Delusional diagnosis? The history of paranoia as a disease concept in the modern era

History of Psychiatry

Volumn 11, Issue 41, 2000, Pages 37-69

  Dowbiggin, Ian ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; DELUSION; DIAGNOSIS; HISTORY; HUMAN; PARANOID PSYCHOSIS; PSYCHIATRY;

DELUSIONS; DIAGNOSIS; HISTORY, MODERN 1601-; HUMANS; PARANOID DISORDERS; PSYCHIATRY;

EID: 0347309366     PISSN: 0957154X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0957154x0001104103     Document Type: Article

References (197)

1. E. Stengel, 'Classification of mental disorders', Bulletin of the World Health Organization, xxi (1959), 601-63, 602.
2. J. Hoenig, 'Psychiatric nosology', Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, xxvi (1981), 85.
3. Robin M. Murray and Alice Foerster, 'Schizophrenia: is the concept disintegrating?' Journal of Psychopharmacology, i (1987), 133-9, 136, 139. See also J. M. Eagles, 'Is schizophrenia disappearing?' British Journal of Psychiatry, clviii (1991), 834-5.
4. Robin M. Murray and Alice Foerster, 'Schizophrenia: is the concept disintegrating?' Journal of Psychopharmacology, i (1987), 133-9, 136, 139. See also J. M. Eagles, 'Is schizophrenia disappearing?' British Journal of Psychiatry, clviii (1991), 834-5.
5. Mark S. Micale, Approaching Hysteria: Disease and its Interpretations (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), 293. For a recent scholarly description of the multiple personality disorder diagnosis, see Ian Hacking, Rewriting the Soul: Multiple Personality and the Sciences of Memory (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995). See also Allan Young, The Harmony of Illusions: Inventing Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995).
6. Mark S. Micale, Approaching Hysteria: Disease and its Interpretations (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), 293. For a recent scholarly description of the multiple personality disorder diagnosis, see Ian Hacking, Rewriting the Soul: Multiple Personality and the Sciences of Memory (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995). See also Allan Young, The Harmony of Illusions: Inventing Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995).
7. Mark S. Micale, Approaching Hysteria: Disease and its Interpretations (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), 293. For a recent scholarly description of the multiple personality disorder diagnosis, see Ian Hacking, Rewriting the Soul: Multiple Personality and the Sciences of Memory (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995). See also Allan Young, The Harmony of Illusions: Inventing Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995).
8. American Psychiatrie Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: Fourth Edition (Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994), 297-301.
9. Robert S. Robins and Jerrold M. Post, Political Paranoia: The Psychopolitics of Hatred (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1997); John Farrell, Freud's Paranoid Quest: Psychoanalysis and Modern Suspicion (New York and London: New York University Press, 1996). See also Daniel Pipes, Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes From (New York: Free Press, 1997).
10. Robert S. Robins and Jerrold M. Post, Political Paranoia: The Psychopolitics of Hatred (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1997); John Farrell, Freud's Paranoid Quest: Psychoanalysis and Modern Suspicion (New York and London: New York University Press, 1996). See also Daniel Pipes, Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes From (New York: Free Press, 1997).
11. Robert S. Robins and Jerrold M. Post, Political Paranoia: The Psychopolitics of Hatred (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1997); John Farrell, Freud's Paranoid Quest: Psychoanalysis and Modern Suspicion (New York and London: New York University Press, 1996). See also Daniel Pipes, Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes From (New York: Free Press, 1997).
12. For a different approach to paranoia's history which deconstructs the way physicians have defined the concept over time, analysing psychiatrists' texts in an effort to discover an underlying agenda on the part of medicine, see David J. Harper, 'Histories of suspicion in a time of conspiracy: a reflection on Aubrey Lewis's History of Paranoia', History of the Human Sciences, vii (1994), 89-109. As Harper admits, he has 'less concern with the accuracy of the text's assertions than with what the text does and what interests it serves' (:91; his emphasis). See also idem., 'Defining delusion and the serving of professional interests: the case of "paranoia"', British Journal of Medical Psychology, Ixv (1992), 357-69; 'The professional construction of "paranoia" and the discursive use of diagnostic criteria', British Journal of Medical Psychology, 1xvii (1994), 131-43. Harper takes a highly sceptical attitude towards the medical interpretation of delusions and concludes that the psychiatrie diagnosis of paranoia 'pathologizes what some might see as a normal response to a mistrustful and misanthropic society' (Ibid., 131). I take issue with Harper's thesis for two reasons: one, because it tends to overlook the complex nature of psychiatry as a clinical enterprise and diverts attention away from the multifactorial reality surrounding the history of paranoia; and two, because it is itself a historically contingent interpretation, embedded in a specific cultural context which seeks for ideological reasons to depict paranoia as a more or less valid mode for expressing politically subversive messages.
13. For a different approach to paranoia's history which deconstructs the way physicians have defined the concept over time, analysing psychiatrists' texts in an effort to discover an underlying agenda on the part of medicine, see David J. Harper, 'Histories of suspicion in a time of conspiracy: a reflection on Aubrey Lewis's History of Paranoia', History of the Human Sciences, vii (1994), 89-109. As Harper admits, he has 'less concern with the accuracy of the text's assertions than with what the text does and what interests it serves' (:91; his emphasis). See also idem., 'Defining delusion and the serving of professional interests: the case of "paranoia"', British Journal of Medical Psychology, Ixv (1992), 357-69; 'The professional construction of "paranoia" and the discursive use of diagnostic criteria', British Journal of Medical Psychology, 1xvii (1994), 131-43. Harper takes a highly sceptical attitude towards the medical interpretation of delusions and concludes that the psychiatrie diagnosis of paranoia 'pathologizes what some might see as a normal response to a mistrustful and misanthropic society' (Ibid., 131). I take issue with Harper's thesis for two reasons: one, because it tends to overlook the complex nature of psychiatry as a clinical enterprise and diverts attention away from the multifactorial reality surrounding the history of paranoia; and two, because it is itself a historically contingent interpretation, embedded in a specific cultural context which seeks for ideological reasons to depict paranoia as a more or less valid mode for expressing politically subversive messages.
14. For a different approach to paranoia's history which deconstructs the way physicians have defined the concept over time, analysing psychiatrists' texts in an effort to discover an underlying agenda on the part of medicine, see David J. Harper, 'Histories of suspicion in a time of conspiracy: a reflection on Aubrey Lewis's History of Paranoia', History of the Human Sciences, vii (1994), 89-109. As Harper admits, he has 'less concern with the accuracy of the text's assertions than with what the text does and what interests it serves' (:91; his emphasis). See also idem., 'Defining delusion and the serving of professional interests: the case of "paranoia"', British Journal of Medical Psychology, Ixv (1992), 357-69; 'The professional construction of "paranoia" and the discursive use of diagnostic criteria', British Journal of Medical Psychology, 1xvii (1994), 131-43. Harper takes a highly sceptical attitude towards the medical interpretation of delusions and concludes that the psychiatrie diagnosis of paranoia 'pathologizes what some might see as a normal response to a mistrustful and misanthropic society' (Ibid., 131). I take issue with Harper's thesis for two reasons: one, because it tends to overlook the complex nature of psychiatry as a clinical enterprise and diverts attention away from the multifactorial reality surrounding the history of paranoia; and two, because it is itself a historically contingent interpretation, embedded in a specific cultural context which seeks for ideological reasons to depict paranoia as a more or less valid mode for expressing politically subversive messages.
15. For a different approach to paranoia's history which deconstructs the way physicians have defined the concept over time, analysing psychiatrists' texts in an effort to discover an underlying agenda on the part of medicine, see David J. Harper, 'Histories of suspicion in a time of conspiracy: a reflection on Aubrey Lewis's History of Paranoia', History of the Human Sciences, vii (1994), 89-109. As Harper admits, he has 'less concern with the accuracy of the text's assertions than with what the text does and what interests it serves' (:91; his emphasis). See also idem., 'Defining delusion and the serving of professional interests: the case of "paranoia"', British Journal of Medical Psychology, Ixv (1992), 357-69; 'The professional construction of "paranoia" and the discursive use of diagnostic criteria', British Journal of Medical Psychology, 1xvii (1994), 131-43. Harper takes a highly sceptical attitude towards the medical interpretation of delusions and concludes that the psychiatrie diagnosis of paranoia 'pathologizes what some might see as a normal response to a mistrustful and misanthropic society' (Ibid., 131). I take issue with Harper's thesis for two reasons: one, because it tends to overlook the complex nature of psychiatry as a clinical enterprise and diverts attention away from the multifactorial reality surrounding the history of paranoia; and two, because it is itself a historically contingent interpretation, embedded in a specific cultural context which seeks for ideological reasons to depict paranoia as a more or less valid mode for expressing politically subversive messages.
16. Peter D. Kramer, Listening To Prozac: A Psychiatrist Explores Antidepressant Drugs and the Remaking of the Self (New York: Viking, 1993), 46.
17. For a nineteenth-century account of 'moral epidemics' throughout history, see Charles Mackay, Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds (Ware: Wordsworth, 1995).
18. Stanley W. Jackson, Melancholia and Depression: From Hippocratic to Modem Times (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1986).
19. Aubrey Lewis, 'Paranoia and paranoid: a historical perspective', Psychological Medicine, i (1970), 2-12. See also Vasantkumar L. Tanna, 'Paranoid states: a selected review', Comprehensive Psychiatry, xv (1974), 453-70; Michael Schifferdecker and Uwe Hendrik Peters, 'The origins of the concept of paranoia', in Mark J. Sedler (ed.), The Psychiatric Clinics of North America, xviii (1995), 231-49.
20. Aubrey Lewis, 'Paranoia and paranoid: a historical perspective', Psychological Medicine, i (1970), 2-12. See also Vasantkumar L. Tanna, 'Paranoid states: a selected review', Comprehensive Psychiatry, xv (1974), 453-70; Michael Schifferdecker and Uwe Hendrik Peters, 'The origins of the concept of paranoia', in Mark J. Sedler (ed.), The Psychiatric Clinics of North America, xviii (1995), 231-49.
21. Aubrey Lewis, 'Paranoia and paranoid: a historical perspective', Psychological Medicine, i (1970), 2-12. See also Vasantkumar L. Tanna, 'Paranoid states: a selected review', Comprehensive Psychiatry, xv (1974), 453-70; Michael Schifferdecker and Uwe Hendrik Peters, 'The origins of the concept of paranoia', in Mark J. Sedler (ed.), The Psychiatric Clinics of North America, xviii (1995), 231-49.
22. German E. Berrios, 'Delusions as "wrong beliefs": a conceptual history', British Journal of Psychiatry, clvix (1991) (Supplement), 6-13, 10.
23. Charles Lasègue, 'Du délire de persécutions', Archives générales de médecine, xxviii (1852), 129-50.
24. Valentin Magnan and Paul Serieux, 'Délire chronique', in Auguste Marie (ed.), Traité internationale de psychologie pathologique, Vol. 2 (Paris: Alcan, 1911), 609.
25. Valentin Magnan, 'Chronic delusional insanity of systematic evolution', trans. A. Marie and J. MacPherson, American Journal of Insanity, li (1895), 37-57; 175-98; 524-38; lii (1896), 397-415. See also Nils Retterstol, Paranoid and Paranoiac Psychoses (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1966), 13. Nils Retterstol, 'Classification of functional psychoses with special reference to follow-up studies', Psychopathology, xvix (1986), 5-15; Pierre Pichot, 'The concept of "bouffée délirante" with special reference to the Scandinavian concept of reactive psychosis', ibid., 35-43.
26. Valentin Magnan, 'Chronic delusional insanity of systematic evolution', trans. A. Marie and J. MacPherson, American Journal of Insanity, li (1895), 37-57; 175-98; 524-38; lii (1896), 397-415. See also Nils Retterstol, Paranoid and Paranoiac Psychoses (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1966), 13. Nils Retterstol, 'Classification of functional psychoses with special reference to follow-up studies', Psychopathology, xvix (1986), 5-15; Pierre Pichot, 'The concept of "bouffée délirante" with special reference to the Scandinavian concept of reactive psychosis', ibid., 35-43.
27. Valentin Magnan, 'Chronic delusional insanity of systematic evolution', trans. A. Marie and J. MacPherson, American Journal of Insanity, li (1895), 37-57; 175-98; 524-38; lii (1896), 397-415. See also Nils Retterstol, Paranoid and Paranoiac Psychoses (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1966), 13. Nils Retterstol, 'Classification of functional psychoses with special reference to follow-up studies', Psychopathology, xvix (1986), 5-15; Pierre Pichot, 'The concept of "bouffée délirante" with special reference to the Scandinavian concept of reactive psychosis', ibid., 35-43.
28. Valentin Magnan, 'Chronic delusional insanity of systematic evolution', trans. A. Marie and J. MacPherson, American Journal of Insanity, li (1895), 37-57; 175-98; 524-38; lii (1896), 397-415. See also Nils Retterstol, Paranoid and Paranoiac Psychoses (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1966), 13. Nils Retterstol, 'Classification of functional psychoses with special reference to follow-up studies', Psychopathology, xvix (1986), 5-15; Pierre Pichot, 'The concept of "bouffée délirante" with special reference to the Scandinavian concept of reactive psychosis', ibid., 35-43.
29. Valentin Magnan, 'Chronic delusional insanity of systematic evolution', trans. A. Marie and J. MacPherson, American Journal of Insanity, li (1895), 37-57; 175-98; 524-38; lii (1896), 397-415. See also Nils Retterstol, Paranoid and Paranoiac Psychoses (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1966), 13. Nils Retterstol, 'Classification of functional psychoses with special reference to follow-up studies', Psychopathology, xvix (1986), 5-15; Pierre Pichot, 'The concept of "bouffée délirante" with special reference to the Scandinavian concept of reactive psychosis', ibid., 35-43.
30. Paul Gamier, La Folie à Paris: étude statistique, clinique et médico-légale (Paris: Baillière, 1890), 235-65; J. Roubinovitch, Des variétés cliniques de la folie en France et en Allemagne (Paris: Octave Doin, 1896).
31. Paul Gamier, La Folie à Paris: étude statistique, clinique et médico-légale (Paris: Baillière, 1890), 235-65; J. Roubinovitch, Des variétés cliniques de la folie en France et en Allemagne (Paris: Octave Doin, 1896).
32. Pierre J. Pichot, 'Recent developments in French psychiatry', British Journal of Psychiatry, cxiii (1967), 11-18; 'Les bouffées délirantes et les delires chroniques: deux concepts nosologiques français', Annales médico-psychologiques, cxxxvii (1979), 52-8; 'The diagnosis and classification of mental disorders in French-speaking countries: background, current views and comparison with other nomenclatures', Psychological Medicine, xii (1982), 475-92; 'The French approach to psychiatric classification', British Journal Psychiatry, cxliv (1984), 113-18. See also S. F. Signer, 'De Clérambault's concept of erotomania and its place in his thought', History of Psychiatry, ii (1991), 409-17.
33. Pierre J. Pichot, 'Recent developments in French psychiatry', British Journal of Psychiatry, cxiii (1967), 11-18; 'Les bouffées délirantes et les delires chroniques: deux concepts nosologiques français', Annales médico-psychologiques, cxxxvii (1979), 52-8; 'The diagnosis and classification of mental disorders in French-speaking countries: background, current views and comparison with other nomenclatures', Psychological Medicine, xii (1982), 475-92; 'The French approach to psychiatric classification', British Journal Psychiatry, cxliv (1984), 113-18. See also S. F. Signer, 'De Clérambault's concept of erotomania and its place in his thought', History of Psychiatry, ii (1991), 409-17.
34. Pierre J. Pichot, 'Recent developments in French psychiatry', British Journal of Psychiatry, cxiii (1967), 11-18; 'Les bouffées délirantes et les delires chroniques: deux concepts nosologiques français', Annales médico-psychologiques, cxxxvii (1979), 52-8; 'The diagnosis and classification of mental disorders in French-speaking countries: background, current views and comparison with other nomenclatures', Psychological Medicine, xii (1982), 475-92; 'The French approach to psychiatric classification', British Journal Psychiatry, cxliv (1984), 113-18. See also S. F. Signer, 'De Clérambault's concept of erotomania and its place in his thought', History of Psychiatry, ii (1991), 409-17.
35. Pierre J. Pichot, 'Recent developments in French psychiatry', British Journal of Psychiatry, cxiii (1967), 11-18; 'Les bouffées délirantes et les delires chroniques: deux concepts nosologiques français', Annales médico-psychologiques, cxxxvii (1979), 52-8; 'The diagnosis and classification of mental disorders in French-speaking countries: background, current views and comparison with other nomenclatures', Psychological Medicine, xii (1982), 475-92; 'The French approach to psychiatric classification', British Journal Psychiatry, cxliv (1984), 113-18. See also S. F. Signer, 'De Clérambault's concept of erotomania and its place in his thought', History of Psychiatry, ii (1991), 409-17.
36. Pierre J. Pichot, 'Recent developments in French psychiatry', British Journal of Psychiatry, cxiii (1967), 11-18; 'Les bouffées délirantes et les delires chroniques: deux concepts nosologiques français', Annales médico-psychologiques, cxxxvii (1979), 52-8; 'The diagnosis and classification of mental disorders in French-speaking countries: background, current views and comparison with other nomenclatures', Psychological Medicine, xii (1982), 475-92; 'The French approach to psychiatric classification', British Journal Psychiatry, cxliv (1984), 113-18. See also S. F. Signer, 'De Clérambault's concept of erotomania and its place in his thought', History of Psychiatry, ii (1991), 409-17.
37. Kahlbaum argued that paranoia was a subgroup of more or less partial insanities whose symptoms were primarily intellectual and remained largely unchanged over time. M. Lanczik, 'Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum (1828-1899) and the emergence of psychopathological and nosological research in German psychiatry', History of Psychiatry, iii (1992), 53-8. See also Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum, 'The classification of mental disorders: Part III', trans. and intro. German E. Berrios, ibid., vii (1996), 167-81 (excerpt from Kahlbaum's Die Gruppirung der psychischen Krankheiten und die Eintheilung der Seelenstörungen (Danzig: A. W. Kafemann, 1863)). See also Schifferdecker and Peters, 'The origin of the concept of paranoia', 239.
38. Kahlbaum argued that paranoia was a subgroup of more or less partial insanities whose symptoms were primarily intellectual and remained largely unchanged over time. M. Lanczik, 'Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum (1828-1899) and the emergence of psychopathological and nosological research in German psychiatry', History of Psychiatry, iii (1992), 53-8. See also Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum, 'The classification of mental disorders: Part III', trans. and intro. German E. Berrios, ibid., vii (1996), 167-81 (excerpt from Kahlbaum's Die Gruppirung der psychischen Krankheiten und die Eintheilung der Seelenstörungen (Danzig: A. W. Kafemann, 1863)). See also Schifferdecker and Peters, 'The origin of the concept of paranoia', 239.
39. Kahlbaum argued that paranoia was a subgroup of more or less partial insanities whose symptoms were primarily intellectual and remained largely unchanged over time. M. Lanczik, 'Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum (1828-1899) and the emergence of psychopathological and nosological research in German psychiatry', History of Psychiatry, iii (1992), 53-8. See also Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum, 'The classification of mental disorders: Part III', trans. and intro. German E. Berrios, ibid., vii (1996), 167-81 (excerpt from Kahlbaum's Die Gruppirung der psychischen Krankheiten und die Eintheilung der Seelenstörungen (Danzig: A. W. Kafemann, 1863)). See also Schifferdecker and Peters, 'The origin of the concept of paranoia', 239.
40. Kahlbaum argued that paranoia was a subgroup of more or less partial insanities whose symptoms were primarily intellectual and remained largely unchanged over time. M. Lanczik, 'Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum (1828-1899) and the emergence of psychopathological and nosological research in German psychiatry', History of Psychiatry, iii (1992), 53-8. See also Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum, 'The classification of mental disorders: Part III', trans. and intro. German E. Berrios, ibid., vii (1996), 167-81 (excerpt from Kahlbaum's Die Gruppirung der psychischen Krankheiten und die Eintheilung der Seelenstörungen (Danzig: A. W. Kafemann, 1863)). See also Schifferdecker and Peters, 'The origin of the concept of paranoia', 239.
41. Zvi Lothane, In Defence of Schreber: Soul Murder and Psychiatry (Hillsdale, NJ: The Analytic Press, 1992), 281-2.
42. S. E. Jelliffe, 'Introduction', in Jelliffe (ed. and trans.), Studies in Paranoia (New York: Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases Publishing Co., 1908), iii-iv; Oswald Bumke, Die Diagnose der Geisteskrankheiten (Wiesbaden: Verlag von J. F. Bergmann, 1919), 585.
43. S. E. Jelliffe, 'Introduction', in Jelliffe (ed. and trans.), Studies in Paranoia (New York: Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases Publishing Co., 1908), iii-iv; Oswald Bumke, Die Diagnose der Geisteskrankheiten (Wiesbaden: Verlag von J. F. Bergmann, 1919), 585.
44. As Eugen Bleuler of the Burghölzli hospital wrote in 1924: 'Toward the end of the last century it was believed that the essence of the disease [of paranoia] was to be found in the more or less isolated disturbance of the understanding; as every delusional idea and every hallucination represents such a disturbance, most mental diseases could be included in this, and this was preferably done. On the basis of this stereotyped conception acute forms with delusions and hallucinations were also included. As such acute syndromes usually belong to schizophrenia which later readily exhibits chronic delusions, the theoretical confusion of acute and chronic conditions, different in principle, could not appear as senseless at the patient's bedside as it really was.' Eugen Bleuler, Textbook of Psychiatry trans. A. A. Brill (New York: Macmillan, 1934 reprint of 1924 edition), 517-18. Since delusions of grandeur appear to have afflicted about 50% of general paretics in the nineteenth century, it is reasonable to assume that some were diagnosed as paranoids. Frank J. Fish, Clinical Psychopathology: Signs and Symptoms in Psychiatry (Bristol: John Wright and Sons, 1967), 44-5.
45. As Eugen Bleuler of the Burghölzli hospital wrote in 1924: 'Toward the end of the last century it was believed that the essence of the disease [of paranoia] was to be found in the more or less isolated disturbance of the understanding; as every delusional idea and every hallucination represents such a disturbance, most mental diseases could be included in this, and this was preferably done. On the basis of this stereotyped conception acute forms with delusions and hallucinations were also included. As such acute syndromes usually belong to schizophrenia which later readily exhibits chronic delusions, the theoretical confusion of acute and chronic conditions, different in principle, could not appear as senseless at the patient's bedside as it really was.' Eugen Bleuler, Textbook of Psychiatry trans. A. A. Brill (New York: Macmillan, 1934 reprint of 1924 edition), 517-18. Since delusions of grandeur appear to have afflicted about 50% of general paretics in the nineteenth century, it is reasonable to assume that some were diagnosed as paranoids. Frank J. Fish, Clinical Psychopathology: Signs and Symptoms in Psychiatry (Bristol: John Wright and Sons, 1967), 44-5.
46. Ziehen, professor of psychiatry at Jena, identified four main types of paranoia: acute hallucinatory paranoia, chronic hallucinatory paranoia, paranoia simplex acuta, and paranoia simplex chronica. Th. Ziehen, Psychiatrie für Artze und Studirende beiarbeitet (Berlin: Verlag von Friedrich Wreden, 1894), 341.
47. Emil Kraepelin, Manic-Depressive Insanity and Paranoia, trans. from the eighth German edn by R. Mary Barclay (Edinburgh: E. & S. Livingstone, 1921), 208-12. For a historical review of the 'paranoia question', see Hermann Krueger, Die Paranoia: eine monographische Studie (Berlin: Verlag von Julius Springer, 1917), 1-7. The prevalence of delusional symptoms in asylum patients was pronounced in asylums outside Germany. For similar nineteenth-century data on the Bucks County Pauper Lunatic Asylum, see David Wright, 'Delusions of grandeur: economic change, poverty, and the sexual division of institutional confinement in Victorian England', unpublished paper.
48. Emil Kraepelin, Manic-Depressive Insanity and Paranoia, trans. from the eighth German edn by R. Mary Barclay (Edinburgh: E. & S. Livingstone, 1921), 208-12. For a historical review of the 'paranoia question', see Hermann Krueger, Die Paranoia: eine monographische Studie (Berlin: Verlag von Julius Springer, 1917), 1-7. The prevalence of delusional symptoms in asylum patients was pronounced in asylums outside Germany. For similar nineteenth-century data on the Bucks County Pauper Lunatic Asylum, see David Wright, 'Delusions of grandeur: economic change, poverty, and the sexual division of institutional confinement in Victorian England', unpublished paper.
49. Emil Kraepelin, Manic-Depressive Insanity and Paranoia, trans. from the eighth German edn by R. Mary Barclay (Edinburgh: E. & S. Livingstone, 1921), 208-12. For a historical review of the 'paranoia question', see Hermann Krueger, Die Paranoia: eine monographische Studie (Berlin: Verlag von Julius Springer, 1917), 1-7. The prevalence of delusional symptoms in asylum patients was pronounced in asylums outside Germany. For similar nineteenth-century data on the Bucks County Pauper Lunatic Asylum, see David Wright, 'Delusions of grandeur: economic change, poverty, and the sexual division of institutional confinement in Victorian England', unpublished paper.
50. Emil Kraepelin, Clinical Psychiatry: A Textbook for Students and Physicians, ed. and trans. A. R. Diefendorf from the sixth (1899) German edn (New York: Macmillan, 1904), 316, cited in Kenneth S. Kendler and Tsaung, Ming T., 'Nosology of paranoid schizophrenia and other paranoid psychoses', Schizophrenia Bulletin, vii (1981), 594-610, 595. See also Kenneth S. Kendler, 'Kraepelin and the diagnostic concept of paranoia', Comprehensive Psychiatry, xxix (1988), 4-11; German E. Berrios and R. Hauser, 'The early development of Kraepelin's ideas on classification: a conceptual history', Psychological Medicine, xviii (1988), 813-21. As William F. Bynum has written, 'the nuances of [Kraepelin's] work remain too little appreciated in the English-speaking world...' 'Psychopathology and psychiatric syndromes', Current Opinion in Psychiatry, ix (1995), 368-71.
51. Emil Kraepelin, Clinical Psychiatry: A Textbook for Students and Physicians, ed. and trans. A. R. Diefendorf from the sixth (1899) German edn (New York: Macmillan, 1904), 316, cited in Kenneth S. Kendler and Tsaung, Ming T., 'Nosology of paranoid schizophrenia and other paranoid psychoses', Schizophrenia Bulletin, vii (1981), 594-610, 595. See also Kenneth S. Kendler, 'Kraepelin and the diagnostic concept of paranoia', Comprehensive Psychiatry, xxix (1988), 4-11; German E. Berrios and R. Hauser, 'The early development of Kraepelin's ideas on classification: a conceptual history', Psychological Medicine, xviii (1988), 813-21. As William F. Bynum has written, 'the nuances of [Kraepelin's] work remain too little appreciated in the English-speaking world...' 'Psychopathology and psychiatric syndromes', Current Opinion in Psychiatry, ix (1995), 368-71.
52. Emil Kraepelin, Clinical Psychiatry: A Textbook for Students and Physicians, ed. and trans. A. R. Diefendorf from the sixth (1899) German edn (New York: Macmillan, 1904), 316, cited in Kenneth S. Kendler and Tsaung, Ming T., 'Nosology of paranoid schizophrenia and other paranoid psychoses', Schizophrenia Bulletin, vii (1981), 594-610, 595. See also Kenneth S. Kendler, 'Kraepelin and the diagnostic concept of paranoia', Comprehensive Psychiatry, xxix (1988), 4-11; German E. Berrios and R. Hauser, 'The early development of Kraepelin's ideas on classification: a conceptual history', Psychological Medicine, xviii (1988), 813-21. As William F. Bynum has written, 'the nuances of [Kraepelin's] work remain too little appreciated in the English-speaking world...' 'Psychopathology and psychiatric syndromes', Current Opinion in Psychiatry, ix (1995), 368-71.
53. Emil Kraepelin, Clinical Psychiatry: A Textbook for Students and Physicians, ed. and trans. A. R. Diefendorf from the sixth (1899) German edn (New York: Macmillan, 1904), 316, cited in Kenneth S. Kendler and Tsaung, Ming T., 'Nosology of paranoid schizophrenia and other paranoid psychoses', Schizophrenia Bulletin, vii (1981), 594-610, 595. See also Kenneth S. Kendler, 'Kraepelin and the diagnostic concept of paranoia', Comprehensive Psychiatry, xxix (1988), 4-11; German E. Berrios and R. Hauser, 'The early development of Kraepelin's ideas on classification: a conceptual history', Psychological Medicine, xviii (1988), 813-21. As William F. Bynum has written, 'the nuances of [Kraepelin's] work remain too little appreciated in the English-speaking world...' 'Psychopathology and psychiatric syndromes', Current Opinion in Psychiatry, ix (1995), 368-71.
54. Emil Kraepelin, Clinical Psychiatry: A Textbook for Students and Physicians, ed. and trans. A. R. Diefendorf from the sixth (1899) German edn (New York: Macmillan, 1904), 316, cited in Kenneth S. Kendler and Tsaung, Ming T., 'Nosology of paranoid schizophrenia and other paranoid psychoses', Schizophrenia Bulletin, vii (1981), 594-610, 595. See also Kenneth S. Kendler, 'Kraepelin and the diagnostic concept of paranoia', Comprehensive Psychiatry, xxix (1988), 4-11; German E. Berrios and R. Hauser, 'The early development of Kraepelin's ideas on classification: a conceptual history', Psychological Medicine, xviii (1988), 813-21. As William F. Bynum has written, 'the nuances of [Kraepelin's] work remain too little appreciated in the English-speaking world...' 'Psychopathology and psychiatric syndromes', Current Opinion in Psychiatry, ix (1995), 368-71.
55. Lewis, 'Paranoia and paranoid', 5. As Kraepelin wrote in the eighth edition of his Textbook, 'the delimitation of dementia praecox from certain paranoid diseases appears least of all to be cleared up ...' Emu Kraepelin, Dementia Praecox and Paraphrenia, trans. R. Mary Barclay (Huntingdon, NY: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Co. Inc., 1971 reprint of 1919 English trans. of the eighth German edn), 276.
56. Kurt Kolle, Die primäre Verrücktheit (Leipzig: Georg Thieme, 1931), 4.
57. Emil Kraepelin on 'Paranoid conditions', trans. H. I. Gosline, Alienist and Neurologist, xxxvii (1916), 184-210, 191. Cited in Kendler, 'Kraepelin and the diagnostic concept of paranoia', 8-9.
58. Emil Kraepelin on 'Paranoid conditions', trans. H. I. Gosline, Alienist and Neurologist, xxxvii (1916), 184-210, 191. Cited in Kendler, 'Kraepelin and the diagnostic concept of paranoia', 8-9.
59. E. Stanley Abbot, 'What is paranoia?' Proceedings of the American Medico-Psychological Association, xxi (1914), 275-86, 275.
60. Adolf Meyer, 'The relation of emotional and intellectual functions in paranoia and the obsessions', Psychological Bulletin, iii (1906), 255-74, 258. S. E. Jelliffe wrote in 1908 that 'for the paranoia concept ... old lines are falling away, new boundaries are being run, and a radical rearrangement of the whole situation is manifest.' S. E. Jellifie, 'Introduction', Studies in Paranoia, iii.
61. Adolf Meyer, 'The relation of emotional and intellectual functions in paranoia and the obsessions', Psychological Bulletin, iii (1906), 255-74, 258. S. E. Jelliffe wrote in 1908 that 'for the paranoia concept ... old lines are falling away, new boundaries are being run, and a radical rearrangement of the whole situation is manifest.' S. E. Jellifie, 'Introduction', Studies in Paranoia, iii.
62. Kenneth S. Kendler, 'Delusional disorder: clinical section', in German Berrios and Roy Porter (eds), A History of Clinical Psychiatry: The Origin and History of Psychiatric Disorders (London: Athlone, 1995), 360-71.
63. Robert Gaupp, 'Robert Gaupp, 1870-1953', in Steven R. Hirsch and Michael Shepherd (eds), Themes and Variations in European Psychiatry: An Anthology (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1974), 119-20. See also Robert Gaupp, 'The scientific significance of the case of Ernst Wagner', ibid., 121-50;
64. Robert Gaupp, 'Robert Gaupp, 1870-1953', in Steven R. Hirsch and Michael Shepherd (eds), Themes and Variations in European Psychiatry: An Anthology (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1974), 119-20. See also Robert Gaupp, 'The scientific significance of the case of Ernst Wagner', ibid., 121-50; Ernst Kretschmer, 'The sensitive delusion of reference', ibid., 153-95; 'Gedanken über die Fortentwicklung der psychiatrischen Systemaik', Zeitschrift für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie, xlviii (1919), 370-7. See also Heinz Hafner, 'Ernst Kretschmer, 1888-1964', Psychological Medicine, XX (1990), 487-92; German E. Berrios, 'Phenomenology, psychopathology and Jaspers: a conceptual history', History of Psychiatry, iii (1992), 303-27; Paul M. Fagerman, Psychogenic Psychoses: A Description and Follow-Up of Psychoses Following Psychological Stress (London: Butterworth, 1963), 147-8.
65. Robert Gaupp, 'Robert Gaupp, 1870-1953', in Steven R. Hirsch and Michael Shepherd (eds), Themes and Variations in European Psychiatry: An Anthology (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1974), 119-20. See also Robert Gaupp, 'The scientific significance of the case of Ernst Wagner', ibid., 121-50; Ernst Kretschmer, 'The sensitive delusion of reference', ibid., 153-95; 'Gedanken über die Fortentwicklung der psychiatrischen Systemaik', Zeitschrift für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie, xlviii (1919), 370-7. See also Heinz Hafner, 'Ernst Kretschmer, 1888-1964', Psychological Medicine, XX (1990), 487-92; German E. Berrios, 'Phenomenology, psychopathology and Jaspers: a conceptual history', History of Psychiatry, iii (1992), 303-27; Paul M. Fagerman, Psychogenic Psychoses: A Description and Follow-Up of Psychoses Following Psychological Stress (London: Butterworth, 1963), 147-8.
66. Robert Gaupp, 'Robert Gaupp, 1870-1953', in Steven R. Hirsch and Michael Shepherd (eds), Themes and Variations in European Psychiatry: An Anthology (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1974), 119-20. See also Robert Gaupp, 'The scientific significance of the case of Ernst Wagner', ibid., 121-50; Ernst Kretschmer, 'The sensitive delusion of reference', ibid., 153-95; 'Gedanken über die Fortentwicklung der psychiatrischen Systemaik', Zeitschrift für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie, xlviii (1919), 370-7. See also Heinz Hafner, 'Ernst Kretschmer, 1888-1964', Psychological Medicine, XX (1990), 487-92; German E. Berrios, 'Phenomenology, psychopathology and Jaspers: a conceptual history', History of Psychiatry, iii (1992), 303-27; Paul M. Fagerman, Psychogenic Psychoses: A Description and Follow-Up of Psychoses Following Psychological Stress (London: Butterworth, 1963), 147-8.
67. Robert Gaupp, 'Robert Gaupp, 1870-1953', in Steven R. Hirsch and Michael Shepherd (eds), Themes and Variations in European Psychiatry: An Anthology (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1974), 119-20. See also Robert Gaupp, 'The scientific significance of the case of Ernst Wagner', ibid., 121-50; Ernst Kretschmer, 'The sensitive delusion of reference', ibid., 153-95; 'Gedanken über die Fortentwicklung der psychiatrischen Systemaik', Zeitschrift für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie, xlviii (1919), 370-7. See also Heinz Hafner, 'Ernst Kretschmer, 1888-1964', Psychological Medicine, XX (1990), 487-92; German E. Berrios, 'Phenomenology, psychopathology and Jaspers: a conceptual history', History of Psychiatry, iii (1992), 303-27; Paul M. Fagerman, Psychogenic Psychoses: A Description and Follow-Up of Psychoses Following Psychological Stress (London: Butterworth, 1963), 147-8.
68. Robert Gaupp, 'Robert Gaupp, 1870-1953', in Steven R. Hirsch and Michael Shepherd (eds), Themes and Variations in European Psychiatry: An Anthology (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1974), 119-20. See also Robert Gaupp, 'The scientific significance of the case of Ernst Wagner', ibid., 121-50; Ernst Kretschmer, 'The sensitive delusion of reference', ibid., 153-95; 'Gedanken über die Fortentwicklung der psychiatrischen Systemaik', Zeitschrift für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie, xlviii (1919), 370-7. See also Heinz Hafner, 'Ernst Kretschmer, 1888-1964', Psychological Medicine, XX (1990), 487-92; German E. Berrios, 'Phenomenology, psychopathology and Jaspers: a conceptual history', History of Psychiatry, iii (1992), 303-27; Paul M. Fagerman, Psychogenic Psychoses: A Description and Follow-Up of Psychoses Following Psychological Stress (London: Butterworth, 1963), 147-8.
69. Robert Gaupp, 'Robert Gaupp, 1870-1953', in Steven R. Hirsch and Michael Shepherd (eds), Themes and Variations in European Psychiatry: An Anthology (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1974), 119-20. See also Robert Gaupp, 'The scientific significance of the case of Ernst Wagner', ibid., 121-50; Ernst Kretschmer, 'The sensitive delusion of reference', ibid., 153-95; 'Gedanken über die Fortentwicklung der psychiatrischen Systemaik', Zeitschrift für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie, xlviii (1919), 370-7. See also Heinz Hafner, 'Ernst Kretschmer, 1888-1964', Psychological Medicine, XX (1990), 487-92; German E. Berrios, 'Phenomenology, psychopathology and Jaspers: a conceptual history', History of Psychiatry, iii (1992), 303-27; Paul M. Fagerman, Psychogenic Psychoses: A Description and Follow-Up of Psychoses Following Psychological Stress (London: Butterworth, 1963), 147-8.
70. Adolf Meyer, 'The treatment of paranoic and paranoid states', in William A. White and Smith Ely Jelliffe (eds), The Modern Treatment of Nervous and Mental Diseases By American and British Authors (Philadelphia and New York: Lea and Febiger, 1913), Vol. 1, 614-61, 623-4. Meyer's italics.
71. Sigmund Freud, 'Psycho-analytic notes on an autobiographical account of a case of paranoia (dementia paranoides)', The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Trans. James Strachey (London: The Hogarth Press, 1958), Vol. 12. See also J. Hoenig, 'The clinical usefulness of the phenomenology of delusions', International Journal of Psychiatry, vi (1968), 41-5.
72. Sigmund Freud, 'Psycho-analytic notes on an autobiographical account of a case of paranoia (dementia paranoides)', The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Trans. James Strachey (London: The Hogarth Press, 1958), Vol. 12. See also J. Hoenig, 'The clinical usefulness of the phenomenology of delusions', International Journal of Psychiatry, vi (1968), 41-5.
73. Bleuler, Textbook of Psychiatry, 436; Schifferdecker and Peters, 'Origin of the concept of paranoia', 244; Kendler and Tsuang, 'Nosology of paranoid schizophrenia and other paranoid psychoses', 598.
74. Bleuler, Textbook of Psychiatry, 436; Schifferdecker and Peters, 'Origin of the concept of paranoia', 244; Kendler and Tsuang, 'Nosology of paranoid schizophrenia and other paranoid psychoses', 598.
75. Bleuler, Textbook of Psychiatry, 436; Schifferdecker and Peters, 'Origin of the concept of paranoia', 244; Kendler and Tsuang, 'Nosology of paranoid schizophrenia and other paranoid psychoses', 598.
76. Wilhelm Mayer, 'Über paraphrene Psychosen', Zeitschrift für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie, lxxi (1921),187-206; Bumke, Die Diagnose der Geisteskrankheiten, 587; Johannes Lange, 'Spezielle gerichtliche Psychopathologie', in G. Aschaffenberg et dl. (eds), Handbuch der gerichtlichen Psychiatrie (Berlin: Verlag von Julius Springer, 1934), 534.
77. Wilhelm Mayer, 'Über paraphrene Psychosen', Zeitschrift für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie, lxxi (1921),187-206; Bumke, Die Diagnose der Geisteskrankheiten, 587; Johannes Lange, 'Spezielle gerichtliche Psychopathologie', in G. Aschaffenberg et dl. (eds), Handbuch der gerichtlichen Psychiatrie (Berlin: Verlag von Julius Springer, 1934), 534.
78. Wilhelm Mayer, 'Über paraphrene Psychosen', Zeitschrift für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie, lxxi (1921),187-206; Bumke, Die Diagnose der Geisteskrankheiten, 587; Johannes Lange, 'Spezielle gerichtliche Psychopathologie', in G. Aschaffenberg et dl. (eds), Handbuch der gerichtlichen Psychiatrie (Berlin: Verlag von Julius Springer, 1934), 534.
79. See, for example, Charles W. Miller, 'The paranoid syndrome', Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, xlv (1941), 953-63.
80. Kraepelin was one of the first to suspect this. See Burton Peter Thom, 'Tertiary syphilitic psychoses other than paresis', American Journal of Psychiatry, lxxviii (1921), 503-9. For the implications of these developments for the hysteria diagnosis, see Mark S. Micale, 'On the "disappearance" of hysteria: a study in the clinical deconstruction of a diagnosis', Isis, Ixxxiv (1993), 496-526, 508-9. To paraphrase Micale, what if a large number of cases diagnosed as paranoia or a related delusional psychosis in the nineteenth century had not been paranoia at all, but schizophrenia or a somatic illness?
81. Kraepelin was one of the first to suspect this. See Burton Peter Thom, 'Tertiary syphilitic psychoses other than paresis', American Journal of Psychiatry, lxxviii (1921), 503-9. For the implications of these developments for the hysteria diagnosis, see Mark S. Micale, 'On the "disappearance" of hysteria: a study in the clinical deconstruction of a diagnosis', Isis, Ixxxiv (1993), 496-526, 508-9. To paraphrase Micale, what if a large number of cases diagnosed as paranoia or a related delusional psychosis in the nineteenth century had not been paranoia at all, but schizophrenia or a somatic illness?
82. Michael Shepherd, 'An English view of American psychiatry', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxiv (1957), 417-20. Cited in Pierre J. Pichot, 'DSM-III and its reception: a European view', American Journal of Psychiatry, cliv, Supplement, (1997), 47-54, 49.
83. Michael Shepherd, 'An English view of American psychiatry', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxiv (1957), 417-20. Cited in Pierre J. Pichot, 'DSM-III and its reception: a European view', American Journal of Psychiatry, cliv, Supplement, (1997), 47-54, 49.
84. Gerald N. Grob, 'Origins of DSM-I: a study in appearance and reality', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxlviii (1991), 421-31. For more data on the occupational shift within U.S. psychiatry between 1940 and 1970, see Edward Shorter, A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac (New York: Wiley, 1997), 181. See also Gerald N. Grob, The Mad Among Us: A History of the Care of America's Mentally III (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994), especially Ch. 6.
85. Gerald N. Grob, 'Origins of DSM-I: a study in appearance and reality', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxlviii (1991), 421-31. For more data on the occupational shift within U.S. psychiatry between 1940 and 1970, see Edward Shorter, A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac (New York: Wiley, 1997), 181. See also Gerald N. Grob, The Mad Among Us: A History of the Care of America's Mentally III (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994), especially Ch. 6.
86. Gerald N. Grob, 'Origins of DSM-I: a study in appearance and reality', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxlviii (1991), 421-31. For more data on the occupational shift within U.S. psychiatry between 1940 and 1970, see Edward Shorter, A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac (New York: Wiley, 1997), 181. See also Gerald N. Grob, The Mad Among Us: A History of the Care of America's Mentally III (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994), especially Ch. 6.
87. G. N. Raines, 'Comment: the new nomenclature', American Journal of Psychiatry, cix (1953), 548-9.
88. Cited in Grob, 'Origins of DSM-I', 430.
89. Pichot, 'DSM-III and its reception: a European view', 49.
90. Henri Ellenberger, 'A comparison of European and American psychiatry', Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, xix (1955), 43-52, 49. Or as Robert Spitzer reminisced about APA annual meetings in the 1960s, 'academic psychiatrists interested in presenting their work on descriptive diagnosis would be scheduled for the final day in the late afternoon. No one would attend. Psychiatrists simply were not interested in the issue of diagnosis.' Mitchell Wilson, personal interview with Spitzer, 24 May 1989.
91. See Mitchell Wilson, 'DSM-III and the transformation of American psychiatry: a history', American Journal of Psychiatry, cl (1993), 399-410, 403. Another psychiatrist observed in 1959 that 'the attitude of many psychiatrists towards the conventional type of classification has become one of ambivalence, if not of cynicism.'
92. Erwin Stengel, 'Classification of mental disorders', Bulletin of the World Health Organization, xxi (1959), 601-63, 602.
93. Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, 178.
94. Pichot, 'DSM-III and its reception: a European view', 51.
95. R. E. Kendell, J. E. Cooper, and A. J. Gourlay, 'Diagnostic criteria of American and British psychiatrists', Archives of General Psychiatry, xxv (1971), 123-30. See also Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, 296; N. C. Andreasen, 'The American concept of schizophrenia', Schizophrenia Bulletin, xv (1989), 519-31. The U.S. predilection for the schizophrenia diagnosis meant that untold numbers of paranoids and people with affective disorders were being misdiagnosed and therefore incorrectly treated.
96. R. E. Kendell, J. E. Cooper, and A. J. Gourlay, 'Diagnostic criteria of American and British psychiatrists', Archives of General Psychiatry, xxv (1971), 123-30. See also Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, 296; N. C. Andreasen, 'The American concept of schizophrenia', Schizophrenia Bulletin, xv (1989), 519-31. The U.S. predilection for the schizophrenia diagnosis meant that untold numbers of paranoids and people with affective disorders were being misdiagnosed and therefore incorrectly treated.
97. R. E. Kendell, J. E. Cooper, and A. J. Gourlay, 'Diagnostic criteria of American and British psychiatrists', Archives of General Psychiatry, xxv (1971), 123-30. See also Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, 296; N. C. Andreasen, 'The American concept of schizophrenia', Schizophrenia Bulletin, xv (1989), 519-31. The U.S. predilection for the schizophrenia diagnosis meant that untold numbers of paranoids and people with affective disorders were being misdiagnosed and therefore incorrectly treated.
98. Hubert Bonner, 'The problem of diagnosis in paranoic disorder', American Journal of Psychiatry, cvii (1951), 677-83. Ronald Bayer and Robert L. Spitzer, 'Neurosis, psychodynamics, and DSM-III: a history of the controversy', Archives of General Psychiatry, xlii (1985), 187-98.
99. Hubert Bonner, 'The problem of diagnosis in paranoic disorder', American Journal of Psychiatry, cvii (1951), 677-83. Ronald Bayer and Robert L. Spitzer, 'Neurosis, psychodynamics, and DSM-III: a history of the controversy', Archives of General Psychiatry, xlii (1985), 187-98.
100. Kendler and Tsuang, 'Nosology of paranoid schizophrenia and other paranoid psychoses', 601. As the three authors of a book on paranoia stated in 1970: 'The syndrome of true paranoia is extremely rare, if it really occurs at all.' David W. Swanson, Philip J. Bohnert, Jackson A. Smith, The Paranoid (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970), 72.
101. Kendler and Tsuang, 'Nosology of paranoid schizophrenia and other paranoid psychoses', 601. As the three authors of a book on paranoia stated in 1970: 'The syndrome of true paranoia is extremely rare, if it really occurs at all.' David W. Swanson, Philip J. Bohnert, Jackson A. Smith, The Paranoid (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970), 72.
102. Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, 300. See also Wilson, 'DSM-III and the transformation of American psychiatry: a history'; and Pichot, 'DSM-III and its reception: a European view', 51-2.
103. Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, 300. See also Wilson, 'DSM-III and the transformation of American psychiatry: a history'; and Pichot, 'DSM-III and its reception: a European view', 51-2.
104. Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, 300. See also Wilson, 'DSM-III and the transformation of American psychiatry: a history'; and Pichot, 'DSM-III and its reception: a European view', 51-2.
105. John P. Feigner, Eli Robins, Samuel Guze, Robert A. Woodruff, George Winokur, and Rodrigo Muñoz, 'Diagnostic criteria for use in psychiatric research', Archives of General Psychiatry, xxvi (1972), 57-63. See also Robert Spitzer et al., 'Schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders in DSM-III', Schizophrenia Bulletin, iv (1978), 489-509. For more on Spitzer, including his contributions to DSM-II, see Stuart A. Kirk and Herb Kutchins, The Selling of DSM: The Rhetoric of Science in Psychiatry (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 1992), 56-63, 77-90, 91-7, 99-103, 133-4.
106. John P. Feigner, Eli Robins, Samuel Guze, Robert A. Woodruff, George Winokur, and Rodrigo Muñoz, 'Diagnostic criteria for use in psychiatric research', Archives of General Psychiatry, xxvi (1972), 57-63. See also Robert Spitzer et al., 'Schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders in DSM-III', Schizophrenia Bulletin, iv (1978), 489-509. For more on Spitzer, including his contributions to DSM-II, see Stuart A. Kirk and Herb Kutchins, The Selling of DSM: The Rhetoric of Science in Psychiatry (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 1992), 56-63, 77-90, 91-7, 99-103, 133-4.
107. John P. Feigner, Eli Robins, Samuel Guze, Robert A. Woodruff, George Winokur, and Rodrigo Muñoz, 'Diagnostic criteria for use in psychiatric research', Archives of General Psychiatry, xxvi (1972), 57-63. See also Robert Spitzer et al., 'Schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders in DSM-III', Schizophrenia Bulletin, iv (1978), 489-509. For more on Spitzer, including his contributions to DSM-II, see Stuart A. Kirk and Herb Kutchins, The Selling of DSM: The Rhetoric of Science in Psychiatry (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 1992), 56-63, 77-90, 91-7, 99-103, 133-4.
108. Roger K. Blashfield, 'Feigner et al., Invisible colleges, and the Matthew effect', Schizophrenia Bulletin, viii (1982), 1-6. In using the phrase 'invisible college' Blashfield purposely invoked the memory of the seventeenth
109. Roger K. Blashfield, 'Feigner et al., Invisible colleges, and the Matthew effect', Schizophrenia Bulletin, viii (1982), 1-6. In using the phrase 'invisible college' Blashfield purposely invoked the memory of the seventeenth century collection of scientists who eventually formed the Royal Society of London. He defined it as a group of 'intellectuals who had a sense of allegiance to each other and who frequently interacted both professionally and socially.' (3) See also Gerald Klerman, 'The contemporary American scene: diagnosis and classification of mental disorders, alcoholism and drug abuse', in Norman Sartorius et al. (eds), Sources and Traditions of Classification in Psychiatry (Toronto: Hogrefe, 1990), 93-138. Ronald Bayer and Robert L. Spitzer, 'Neurosis, psychodynamics, and DSM-III', Archives of General Psychiatry, xlii (1985), 187-96, 188.
110. Roger K. Blashfield, 'Feigner et al., Invisible colleges, and the Matthew effect', Schizophrenia Bulletin, viii (1982), 1-6. In using the phrase 'invisible college' Blashfield purposely invoked the memory of the seventeenth century collection of scientists who eventually formed the Royal Society of London. He defined it as a group of 'intellectuals who had a sense of allegiance to each other and who frequently interacted both professionally and socially.' (3) See also Gerald Klerman, 'The contemporary American scene: diagnosis and classification of mental disorders, alcoholism and drug abuse', in Norman Sartorius et al. (eds), Sources and Traditions of Classification in Psychiatry (Toronto: Hogrefe, 1990), 93-138. Ronald Bayer and Robert L. Spitzer, 'Neurosis, psychodynamics, and DSM-III', Archives of General Psychiatry, xlii (1985), 187-96, 188.
111. Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, 300-2.
112. Charles W. Miller, 'The paranoid syndrome', Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, xlv (1941), 953-63, 953.
113. Bayer and Spitzer, 'Neurosis, psychodynamics, and DSM-III', 187-8. As a prominent psychiatrist remarked, the qualified reinstatement of neurosis at the last moment 'was a minor capitulation to psychoanalytic nostalgia.' Mitchell Wilson, 18 August 1989 interview with Donald Klein. Wilson, 'DSM-III and the transformation of American psychiatry: a history', 407. From another perspective, Shorter has called this a 'clearly political sop to a major interest group [that] had nothing to do with science.' Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, 304. For more on the thesis that the revisions of the DSM were driven principally by non-clinical considerations, see Kirk and Kutchins, The Selling of DSM, passim.
114. Bayer and Spitzer, 'Neurosis, psychodynamics, and DSM-III', 187-8. As a prominent psychiatrist remarked, the qualified reinstatement of neurosis at the last moment 'was a minor capitulation to psychoanalytic nostalgia.' Mitchell Wilson, 18 August 1989 interview with Donald Klein. Wilson, 'DSM-III and the transformation of American psychiatry: a history', 407. From another perspective, Shorter has called this a 'clearly political sop to a major interest group [that] had nothing to do with science.' Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, 304. For more on the thesis that the revisions of the DSM were driven principally by non-clinical considerations, see Kirk and Kutchins, The Selling of DSM, passim.
115. Bayer and Spitzer, 'Neurosis, psychodynamics, and DSM-III', 187-8. As a prominent psychiatrist remarked, the qualified reinstatement of neurosis at the last moment 'was a minor capitulation to psychoanalytic nostalgia.' Mitchell Wilson, 18 August 1989 interview with Donald Klein. Wilson, 'DSM-III and the transformation of American psychiatry: a history', 407. From another perspective, Shorter has called this a 'clearly political sop to a major interest group [that] had nothing to do with science.' Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, 304. For more on the thesis that the revisions of the DSM were driven principally by non-clinical considerations, see Kirk and Kutchins, The Selling of DSM, passim.
116. Bayer and Spitzer, 'Neurosis, psychodynamics, and DSM-III', 187-8. As a prominent psychiatrist remarked, the qualified reinstatement of neurosis at the last moment 'was a minor capitulation to psychoanalytic nostalgia.' Mitchell Wilson, 18 August 1989 interview with Donald Klein. Wilson, 'DSM-III and the transformation of American psychiatry: a history', 407. From another perspective, Shorter has called this a 'clearly political sop to a major interest group [that] had nothing to do with science.' Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, 304. For more on the thesis that the revisions of the DSM were driven principally by non-clinical considerations, see Kirk and Kutchins, The Selling of DSM, passim.
117. See the comments of Martin M. Katz in his reply to Roger Blashfield's 'Feigner et al., Invisible colleges, and the Matthew effect', Schizophrenia Bulletin, viii (1982), 1-6, 9-10.
118. S. M. Schappert, 'Office visits to psychiatrists: United States, 1989-1990', Advance Data from Vital and Health Statistics, no. 237 (Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics, 1993), table 6, 6. Cited in Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, 291. Over the course of a lifetime almost one American in five was estimated to suffer from an often disabling mood disorder. Ronald C. Kessler et al, 'Lifetime and twelve-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorder in the United States', Archives of General Psychiatry, li (1994), 8-19, 12. In 1994 Consumer Reports (November 1994) stated that 'More than 50 million American adults suffer from a mental or addictive disorder at any given time.' (:734) As Shorter notes, 'By 1970, at least 66 percent of all American psychiatrists were in private practice, in reality doubtless more because many of those with appointments in hospitals and universities also had private offices on the side. Of those psychiatrists who in 1941 had been entirely in hospitals and asylums, by 1962 half had gone over to private practice.' Ibid., 181.
119. S. M. Schappert, 'Office visits to psychiatrists: United States, 1989-1990', Advance Data from Vital and Health Statistics, no. 237 (Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics, 1993), table 6, 6. Cited in Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, 291. Over the course of a lifetime almost one American in five was estimated to suffer from an often disabling mood disorder. Ronald C. Kessler et al, 'Lifetime and twelve-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorder in the United States', Archives of General Psychiatry, li (1994), 8-19, 12. In 1994 Consumer Reports (November 1994) stated that 'More than 50 million American adults suffer from a mental or addictive disorder at any given time.' (:734) As Shorter notes, 'By 1970, at least 66 percent of all American psychiatrists were in private practice, in reality doubtless more because many of those with appointments in hospitals and universities also had private offices on the side. Of those psychiatrists who in 1941 had been entirely in hospitals and asylums, by 1962 half had gone over to private practice.' Ibid., 181.
120. S. M. Schappert, 'Office visits to psychiatrists: United States, 1989-1990', Advance Data from Vital and Health Statistics, no. 237 (Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics, 1993), table 6, 6. Cited in Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, 291. Over the course of a lifetime almost one American in five was estimated to suffer from an often disabling mood disorder. Ronald C. Kessler et al, 'Lifetime and twelve-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorder in the United States', Archives of General Psychiatry, li (1994), 8-19, 12. In 1994 Consumer Reports (November 1994) stated that 'More than 50 million American adults suffer from a mental or addictive disorder at any given time.' (:734) As Shorter notes, 'By 1970, at least 66 percent of all American psychiatrists were in private practice, in reality doubtless more because many of those with appointments in hospitals and universities also had private offices on the side. Of those psychiatrists who in 1941 had been entirely in hospitals and asylums, by 1962 half had gone over to private practice.' Ibid., 181.
121. S. M. Schappert, 'Office visits to psychiatrists: United States, 1989-1990', Advance Data from Vital and Health Statistics, no. 237 (Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics, 1993), table 6, 6. Cited in Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, 291. Over the course of a lifetime almost one American in five was estimated to suffer from an often disabling mood disorder. Ronald C. Kessler et al, 'Lifetime and twelve-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorder in the United States', Archives of General Psychiatry, li (1994), 8-19, 12. In 1994 Consumer Reports (November 1994) stated that 'More than 50 million American adults suffer from a mental or addictive disorder at any given time.' (:734) As Shorter notes, 'By 1970, at least 66 percent of all American psychiatrists were in private practice, in reality doubtless more because many of those with appointments in hospitals and universities also had private offices on the side. Of those psychiatrists who in 1941 had been entirely in hospitals and asylums, by 1962 half had gone over to private practice.' Ibid., 181.
122. Kirk and Kutchins, The Selling of DSM, 225-7, 234; Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, 289-93. 'Bottomless pit' is APA Medical Director Melvin Sabshin's phrase. Mitchell Wilson, 17 July 1989 interview with Sabshin. Wilson, 'DSM-III and the transformation of American psychiatry: a history', 403. See also Sabshin's 'Preface' (ix-x) in Roben L Spitzer, Janet B. W. Williams and Andrew E. Skodol (eds), International Perspectives on DSM-III (Washington, DC: American Psychiatrie Press, 1983).
123. Kirk and Kutchins, The Selling of DSM, 225-7, 234; Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, 289-93. 'Bottomless pit' is APA Medical Director Melvin Sabshin's phrase. Mitchell Wilson, 17 July 1989 interview with Sabshin. Wilson, 'DSM-III and the transformation of American psychiatry: a history', 403. See also Sabshin's 'Preface' (ix-x) in Roben L Spitzer, Janet B. W. Williams and Andrew E. Skodol (eds), International Perspectives on DSM-III (Washington, DC: American Psychiatrie Press, 1983).
124. Kirk and Kutchins, The Selling of DSM, 225-7, 234; Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, 289-93. 'Bottomless pit' is APA Medical Director Melvin Sabshin's phrase. Mitchell Wilson, 17 July 1989 interview with Sabshin. Wilson, 'DSM-III and the transformation of American psychiatry: a history', 403. See also Sabshin's 'Preface' (ix-x) in Roben L Spitzer, Janet B. W. Williams and Andrew E. Skodol (eds), International Perspectives on DSM-III (Washington, DC: American Psychiatrie Press, 1983).
125. Kirk and Kutchins, The Selling of DSM, 225-7, 234; Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, 289-93. 'Bottomless pit' is APA Medical Director Melvin Sabshin's phrase. Mitchell Wilson, 17 July 1989 interview with Sabshin. Wilson, 'DSM-III and the transformation of American psychiatry: a history', 403. See also Sabshin's 'Preface' (ix-x) in Roben L Spitzer, Janet B. W. Williams and Andrew E. Skodol (eds), International Perspectives on DSM-III (Washington, DC: American Psychiatrie Press, 1983).
126. E. F. Torrey, The Death of Psychiatry (Radnor, PA: Chilton, 1974); H. J. Eysenck, 'The effects of psychotherapy: an evaluation', Journal of Consulting Psychology, xvi (1952), 319-23. Ronald Bayer, Homosexuality and American Psychiatry: The Politics of Diagnosis (New York: Basic, 1981).
127. E. F. Torrey, The Death of Psychiatry (Radnor, PA: Chilton, 1974); H. J. Eysenck, 'The effects of psychotherapy: an evaluation', Journal of Consulting Psychology, xvi (1952), 319-23. Ronald Bayer, Homosexuality and American Psychiatry: The Politics of Diagnosis (New York: Basic, 1981).
128. E. F. Torrey, The Death of Psychiatry (Radnor, PA: Chilton, 1974); H. J. Eysenck, 'The effects of psychotherapy: an evaluation', Journal of Consulting Psychology, xvi (1952), 319-23. Ronald Bayer, Homosexuality and American Psychiatry: The Politics of Diagnosis (New York: Basic, 1981).
129. Theo C. Manschreck, 'Delusional (paranoid) disorders', in Harold I. Kaplan and Benjamin J. Sadock (eds), Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1989), 827. See also Bleuler, Textbook of Psychiatry, 528, where he notes that differential diagnosis in paranoia is 'a negative one: delusional systems, besides which no signs of another disease can be found, are to be considered paranoic.'
130. Theo C. Manschreck, 'Delusional (paranoid) disorders', in Harold I. Kaplan and Benjamin J. Sadock (eds), Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1989), 827. See also Bleuler, Textbook of Psychiatry, 528, where he notes that differential diagnosis in paranoia is 'a negative one: delusional systems, besides which no signs of another disease can be found, are to be considered paranoic.'
131. Spitzer, Williams, and Skodol (eds), International Perspectives on DSM-III, 349. Evidence there was a clear perception within the psychiatric community that the differential diagnosis of paranoia and schizophrenia was a timely and pressing matter is the 1981 issue of the Schizophrenia Bulletin devoted to paranoia. See Peter A. Magaro, 'Editorial introduction: the paranoid as an emerging character', Schizophrenia Bulletin, vii (1981), 586-7. The differential diagnosis of schizophrenia and affective disorder was equally controversial, according to Kenneth Kendler. Kenneth S. Kendler, 'Kraepelin and the differential diagnosis of dementia praecox and manic-depressive insanity', Comprehensive Psychiatry, xxvii (1986), 549-58.
132. Spitzer, Williams, and Skodol (eds), International Perspectives on DSM-III, 349. Evidence there was a clear perception within the psychiatric community that the differential diagnosis of paranoia and schizophrenia was a timely and pressing matter is the 1981 issue of the Schizophrenia Bulletin devoted to paranoia. See Peter A. Magaro, 'Editorial introduction: the paranoid as an emerging character', Schizophrenia Bulletin, vii (1981), 586-7. The differential diagnosis of schizophrenia and affective disorder was equally controversial, according to Kenneth Kendler. Kenneth S. Kendler, 'Kraepelin and the differential diagnosis of dementia praecox and manic-depressive insanity', Comprehensive Psychiatry, xxvii (1986), 549-58.
133. Spitzer, Williams, and Skodol (eds), International Perspectives on DSM-III, 349. Evidence there was a clear perception within the psychiatric community that the differential diagnosis of paranoia and schizophrenia was a timely and pressing matter is the 1981 issue of the Schizophrenia Bulletin devoted to paranoia. See Peter A. Magaro, 'Editorial introduction: the paranoid as an emerging character', Schizophrenia Bulletin, vii (1981), 586-7. The differential diagnosis of schizophrenia and affective disorder was equally controversial, according to Kenneth Kendler. Kenneth S. Kendler, 'Kraepelin and the differential diagnosis of dementia praecox and manic-depressive insanity', Comprehensive Psychiatry, xxvii (1986), 549-58.
134. American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Third edn (Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1980), 195-7. Kendler and Tsuang, 'Nosology of paranoid schizophrenia and other paranoid psychoses', 601-10, 608.
135. American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Third edn (Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1980), 195-7. Kendler and Tsuang, 'Nosology of paranoid schizophrenia and other paranoid psychoses', 601-10, 608.
136. George Winokur, 'Delusional disorder (paranoia)', Comprehensive Psychiatry, xviii (1977), 511-22, 512. See also Winokur, 'Classification of chronic psychoses including delusional disorders and schizophrenia', Psychopathology, xix (1986), 30-4.
137. George Winokur, 'Delusional disorder (paranoia)', Comprehensive Psychiatry, xviii (1977), 511-22, 512. See also Winokur, 'Classification of chronic psychoses including delusional disorders and schizophrenia', Psychopathology, xix (1986), 30-4.
138. See Spitzer, Williams, and Skodol (eds), International Perspectives on DSM-III, 64-5, 75, 140-1, 223-4, 349.
139. Stengel, 'Classification of mental disorders', 602. See also John S. Strauss, reply to Blashfield's 'Feighner et al., Invisible colleges, and the Matthew eflfect', 8. Ian Dowbiggin, interview with Kenneth Kendler, 12 September 1997.
140. Stengel, 'Classification of mental disorders', 602. See also John S. Strauss, reply to Blashfield's 'Feighner et al., Invisible colleges, and the Matthew eflfect', 8. Ian Dowbiggin, interview with Kenneth Kendler, 12 September 1997.
141. Kenneth S. Kendler, 'Are there delusions specific for paranoid disorders vs. schizophrenia?' Schizophrenia Bulletin, vi (1980), 1-3, 3. See also Kendler and Tsaung, 'Nosology of paranoid schizophrenia and other paranoid psychoses'; Kendler, 'The nosologie validity of paranoia (simple delusional disorder)', Archives of General Psychiatry, xxxvii (1980), 699-706; Kendler and P. Hays, 'Paranoid psychosis (delusional disorder) and schizophrenia: a family history study', ibid., xxxviii (1981), 547-51; 'Demography of paranoid psychosis (delusional disorder): a review and comparison with schizophrenia and affective illness', ibid., xxxix (1982), 891-902; 'Paranoia (delusional disorder): a valid psychiatric entity?' Trends in the Neurosciences, vii (1984), 14-17; 'Paranoid disorders in DSM-III', in Gary L. Tischler (ed.), Diagnosis and Classification in Psychiatry: A Critical Appraisal of DSM-III (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 300-20. Kendler referred to himself as Spitzer's 'protégé' in the early 1980s. Author's interview with Kenneth S. Kendler, 12 September 1997.
142. Kenneth S. Kendler, 'Are there delusions specific for paranoid disorders vs. schizophrenia?' Schizophrenia Bulletin, vi (1980), 1-3, 3. See also Kendler and Tsaung, 'Nosology of paranoid schizophrenia and other paranoid psychoses'; Kendler, 'The nosologie validity of paranoia (simple delusional disorder)', Archives of General Psychiatry, xxxvii (1980), 699-706; Kendler and P. Hays, 'Paranoid psychosis (delusional disorder) and schizophrenia: a family history study', ibid., xxxviii (1981), 547-51; 'Demography of paranoid psychosis (delusional disorder): a review and comparison with schizophrenia and affective illness', ibid., xxxix (1982), 891-902; 'Paranoia (delusional disorder): a valid psychiatric entity?' Trends in the Neurosciences, vii (1984), 14-17; 'Paranoid disorders in DSM-III', in Gary L. Tischler (ed.), Diagnosis and Classification in Psychiatry: A Critical Appraisal of DSM-III (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 300-20. Kendler referred to himself as Spitzer's 'protégé' in the early 1980s. Author's interview with Kenneth S. Kendler, 12 September 1997.
143. Kenneth S. Kendler, 'Are there delusions specific for paranoid disorders vs. schizophrenia?' Schizophrenia Bulletin, vi (1980), 1-3, 3. See also Kendler and Tsaung, 'Nosology of paranoid schizophrenia and other paranoid psychoses'; Kendler, 'The nosologie validity of paranoia (simple delusional disorder)', Archives of General Psychiatry, xxxvii (1980), 699-706; Kendler and P. Hays, 'Paranoid psychosis (delusional disorder) and schizophrenia: a family history study', ibid., xxxviii (1981), 547-51; 'Demography of paranoid psychosis (delusional disorder): a review and comparison with schizophrenia and affective illness', ibid., xxxix (1982), 891-902; 'Paranoia (delusional disorder): a valid psychiatric entity?' Trends in the Neurosciences, vii (1984), 14-17; 'Paranoid disorders in DSM-III', in Gary L. Tischler (ed.), Diagnosis and Classification in Psychiatry: A Critical Appraisal of DSM-III (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 300-20. Kendler referred to himself as Spitzer's 'protégé' in the early 1980s. Author's interview with Kenneth S. Kendler, 12 September 1997.
144. Kenneth S. Kendler, 'Are there delusions specific for paranoid disorders vs. schizophrenia?' Schizophrenia Bulletin, vi (1980), 1-3, 3. See also Kendler and Tsaung, 'Nosology of paranoid schizophrenia and other paranoid psychoses'; Kendler, 'The nosologie validity of paranoia (simple delusional disorder)', Archives of General Psychiatry, xxxvii (1980), 699-706; Kendler and P. Hays, 'Paranoid psychosis (delusional disorder) and schizophrenia: a family history study', ibid., xxxviii (1981), 547-51; 'Demography of paranoid psychosis (delusional disorder): a review and comparison with schizophrenia and affective illness', ibid., xxxix (1982), 891-902; 'Paranoia (delusional disorder): a valid psychiatric entity?' Trends in the Neurosciences, vii (1984), 14-17; 'Paranoid disorders in DSM-III', in Gary L. Tischler (ed.), Diagnosis and Classification in Psychiatry: A Critical Appraisal of DSM-III (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 300-20. Kendler referred to himself as Spitzer's 'protégé' in the early 1980s. Author's interview with Kenneth S. Kendler, 12 September 1997.
145. Kenneth S. Kendler, 'Are there delusions specific for paranoid disorders vs. schizophrenia?' Schizophrenia Bulletin, vi (1980), 1-3, 3. See also Kendler and Tsaung, 'Nosology of paranoid schizophrenia and other paranoid psychoses'; Kendler, 'The nosologie validity of paranoia (simple delusional disorder)', Archives of General Psychiatry, xxxvii (1980), 699-706; Kendler and P. Hays, 'Paranoid psychosis (delusional disorder) and schizophrenia: a family history study', ibid., xxxviii (1981), 547-51; 'Demography of paranoid psychosis (delusional disorder): a review and comparison with schizophrenia and affective illness', ibid., xxxix (1982), 891-902; 'Paranoia (delusional disorder): a valid psychiatric entity?' Trends in the Neurosciences, vii (1984), 14-17; 'Paranoid disorders in DSM-III', in Gary L. Tischler (ed.), Diagnosis and Classification in Psychiatry: A Critical Appraisal of DSM-III (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 300-20. Kendler referred to himself as Spitzer's 'protégé' in the early 1980s. Author's interview with Kenneth S. Kendler, 12 September 1997.
146. Kenneth S. Kendler, 'Are there delusions specific for paranoid disorders vs. schizophrenia?' Schizophrenia Bulletin, vi (1980), 1-3, 3. See also Kendler and Tsaung, 'Nosology of paranoid schizophrenia and other paranoid psychoses'; Kendler, 'The nosologie validity of paranoia (simple delusional disorder)', Archives of General Psychiatry, xxxvii (1980), 699-706; Kendler and P. Hays, 'Paranoid psychosis (delusional disorder) and schizophrenia: a family history study', ibid., xxxviii (1981), 547-51; 'Demography of paranoid psychosis (delusional disorder): a review and comparison with schizophrenia and affective illness', ibid., xxxix (1982), 891-902; 'Paranoia (delusional disorder): a valid psychiatric entity?' Trends in the Neurosciences, vii (1984), 14-17; 'Paranoid disorders in DSM-III', in Gary L. Tischler (ed.), Diagnosis and Classification in Psychiatry: A Critical Appraisal of DSM-III (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 300-20. Kendler referred to himself as Spitzer's 'protégé' in the early 1980s. Author's interview with Kenneth S. Kendler, 12 September 1997.
147. Kenneth S. Kendler, 'Are there delusions specific for paranoid disorders vs. schizophrenia?' Schizophrenia Bulletin, vi (1980), 1-3, 3. See also Kendler and Tsaung, 'Nosology of paranoid schizophrenia and other paranoid psychoses'; Kendler, 'The nosologie validity of paranoia (simple delusional disorder)', Archives of General Psychiatry, xxxvii (1980), 699-706; Kendler and P. Hays, 'Paranoid psychosis (delusional disorder) and schizophrenia: a family history study', ibid., xxxviii (1981), 547-51; 'Demography of paranoid psychosis (delusional disorder): a review and comparison with schizophrenia and affective illness', ibid., xxxix (1982), 891-902; 'Paranoia (delusional disorder): a valid psychiatric entity?' Trends in the Neurosciences, vii (1984), 14-17; 'Paranoid disorders in DSM-III', in Gary L. Tischler (ed.), Diagnosis and Classification in Psychiatry: A Critical Appraisal of DSM-III (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 300-20. Kendler referred to himself as Spitzer's 'protégé' in the early 1980s. Author's interview with Kenneth S. Kendler, 12 September 1997.
148. Alistair Munro, 'Paranoia revisited', British Journal of Psychiatry, cxli (1982), 344-9, 347.
149. Alistair Munro, 'Monosymptomatic hypochondriacal psychosis manifesting as delusions of parasitosis', Archives of Dermatology, cxiv (1978), 940-3; 'Monosymptomatic hypochondriacal psychosis', British Journal of Hospital Medicine, xxiv (1980), 34-8.
150. Alistair Munro, 'Monosymptomatic hypochondriacal psychosis manifesting as delusions of parasitosis', Archives of Dermatology, cxiv (1978), 940-3; 'Monosymptomatic hypochondriacal psychosis', British Journal of Hospital Medicine, xxiv (1980), 34-8.
151. Alistair Munro, 'Paranoia revisited', 346. See also Alistair Munro, 'Excellent response of pathologic jealousy to pimozide', Canadian Medical Association Journal, cxxxi (1984), 852-3; Alistair Munro, James V. O'Brien and Dawn Ross, 'Two cases of "pure" or "primary" erotomania successfully treated with Pimozide', Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, xxx (1985), 619-22; S. M. Dursun, V. M. Matthew and M. A. Reveley, 'Pimozide treatment of a male case with De Clérambault's syndrome and schizophrenia', Journal of Psychopharmacology, viii (1994), 185-6. See also Lewis A. Opler and S. Shalom Feinberg, 'The role of Pimozide in clinical psychiatry: a review', Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, lii (1991), 221-33.
152. Alistair Munro, 'Paranoia revisited', 346. See also Alistair Munro, 'Excellent response of pathologic jealousy to pimozide', Canadian Medical Association Journal, cxxxi (1984), 852-3; Alistair Munro, James V. O'Brien and Dawn Ross, 'Two cases of "pure" or "primary" erotomania successfully treated with Pimozide', Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, xxx (1985), 619-22; S. M. Dursun, V. M. Matthew and M. A. Reveley, 'Pimozide treatment of a male case with De Clérambault's syndrome and schizophrenia', Journal of Psychopharmacology, viii (1994), 185-6. See also Lewis A. Opler and S. Shalom Feinberg, 'The role of Pimozide in clinical psychiatry: a review', Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, lii (1991), 221-33.
153. Alistair Munro, 'Paranoia revisited', 346. See also Alistair Munro, 'Excellent response of pathologic jealousy to pimozide', Canadian Medical Association Journal, cxxxi (1984), 852-3; Alistair Munro, James V. O'Brien and Dawn Ross, 'Two cases of "pure" or "primary" erotomania successfully treated with Pimozide', Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, xxx (1985), 619-22; S. M. Dursun, V. M. Matthew and M. A. Reveley, 'Pimozide treatment of a male case with De Clérambault's syndrome and schizophrenia', Journal of Psychopharmacology, viii (1994), 185-6. See also Lewis A. Opler and S. Shalom Feinberg, 'The role of Pimozide in clinical psychiatry: a review', Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, lii (1991), 221-33.
154. Alistair Munro, 'Paranoia revisited', 346. See also Alistair Munro, 'Excellent response of pathologic jealousy to pimozide', Canadian Medical Association Journal, cxxxi (1984), 852-3; Alistair Munro, James V. O'Brien and Dawn Ross, 'Two cases of "pure" or "primary" erotomania successfully treated with Pimozide', Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, xxx (1985), 619-22; S. M. Dursun, V. M. Matthew and M. A. Reveley, 'Pimozide treatment of a male case with De Clérambault's syndrome and schizophrenia', Journal of Psychopharmacology, viii (1994), 185-6. See also Lewis A. Opler and S. Shalom Feinberg, 'The role of Pimozide in clinical psychiatry: a review', Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, lii (1991), 221-33.
155. Alistair Munro, 'Paranoia revisited', 346. See also Alistair Munro, 'Excellent response of pathologic jealousy to pimozide', Canadian Medical Association Journal, cxxxi (1984), 852-3; Alistair Munro, James V. O'Brien and Dawn Ross, 'Two cases of "pure" or "primary" erotomania successfully treated with Pimozide', Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, xxx (1985), 619-22; S. M. Dursun, V. M. Matthew and M. A. Reveley, 'Pimozide treatment of a male case with De Clérambault's syndrome and schizophrenia', Journal of Psychopharmacology, viii (1994), 185-6. See also Lewis A. Opler and S. Shalom Feinberg, 'The role of Pimozide in clinical psychiatry: a review', Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, lii (1991), 221-33.
156. Alistair Munro, 'Paranoid (delusional) disorders: DSM-III-R and beyond', Comprehensive Psychiatry, xxviii (1987), 35-9, 35.
157. Munro, 'Paranoid (delusional) disorders: DSM-III-R and beyond', 37.
158. As Munro wrote in 1987, 'in most people's minds, "paranoid" has a very negative connotation.' 'Paranoid (delusional) disorders: DSM-III-R and beyond', 37. For more on the tendency of clinicians to use 'the least noxious diagnosis' and clients' awareness of the stigmatizing potential of some diagnoses, see Kirk and Kutchins, The Setting of DSM, 232-3.
159. As Kendler, et al. noted in 1989, because olfactory, tactile and somatic hallucinations were common in somatic delusional disorder syndromes, the DSM-III description was changed. Kenneth S. Kendler, Robert L. Spitzer and Janet B. W. Williams, 'Psychotic disorders in DSM-III-R', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxlvi (1989), 953-60, 956.
160. See German E. Berrios, 'Obsessive-compulsive disorder: clinical section', in Berrios and Porter (eds), A History of Clinical Psychiatry, 572-92, 586. See also A. Gordon, 'Transitions of obsessions into delusions', American Journal of Psychiatry, cvii (1950), 455-8; T. R. Insel and H. S. Akiskal, 'Obsessive-compulsive disorder with psychotic features: a phenomenologic analysis', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxliii (1986), 1527-33; C. F. Fear, H. Sharp and D. Healy, 'Obsessive-compulsive and delusional disorders compared', Journal of Serotonin Research, i, Supplement 1, (1995), 1-18. Thomas R. Insel, 'Forward', in Michele Tortora Pato and Joseph Zohar (eds), Current Treatments of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1991), xv-xvii. See also Joseph Zohar and Michele Tortora Pato, 'Diagnostic considerations', ibid., 1-12; C. P. Freeman, 'What is obsessive-compulsive disorder? The clinical syndrome and its boundaries', International Clinical Psychopharmacology, vii, Supplement 1, (1992), 11-18.
161. See German E. Berrios, 'Obsessive-compulsive disorder: clinical section', in Berrios and Porter (eds), A History of Clinical Psychiatry, 572-92, 586. See also A. Gordon, 'Transitions of obsessions into delusions', American Journal of Psychiatry, cvii (1950), 455-8; T. R. Insel and H. S. Akiskal, 'Obsessive-compulsive disorder with psychotic features: a phenomenologic analysis', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxliii (1986), 1527-33; C. F. Fear, H. Sharp and D. Healy, 'Obsessive-compulsive and delusional disorders compared', Journal of Serotonin Research, i, Supplement 1, (1995), 1-18. Thomas R. Insel, 'Forward', in Michele Tortora Pato and Joseph Zohar (eds), Current Treatments of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1991), xv-xvii. See also Joseph Zohar and Michele Tortora Pato, 'Diagnostic considerations', ibid., 1-12; C. P. Freeman, 'What is obsessive-compulsive disorder? The clinical syndrome and its boundaries', International Clinical Psychopharmacology, vii, Supplement 1, (1992), 11-18.
162. See German E. Berrios, 'Obsessive-compulsive disorder: clinical section', in Berrios and Porter (eds), A History of Clinical Psychiatry, 572-92, 586. See also A. Gordon, 'Transitions of obsessions into delusions', American Journal of Psychiatry, cvii (1950), 455-8; T. R. Insel and H. S. Akiskal, 'Obsessive-compulsive disorder with psychotic features: a phenomenologic analysis', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxliii (1986), 1527-33; C. F. Fear, H. Sharp and D. Healy, 'Obsessive-compulsive and delusional disorders compared', Journal of Serotonin Research, i, Supplement 1, (1995), 1-18. Thomas R. Insel, 'Forward', in Michele Tortora Pato and Joseph Zohar (eds), Current Treatments of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1991), xv-xvii. See also Joseph Zohar and Michele Tortora Pato, 'Diagnostic considerations', ibid., 1-12; C. P. Freeman, 'What is obsessive-compulsive disorder? The clinical syndrome and its boundaries', International Clinical Psychopharmacology, vii, Supplement 1, (1992), 11-18.
163. See German E. Berrios, 'Obsessive-compulsive disorder: clinical section', in Berrios and Porter (eds), A History of Clinical Psychiatry, 572-92, 586. See also A. Gordon, 'Transitions of obsessions into delusions', American Journal of Psychiatry, cvii (1950), 455-8; T. R. Insel and H. S. Akiskal, 'Obsessive-compulsive disorder with psychotic features: a phenomenologic analysis', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxliii (1986), 1527-33; C. F. Fear, H. Sharp and D. Healy, 'Obsessive-compulsive and delusional disorders compared', Journal of Serotonin Research, i, Supplement 1, (1995), 1-18. Thomas R. Insel, 'Forward', in Michele Tortora Pato and Joseph Zohar (eds), Current Treatments of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1991), xv-xvii. See also Joseph Zohar and Michele Tortora Pato, 'Diagnostic considerations', ibid., 1-12; C. P. Freeman, 'What is obsessive-compulsive disorder? The clinical syndrome and its boundaries', International Clinical Psychopharmacology, vii, Supplement 1, (1992), 11-18.
164. See German E. Berrios, 'Obsessive-compulsive disorder: clinical section', in Berrios and Porter (eds), A History of Clinical Psychiatry, 572-92, 586. See also A. Gordon, 'Transitions of obsessions into delusions', American Journal of Psychiatry, cvii (1950), 455-8; T. R. Insel and H. S. Akiskal, 'Obsessive-compulsive disorder with psychotic features: a phenomenologic analysis', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxliii (1986), 1527-33; C. F. Fear, H. Sharp and D. Healy, 'Obsessive-compulsive and delusional disorders compared', Journal of Serotonin Research, i, Supplement 1, (1995), 1-18. Thomas R. Insel, 'Forward', in Michele Tortora Pato and Joseph Zohar (eds), Current Treatments of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1991), xv-xvii. See also Joseph Zohar and Michele Tortora Pato, 'Diagnostic considerations', ibid., 1-12; C. P. Freeman, 'What is obsessive-compulsive disorder? The clinical syndrome and its boundaries', International Clinical Psychopharmacology, vii, Supplement 1, (1992), 11-18.
165. See German E. Berrios, 'Obsessive-compulsive disorder: clinical section', in Berrios and Porter (eds), A History of Clinical Psychiatry, 572-92, 586. See also A. Gordon, 'Transitions of obsessions into delusions', American Journal of Psychiatry, cvii (1950), 455-8; T. R. Insel and H. S. Akiskal, 'Obsessive-compulsive disorder with psychotic features: a phenomenologic analysis', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxliii (1986), 1527-33; C. F. Fear, H. Sharp and D. Healy, 'Obsessive-compulsive and delusional disorders compared', Journal of Serotonin Research, i, Supplement 1, (1995), 1-18. Thomas R. Insel, 'Forward', in Michele Tortora Pato and Joseph Zohar (eds), Current Treatments of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1991), xv-xvii. See also Joseph Zohar and Michele Tortora Pato, 'Diagnostic considerations', ibid., 1-12; C. P. Freeman, 'What is obsessive-compulsive disorder? The clinical syndrome and its boundaries', International Clinical Psychopharmacology, vii, Supplement 1, (1992), 11-18.
166. See German E. Berrios, 'Obsessive-compulsive disorder: clinical section', in Berrios and Porter (eds), A History of Clinical Psychiatry, 572-92, 586. See also A. Gordon, 'Transitions of obsessions into delusions', American Journal of Psychiatry, cvii (1950), 455-8; T. R. Insel and H. S. Akiskal, 'Obsessive-compulsive disorder with psychotic features: a phenomenologic analysis', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxliii (1986), 1527-33; C. F. Fear, H. Sharp and D. Healy, 'Obsessive-compulsive and delusional disorders compared', Journal of Serotonin Research, i, Supplement 1, (1995), 1-18. Thomas R. Insel, 'Forward', in Michele Tortora Pato and Joseph Zohar (eds), Current Treatments of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1991), xv-xvii. See also Joseph Zohar and Michele Tortora Pato, 'Diagnostic considerations', ibid., 1-12; C. P. Freeman, 'What is obsessive-compulsive disorder? The clinical syndrome and its boundaries', International Clinical Psychopharmacology, vii, Supplement 1, (1992), 11-18.
167. David Healy, 'The history of British psychopharmacology', in Hugh Freeman and German E. Berrios (eds), 150 Years of British Psychiatry, Volume Two: The Aftermath (London and Atlantic Highlands, NJ: 1996), 61-88, 74.
168. Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, 319. For more on the effects of various drugs on the OCD diagnosis, see Pato and Zohar, 'Clomipramine in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder', 13-28; Teresa A. Pigott, 'Fluoxetine in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder', 29-44; Wayne K. Goodman and Lawrence H. Price, 'Fluvoxamine in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder', 45-57, in Pato and Zohar (eds), Current Treatments of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder.
169. Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, 319. For more on the effects of various drugs on the OCD diagnosis, see Pato and Zohar, 'Clomipramine in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder', 13-28; Teresa A. Pigott, 'Fluoxetine in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder', 29-44; Wayne K. Goodman and Lawrence H. Price, 'Fluvoxamine in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder', 45-57, in Pato and Zohar (eds), Current Treatments of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder.
170. Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, 319. For more on the effects of various drugs on the OCD diagnosis, see Pato and Zohar, 'Clomipramine in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder', 13-28; Teresa A. Pigott, 'Fluoxetine in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder', 29-44; Wayne K. Goodman and Lawrence H. Price, 'Fluvoxamine in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder', 45-57, in Pato and Zohar (eds), Current Treatments of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder.
171. Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, 319. For more on the effects of various drugs on the OCD diagnosis, see Pato and Zohar, 'Clomipramine in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder', 13-28; Teresa A. Pigott, 'Fluoxetine in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder', 29-44; Wayne K. Goodman and Lawrence H. Price, 'Fluvoxamine in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder', 45-57, in Pato and Zohar (eds), Current Treatments of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder.
172. Christopher S. Thomas, 'Dysmorphophobia: a question of definition', British Journal of Psychiatry, cxliv (1984), 513-16; José de Léon, Andrew Bott and George M. Simpson, 'Dysmorphophobia: body dysmorphic disorder or delusional disorder, somatic subtype?' Comprehensive Psychiatry, xxx (1989), 457-72; Katharine A. Phillips, 'Body dysmorphic disorder: the distress of imagined ugliness', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxlviii (1991), 138-49.
173. Christopher S. Thomas, 'Dysmorphophobia: a question of definition', British Journal of Psychiatry, cxliv (1984), 513-16; José de Léon, Andrew Bott and George M. Simpson, 'Dysmorphophobia: body dysmorphic disorder or delusional disorder, somatic subtype?' Comprehensive Psychiatry, xxx (1989), 457-72; Katharine A. Phillips, 'Body dysmorphic disorder: the distress of imagined ugliness', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxlviii (1991), 138-49.
174. Christopher S. Thomas, 'Dysmorphophobia: a question of definition', British Journal of Psychiatry, cxliv (1984), 513-16; José de Léon, Andrew Bott and George M. Simpson, 'Dysmorphophobia: body dysmorphic disorder or delusional disorder, somatic subtype?' Comprehensive Psychiatry, xxx (1989), 457-72; Katharine A. Phillips, 'Body dysmorphic disorder: the distress of imagined ugliness', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxlviii (1991), 138-49.
175. 'Dissatisfaction with appearance in the absence of an observed abnormality' is not limited to BDD or DD somatic type. It can occur in depression, schizophrenia, and anorexia nervosa. See Christopher S. Thomas, 'Letter: body dysmorphic disorder', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxlvii (1990), 816-7. See also Katharine A. Phillips, The Broken Mirror: Understanding and Treating Body Dysmorphic Disorder (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996).
176. 'Dissatisfaction with appearance in the absence of an observed abnormality' is not limited to BDD or DD somatic type. It can occur in depression, schizophrenia, and anorexia nervosa. See Christopher S. Thomas, 'Letter: body dysmorphic disorder', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxlvii (1990), 816-7. See also Katharine A. Phillips, The Broken Mirror: Understanding and Treating Body Dysmorphic Disorder (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996).
177. Alien Frances and Michael B. First (eds), DSM-IV Guidebook (Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1995), 182-3.
178. Susan L. McElroy, Katharine A. Phillips, Paul E. Keck, Jr., James I. Hudson and Harrison G. Pope, Jr., 'Body dysmorphic disorder: does it have a psychotic subtype?' Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, liv (1993), 389-95; Katharine A. Phillips, Susan L. McElroy, James I. Hudson and Harrison G. Pope, Jr., 'Body dysmorphic disorder: an obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorder, or a form of affective spectrum disorder, or both?' ibid., lvi (Suppl.) (1995), 41-51. As Phillips admitted in 1995, the issue of BDD's and DD's somatic subtype's differential diagnosis was 'close to my heart.' 'Discussion', ibid., 52. See also Katherine A. Phillips, Jennie M. Kim and James I. Hudson, 'Body image disturbance in body dysmorphic disorder and eating disorders: obsessions or delusions?' The Psychiatric Clinics of North America, xviii (1995), 317-34.
179. Susan L. McElroy, Katharine A. Phillips, Paul E. Keck, Jr., James I. Hudson and Harrison G. Pope, Jr., 'Body dysmorphic disorder: does it have a psychotic subtype?' Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, liv (1993), 389-95; Katharine A. Phillips, Susan L. McElroy, James I. Hudson and Harrison G. Pope, Jr., 'Body dysmorphic disorder: an obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorder, or a form of affective spectrum disorder, or both?' ibid., lvi (Suppl.) (1995), 41-51. As Phillips admitted in 1995, the issue of BDD's and DD's somatic subtype's differential diagnosis was 'close to my heart.' 'Discussion', ibid., 52. See also Katherine A. Phillips, Jennie M. Kim and James I. Hudson, 'Body image disturbance in body dysmorphic disorder and eating disorders: obsessions or delusions?' The Psychiatric Clinics of North America, xviii (1995), 317-34.
180. Susan L. McElroy, Katharine A. Phillips, Paul E. Keck, Jr., James I. Hudson and Harrison G. Pope, Jr., 'Body dysmorphic disorder: does it have a psychotic subtype?' Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, liv (1993), 389-95; Katharine A. Phillips, Susan L. McElroy, James I. Hudson and Harrison G. Pope, Jr., 'Body dysmorphic disorder: an obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorder, or a form of affective spectrum disorder, or both?' ibid., lvi (Suppl.) (1995), 41-51. As Phillips admitted in 1995, the issue of BDD's and DD's somatic subtype's differential diagnosis was 'close to my heart.' 'Discussion', ibid., 52. See also Katherine A. Phillips, Jennie M. Kim and James I. Hudson, 'Body image disturbance in body dysmorphic disorder and eating disorders: obsessions or delusions?' The Psychiatric Clinics of North America, xviii (1995), 317-34.
181. Susan L. McElroy, Katharine A. Phillips, Paul E. Keck, Jr., James I. Hudson and Harrison G. Pope, Jr., 'Body dysmorphic disorder: does it have a psychotic subtype?' Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, liv (1993), 389-95; Katharine A. Phillips, Susan L. McElroy, James I. Hudson and Harrison G. Pope, Jr., 'Body dysmorphic disorder: an obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorder, or a form of affective spectrum disorder, or both?' ibid., lvi (Suppl.) (1995), 41-51. As Phillips admitted in 1995, the issue of BDD's and DD's somatic subtype's differential diagnosis was 'close to my heart.' 'Discussion', ibid., 52. See also Katherine A. Phillips, Jennie M. Kim and James I. Hudson, 'Body image disturbance in body dysmorphic disorder and eating disorders: obsessions or delusions?' The Psychiatric Clinics of North America, xviii (1995), 317-34.
182. Katharine A. Phillips, 'Pharmacologic treatment of body dysmorphic disorder', Psycho-pharmacology Bulletin, xxxii (1996), 597-605. Much the same could be said about hypochondriasis, defined in DSM-IV like BDD as a somatoform disorder. Hypochondriasis is a distressing preoccupation with the fear or thought, based on physical sensations, that one has a serious disease. Because of its close ties to conditions such as chronic fatigue syndrome, the hypochondriasis diagnosis is extremely vexing for clinicians who must make sure that patients are not suffering from a certifiable medical condition while simultaneously avoiding alienating patients who are convinced their ailments have an organic foundation. The fact that in some patients the fear of having an illness can reach delusional proportions also calls into question whether or not DD patients with hypochondriacal delusions merely occupy 'the more pathological end of a hypochondriasis spectrum of insight.' Last, but not least, treatment trials suggesting the effectiveness of SSRI's, including fluoxetine, for hypochondriasis pose the same kind of threat to DD somatic type as did treatment studies of BDD. See Brian A. Fallon, Franklin R. Schneier, Randall Marshall, Raphael Campeas, Donna Vermes, Debbie Goetz, and Michael R. Liebowitz, 'The pharmacotherapy of hyponchondriasis', ibid., 607-11.
183. Katharine A. Phillips, 'Pharmacologic treatment of body dysmorphic disorder', Psycho-pharmacology Bulletin, xxxii (1996), 597-605. Much the same could be said about hypochondriasis, defined in DSM-IV like BDD as a somatoform disorder. Hypochondriasis is a distressing preoccupation with the fear or thought, based on physical sensations, that one has a serious disease. Because of its close ties to conditions such as chronic fatigue syndrome, the hypochondriasis diagnosis is extremely vexing for clinicians who must make sure that patients are not suffering from a certifiable medical condition while simultaneously avoiding alienating patients who are convinced their ailments have an organic foundation. The fact that in some patients the fear of having an illness can reach delusional proportions also calls into question whether or not DD patients with hypochondriacal delusions merely occupy 'the more pathological end of a hypochondriasis spectrum of insight.' Last, but not least, treatment trials suggesting the effectiveness of SSRI's, including fluoxetine, for hypochondriasis pose the same kind of threat to DD somatic type as did treatment studies of BDD. See Brian A. Fallon, Franklin R. Schneier, Randall Marshall, Raphael Campeas, Donna Vermes, Debbie Goetz, and Michael R. Liebowitz, 'The pharmacotherapy of hyponchondriasis', ibid., 607-11.
184. For a critical look at DSM-IV, see L. J. Davis, 'The Encyclopedia of Insanity: a psychiatric handbook lists a madness for everyone', Harper's Magazine, February 1997: 61-6.
185. Javier I. Escobar, 'Pharmacological treatment of somatization/hypochondriasis', 589-90. According to historian and psychiatrist Ann Dally, because 'psychiatrists lose their patients to physicians and GP's ... they are always bottom of the medical prestige table.' Review of Edward Shorter's History of Psychiatry, History of Psychiatry, viii (1997), 314-6.
186. Javier I. Escobar, 'Pharmacological treatment of somatization/hypochondriasis', 589-90. According to historian and psychiatrist Ann Dally, because 'psychiatrists lose their patients to physicians and GP's ... they are always bottom of the medical prestige table.' Review of Edward Shorter's History of Psychiatry, History of Psychiatry, viii (1997), 314-6.
187. 'Mental health: does therapy work?' Consumer Reports (November 1994): 734-9, 735.
188. Editorial, 'Clients, consumers, providers, and products: where will it all end?', American Journal of Psychiatry, clii (1995), 1107-9, 1108.
189. Munro, letter to the author, 15 September 1997.
190. Robert Lloyd Goldstein, 'Paranoids in the legal system: the litigious paranoid and the paranoid criminal', in Sedler (ed.), The Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 303-15.
191. My thanks to Professor Edward Shorter for his thoughts on this point.
192. For the 'paranoid streak', see Arthur Koestler, The Ghost in the Machine (New York: Macmillan, 1967). See also Paul D. MacLean, 'The paranoid streak in man', in Arthur Koestler and J. R. Smythies (eds), Beyond Reductionism: New Perspectives in the Life Sciences (London: Hutchinson, 1969), 258-78;
193. For the 'paranoid streak', see Arthur Koestler, The Ghost in the Machine (New York: Macmillan, 1967). See also Paul D. MacLean, 'The paranoid streak in man', in Arthur Koestler and J. R. Smythies (eds), Beyond Reductionism: New Perspectives in the Life Sciences (London: Hutchinson, 1969), 258-78;
194. The phrase 'paranoid intellectual temper' is Frederick Crews's. See the dust jacket of Farrell, Freud's Paranoid Quest. Farrell argues compellingly that thanks largely to figures like Rousseau, Strindberg, Nietzsche, and (especially) Freud a certain fashionable form of Romantic, 'naive and sentimental paranoia' stressing suspiciousness and fear of other human beings has gripped the leaders of modern culture. '[T]he figure of the paranoid', writes Farrell, is 'the central protagonist of Western European imagination'. Ibid., 134. For the paranoid features of the philosophy of Derrida, Foucault, Lacan and Althusser, see Luc Ferry and Alain Renaut, French Philosophy of the Sixties: An Essay on Antihumanism, trans. Mary H. S. Cattani (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1990), especially 208-9.
195. The phrase 'paranoid intellectual temper' is Frederick Crews's. See the dust jacket of Farrell, Freud's Paranoid Quest. Farrell argues compellingly that thanks largely to figures like Rousseau, Strindberg, Nietzsche, and (especially) Freud a certain fashionable form of Romantic, 'naive and sentimental paranoia' stressing suspiciousness and fear of other human beings has gripped the leaders of modern culture. '[T]he figure of the paranoid', writes Farrell, is 'the central protagonist of Western European imagination'. Ibid., 134. For the paranoid features of the philosophy of Derrida, Foucault, Lacan and Althusser, see Luc Ferry and Alain Renaut, French Philosophy of the Sixties: An Essay on Antihumanism, trans. Mary H. S. Cattani (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1990), especially 208-9.
196. Pipes, Conspiracy, 22-3.
197. Swanson, Bohnert and Smith, The Paranoid, 356-61.