defensa del Niño" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Ministerio de Educación Pública, Concepción, 1946), 50.
169. For cases where social workers found employment for women as laundresses or domestic servants, see Delia Arriagada Campos, "Acción del servicio social en la Gota de Leche 'Almirante Villarroel' de Talcahuano" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Ministerio de Educación Pública, Concepción, 1947), 31 ; Servicio 'Social 12, no. 4 (October 1938): 184-5; Norambuena Lagarde, "El servicio social en la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio," 266; Rina Schiappacasse Ferretti, "El problema económico de la madre soltera estudiado en el Centro de Defensa del Niño" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Ministerio de Educación Pública, Concepción, 1946), 50.
170. For cases where social workers found employment for women as laundresses or domestic servants, see Delia Arriagada Campos, "Acción del servicio social en la Gota de Leche 'Almirante Villarroel' de Talcahuano" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Ministerio de Educación Pública, Concepción, 1947), 31 ; Servicio 'Social 12, no. 4 (October 1938): 184-5; Norambuena Lagarde, "El servicio social en la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio," 266; Rina Schiappacasse Ferretti, "El problema económico de la madre soltera estudiado en el Centro de Defensa del Niño" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Ministerio de Educación Pública, Concepción, 1946), 50.
171. For cases where social workers found employment for women as laundresses or domestic servants, see Delia Arriagada Campos, "Acción del servicio social en la Gota de Leche 'Almirante Villarroel' de Talcahuano" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Ministerio de Educación Pública, Concepción, 1947), 31 ; Servicio 'Social 12, no. 4 (October 1938): 184-5; Norambuena Lagarde, "El servicio social en la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio," 266; Rina Schiappacasse Ferretti, "El problema económico de la madre soltera estudiado en el Centro de Defensa del Niño" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Ministerio de Educación Pública, Concepción, 1946), 50.
172. Allende, La realidad. According to the Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, no. 142(July 1946):382, there were 20, 136 children of women workers receiving CSO care in 1944. Of these children 42.2 percent were illegitimate. On a national level, only 22.7 percent of children born were illegilimate. Of the women workers receiving pre-and post-natal care, 40.5 percent were single. For figures on illegitimacy among CSO beneficiaries, see also Caja de Seguro Obligatorio, "Campaña antivenérea y defensa de la madre y el niño en la provincia de Tarapacá: Segunda memoria anual, enero a diciembre 1938, presentada por el Dr. Nicolás Taborga" (Iquique, 1939) reproduced in Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio 6, nos. 60-61 (May-June 1939):86; Luz Cañas Valenzuela. "Estudio de los problemas que se presentan en la 'Sección Lactantes' del Consultorio No. 3 de la CSO" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Junta de Beneficencia, Santiago, 1941), 72; María Briceño Erazo, "Análisis sobre revisión de 200 fichas de ngreso al Servicio 'Madre y Niño' del Consultorio No. 2 de la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Junta de Beneficencia, Santiago, 1946), 11: Helga Peralta, "La atención materno-infantil en la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Universidad de Chile, Santiago. 1951), 32, 62.
173. Allende, La realidad. According to the Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, no. 142(July 1946):382, there were 20, 136 children of women workers receiving CSO care in 1944. Of these children 42.2 percent were illegitimate. On a national level, only 22.7 percent of children born were illegilimate. Of the women workers receiving pre-and post-natal care, 40.5 percent were single. For figures on illegitimacy
174. Allende, La realidad. According to the Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, no. 142(July 1946):382, there were 20, 136 children of women workers receiving CSO care in 1944. Of these children 42.2 percent were illegitimate. On a national level, only 22.7 percent of children born were illegilimate. Of the women workers receiving pre-and post-natal care, 40.5 percent were single. For figures on illegitimacy among CSO beneficiaries, see also Caja de Seguro Obligatorio, "Campaña antivenérea y defensa de la madre y el niño en la provincia de Tarapacá: Segunda memoria anual, enero a diciembre 1938, presentada por el Dr. Nicolás Taborga" (Iquique, 1939) reproduced in Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio 6, nos. 60-61 (May-June 1939):86; Luz Cañas Valenzuela. "Estudio de los problemas que se presentan en la 'Sección Lactantes' del Consultorio No. 3 de la CSO" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Junta de Beneficencia, Santiago, 1941), 72; María Briceño Erazo, "Análisis sobre revisión de 200 fichas de ngreso al Servicio 'Madre y Niño' del Consultorio No. 2 de la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Junta de Beneficencia, Santiago, 1946), 11: Helga Peralta, "La atención materno-infantil en la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Universidad de Chile, Santiago. 1951), 32, 62.
175. Allende, La realidad. According to the Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, no. 142(July 1946):382, there were 20, 136 children of women workers receiving CSO care in 1944. Of these children 42.2 percent were illegitimate. On a national level, only 22.7 percent of children born were illegilimate. Of the women workers receiving pre-and post-natal care, 40.5 percent were single. For figures on illegitimacy among CSO beneficiaries, see also Caja de Seguro Obligatorio, "Campaña antivenérea y defensa de la madre y el niño en la provincia de Tarapacá: Segunda memoria anual, enero a diciembre 1938, presentada por el Dr. Nicolás Taborga" (Iquique, 1939) reproduced in Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio 6, nos. 60-61 (May-June 1939):86; Luz Cañas Valenzuela. "Estudio de los problemas que se presentan en la 'Sección Lactantes' del Consultorio No. 3 de la CSO" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Junta de Beneficencia, Santiago, 1941), 72; María Briceño Erazo, "Análisis sobre revisión de 200 fichas de ngreso al Servicio 'Madre y Niño' del Consultorio No. 2 de la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Junta de Beneficencia, Santiago, 1946), 11: Helga Peralta, "La atención materno-infantil en la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Universidad de Chile, Santiago. 1951), 32, 62.
176. Allende, La realidad. According to the Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, no. 142(July 1946):382, there were 20, 136 children of women workers receiving CSO care in 1944. Of these children 42.2 percent were illegitimate. On a national level, only 22.7 percent of children born were illegilimate. Of the women workers receiving pre-and post-natal care, 40.5 percent were single. For figures on illegitimacy among CSO beneficiaries, see also Caja de Seguro Obligatorio, "Campaña antivenérea y defensa de la madre y el niño en la provincia de Tarapacá: Segunda memoria anual, enero a diciembre 1938, presentada por el Dr. Nicolás Taborga" (Iquique, 1939) reproduced in Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio 6, nos. 60-61 (May-June 1939):86; Luz Cañas Valenzuela. "Estudio de los problemas que se presentan en la 'Sección Lactantes' del Consultorio No. 3 de la CSO" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Junta de Beneficencia, Santiago, 1941), 72; María Briceño Erazo, "Análisis sobre revisión de 200 fichas de ngreso al Servicio 'Madre y Niño' del Consultorio No. 2 de la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Junta de Beneficencia, Santiago, 1946), 11: Helga Peralta, "La atención materno-infantil en la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Universidad de Chile, Santiago. 1951), 32, 62.
177. Allende, La realidad. According to the Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Segum Obligatorio, no. 142(July 1946):382, there were 20, 136 children of women workers receiving CSO care in 1944. Of these children 42.2 percent were illegitimate. On a national level, only 22.7 percent of children born were illegilimate. Of the women workers receiving pre-and post-natal care, 40.5 percent were single. For figures on illegitimacy among CSO beneficiaries, see also Caja de Seguro Obligatorio, "Campaña antivenérea y defensa de la madre y el niño en la provincia de Tarapacá: Segunda memoria anual, enero a diciembre 1938, presentada por el Dr. Nicolás Taborga" (Iquique, 1939) reproduced in Boletín Médico-Social de la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio 6, nos. 60-61 (May-June 1939):86; Luz Cañas Valenzuela. "Estudio de los problemas que se presentan en la 'Sección Lactantes' del Consultorio No. 3 de la CSO" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Junta de Beneficencia, Santiago, 1941), 72; María Briceño Erazo, "Análisis sobre revisión de 200 fichas de ngreso al Servicio 'Madre y Niño' del Consultorio No. 2 de la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Junta de Beneficencia, Santiago, 1946), 11: Helga Peralta, "La atención materno-infantil en la Caja de Seguro Obligatorio" (Memoria, Escuela de Servicio Social, Universidad de Chile, Santiago. 1951), 32, 62.
178. For scholarly appraisals see Julio Faúndez, Marxism and Democracy in Chile: From 1932 to the Fall of Allende (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988); Alan Angell, Politics and the Labour Movement in Chile (London: Oxford University Press, 1972); Ruth Berins Collier and David Collier, Shaping the Political Arena: Critical Junctures, the Labor Movement, and Regime Dynamics in Latin America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); Philippe Schmitter, "Still the Century of Corporatism?" The Review of Politics 36, no. 1 (January 1974):85-131.
179. For scholarly appraisals see Julio Faúndez, Marxism and Democracy in Chile: From 1932 to the Fall of Allende (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988); Alan Angell, Politics and the Labour Movement in Chile (London: Oxford University Press, 1972); Ruth Berins Collier and David Collier, Shaping the Political Arena: Critical Junctures, the Labor Movement, and Regime Dynamics in Latin America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); Philippe Schmitter, "Still the Century of Corporatism?" The Review of Politics 36, no. 1 (January 1974):85-131.
180. For scholarly appraisals see Julio Faúndez, Marxism and Democracy in Chile: From 1932 to the Fall of Allende (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988); Alan Angell, Politics and the Labour Movement in Chile (London: Oxford University Press, 1972); Ruth Berins Collier and David Collier, Shaping the Political Arena: Critical Junctures, the Labor Movement, and Regime Dynamics in Latin America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); Philippe Schmitter, "Still the Century of Corporatism?" The Review of Politics 36, no. 1 (January 1974):85-131.
181. For scholarly appraisals see Julio Faúndez, Marxism and Democracy in Chile: From 1932 to the Fall of Allende (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988); Alan Angell, Politics and the Labour Movement in Chile (London: Oxford University Press, 1972); Ruth Berins Collier and David Collier, Shaping the Political Arena: Critical Junctures, the Labor Movement, and Regime Dynamics in Latin America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); Philippe Schmitter, "Still the Century of Corporatism?" The Review of Politics 36, no. 1 (January 1974):85-131.
182. On the shift within left practices and analyses, see Moulian. "Violencia, gradualismo y reformas"; Alfonso Daire, "La política del Partido Comunista desde la postguerra a la Unidad Popular," in El Partido Comunista en Chile, comp. Augusto Varas (Santiago: CESOC/FLACSO, 1988), 141-238; Carmelo Furci, The Chilean Communist Party and the Road to Socialism (London: Zed Press, 1989); Faúndez, Marxism and Democracy; Fernando Casanueva and Manuel Fernández, El Partido Socialista y la lucha de closes en Chile (Santiago: Quimantú, 1973).
183. On the shift within left practices and analyses, see Moulian. "Violencia, gradualismo y reformas"; Alfonso Daire, "La política del Partido Comunista desde la postguerra a la Unidad Popular," in El Partido Comunista en Chile, comp. Augusto Varas (Santiago: CESOC/FLACSO, 1988), 141-238; Carmelo Furci, The Chilean Communist Party and the Road to Socialism (London: Zed Press, 1989); Faúndez, Marxism and Democracy; Fernando Casanueva and Manuel Fernández, El Partido Socialista y la lucha de closes en Chile (Santiago: Quimantú, 1973).
184. On the shift within left practices and analyses, see Moulian. "Violencia, gradualismo y reformas"; Alfonso Daire, "La política del Partido Comunista desde la postguerra a la Unidad Popular," in El Partido Comunista en Chile, comp. Augusto Varas (Santiago: CESOC/FLACSO, 1988), 141-238; Carmelo Furci, The Chilean Communist Party and the Road to Socialism (London: Zed Press, 1989); Faúndez, Marxism and Democracy; Fernando Casanueva and Manuel Fernández, El Partido Socialista y la lucha de closes en Chile (Santiago: Quimantú, 1973).
185. On the shift within left practices and analyses, see Moulian. "Violencia, gradualismo y reformas"; Alfonso Daire, "La política del Partido Comunista desde la postguerra a la Unidad Popular," in El Partido Comunista en Chile, comp. Augusto Varas (Santiago: CESOC/FLACSO, 1988), 141-238; Carmelo Furci, The Chilean Communist Party and the Road to Socialism (London: Zed Press, 1989); Faúndez, Marxism and Democracy; Fernando Casanueva and Manuel Fernández, El Partido Socialista y la lucha de closes en Chile (Santiago: Quimantú, 1973).
186. On the shift within left practices and analyses, see Moulian. "Violencia, gradualismo y reformas"; Alfonso Daire, "La política del Partido Comunista desde la postguerra a la Unidad Popular," in El Partido Comunista en Chile, comp. Augusto Varas (Santiago: CESOC/FLACSO, 1988), 141-238; Carmelo Furci, The Chilean Communist Party and the Road to Socialism (London: Zed Press, 1989); Faúndez, Marxism and Democracy; Fernando Casanueva and Manuel Fernández, El Partido Socialista y la lucha de closes en Chile (Santiago: Quimantú, 1973).
187. Interview with Mercedes Fuentealba, 28 April 1993.