George W. Bush's Post-September 11 Rhetoric of Covenant Renewal: Upholding the Faith of the Greatest Generation

Quarterly Journal of Speech

Volumn 89, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 293-319

  Bostdorff, Denise M ^a  

^a 931 College Mall   (United States)

Author keywords

Covenant renewal rhetoric; Epideictic rhetoric; George W. Bush; Jeremiad; September 11; War on terrorism; World War II

Indexed keywords

EID: 0347301635     PISSN: 00335630     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/0033563032000160963     Document Type: Review

References (251)

1. George W. Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session of the Congress on the State of the Union," 29 January 2002, Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents (hereafter referred to as WCPD) 38 (2002): 137, at http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov.
2. "Bush Says 'All Options' Open on Iraq, Iran, North Korea," Agence French Press, 18 February 2002, available from http://www.web.lexis-nexis.com; Niall Ferguson, "The War on Terror Is Not New," editorial, The New York Times, 20 September 2001, p. A31.
3. "Bush Says 'All Options' Open on Iraq, Iran, North Korea," Agence French Press, 18 February 2002, available from http://www.web.lexis-nexis.com; Niall Ferguson, "The War on Terror Is Not New," editorial, The New York Times, 20 September 2001, p. A31.
4. For example, see Amanda Onion, "Tongue-Tied: How Language Became a Struggle and May Change in the Wake of Attacks," ABC News, 11 October 2001, available from http://www.ABCNEWS.com; "Wartime Rhetoric," editorial, The New York Times, 19 September 2001, p. A26.
5. For example, see Amanda Onion, "Tongue-Tied: How Language Became a Struggle and May Change in the Wake of Attacks," ABC News, 11 October 2001, available from http://www.ABCNEWS.com; "Wartime Rhetoric," editorial, The New York Times, 19 September 2001, p. A26.
6. Howard Fineman, "A President Finds His True Voice," Newsweek, 24 September 2001, p. 51; Brad Knickerbocker, "Black and White War of Words: Bush's Polarized Rhetoric Sparks Debate Over Moral Relativism," The Christian Science Monitor, 7 February 2002, available from http://www.web.lexis-nexis.com.
7. Howard Fineman, "A President Finds His True Voice," Newsweek, 24 September 2001, p. 51; Brad Knickerbocker, "Black and White War of Words: Bush's Polarized Rhetoric Sparks Debate Over Moral Relativism," The Christian Science Monitor, 7 February 2002, available from http://www.web.lexis-nexis.com.
8. Paul C. Light, The President's Agenda (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982), 31-32; John E. Mueller, Wars, Presidents and Public Opinion (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1973), 208-213.
9. Paul C. Light, The President's Agenda (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982), 31-32; John E. Mueller, Wars, Presidents and Public Opinion (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1973), 208-213.
10. By reform ministers, I refer to those Puritan ministers in late-1600s New England who saw the need to change the church's relationship with second- and third-generation Puritans. They supported the half-way covenant, which allowed third-generation children to be baptized as long as they and their parents agreed to follow God's word and the governance of their particular congregation. Although neither the third-generation children nor their parents were allowed to vote at church meetings or take communion, the half-way covenant represented a major change. The reform ministers also sought to revive church membership through covenant renewal rhetoric, particularly by altering the way they communicated with the second and third generations, as detailed in this essay. See Robert G. Pope, The Half-Way Covenant: Church Membership in Puritan New England (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969), 118-119, 187-189, 243-250, 270-271; Harry S. Stout, The New England Soul: Preaching and Religious Culture in Colonial New England (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 58-59, 96-97, 112-113.
11. By reform ministers, I refer to those Puritan ministers in late-1600s New England who saw the need to change the church's relationship with second- and third-generation Puritans. They supported the half-way covenant, which allowed third-generation children to be baptized as long as they and their parents agreed to follow God's word and the governance of their particular congregation. Although neither the third-generation children nor their parents were allowed to vote at church meetings or take communion, the half-way covenant represented a major change. The reform ministers also sought to revive church membership through covenant renewal rhetoric, particularly by altering the way they communicated with the second and third generations, as detailed in this essay. See Robert G. Pope, The Half-Way Covenant: Church Membership in Puritan New England (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969), 118-119, 187-189, 243-250, 270-271; Harry S. Stout, The New England Soul: Preaching and Religious Culture in Colonial New England (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 58-59, 96-97, 112-113.
12. Stout, 74. See also Sacvan Bercovitch, The American Jeremiad (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978), xiv, 4; Perry Miller, Errand into the Wilderness (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1958), 8, 15.
13. Stout, 74. See also Sacvan Bercovitch, The American Jeremiad (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978), xiv, 4; Perry Miller, Errand into the Wilderness (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1958), 8, 15.
14. Stout, 74. See also Sacvan Bercovitch, The American Jeremiad (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978), xiv, 4; Perry Miller, Errand into the Wilderness (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1958), 8, 15.
15. Emory Elliott, Power and the Pulpit in Puritan New England (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975), 4. Also see Ernest G. Bormann, The Force of Fantasy: Restoring the American Dream (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1985), 44.
16. Emory Elliott, Power and the Pulpit in Puritan New England (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975), 4. Also see Ernest G. Bormann, The Force of Fantasy: Restoring the American Dream (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1985), 44.
17. Stout, 24, 28; Daniel J. Boorstin, "How Orthodoxy Made the Puritans Practical," in The Daniel Boorstin Reader, ed. Ruth F. Boorstin (New York: The Modern Library, 1995), 11-13; George Selement, Keepers of the Vineyard: The Puritan Ministry and Collective Culture in Colonial New England (Lanham, MD; University Press of America, 1984), 81; Sacvan Bercovitch, The Rites of Assent: Transformations in the Symbolic Construction of America (New York: Routledge, 1993), 79; Richard J. Ellis, American Political Cultures (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 173; Janice Knight, Orthodoxies in Massachusetts: Rereading American Puritanism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), 94.
18. Stout, 24, 28; Daniel J. Boorstin, "How Orthodoxy Made the Puritans Practical," in The Daniel Boorstin Reader, ed. Ruth F. Boorstin (New York: The Modern Library, 1995), 11-13; George Selement, Keepers of the Vineyard: The Puritan Ministry and Collective Culture in Colonial New England (Lanham, MD; University Press of America, 1984), 81; Sacvan Bercovitch, The Rites of Assent: Transformations in the Symbolic Construction of America (New York: Routledge, 1993), 79; Richard J. Ellis, American Political Cultures (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 173; Janice Knight, Orthodoxies in Massachusetts: Rereading American Puritanism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), 94.
19. Stout, 24, 28; Daniel J. Boorstin, "How Orthodoxy Made the Puritans Practical," in The Daniel Boorstin Reader, ed. Ruth F. Boorstin (New York: The Modern Library, 1995), 11-13; George Selement, Keepers of the Vineyard: The Puritan Ministry and Collective Culture in Colonial New England (Lanham, MD; University Press of America, 1984), 81; Sacvan Bercovitch, The Rites of Assent: Transformations in the Symbolic Construction of America (New York: Routledge, 1993), 79; Richard J. Ellis, American Political Cultures (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 173; Janice Knight, Orthodoxies in Massachusetts: Rereading American Puritanism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), 94.
20. Stout, 24, 28; Daniel J. Boorstin, "How Orthodoxy Made the Puritans Practical," in The Daniel Boorstin Reader, ed. Ruth F. Boorstin (New York: The Modern Library, 1995), 11-13; George Selement, Keepers of the Vineyard: The Puritan Ministry and Collective Culture in Colonial New England (Lanham, MD; University Press of America, 1984), 81; Sacvan Bercovitch, The Rites of Assent: Transformations in the Symbolic Construction of America (New York: Routledge, 1993), 79; Richard J. Ellis, American Political Cultures (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 173; Janice Knight, Orthodoxies in Massachusetts: Rereading American Puritanism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), 94.
21. Stout, 24, 28; Daniel J. Boorstin, "How Orthodoxy Made the Puritans Practical," in The Daniel Boorstin Reader, ed. Ruth F. Boorstin (New York: The Modern Library, 1995), 11-13; George Selement, Keepers of the Vineyard: The Puritan Ministry and Collective Culture in Colonial New England (Lanham, MD; University Press of America, 1984), 81; Sacvan Bercovitch, The Rites of Assent: Transformations in the Symbolic Construction of America (New York: Routledge, 1993), 79; Richard J. Ellis, American Political Cultures (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 173; Janice Knight, Orthodoxies in Massachusetts: Rereading American Puritanism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), 94.
22. Stout, 24, 28; Daniel J. Boorstin, "How Orthodoxy Made the Puritans Practical," in The Daniel Boorstin Reader, ed. Ruth F. Boorstin (New York: The Modern Library, 1995), 11-13; George Selement, Keepers of the Vineyard: The Puritan Ministry and Collective Culture in Colonial New England (Lanham, MD; University Press of America, 1984), 81; Sacvan Bercovitch, The Rites of Assent: Transformations in the Symbolic Construction of America (New York: Routledge, 1993), 79; Richard J. Ellis, American Political Cultures (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 173; Janice Knight, Orthodoxies in Massachusetts: Rereading American Puritanism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), 94.
23. Celeste Michelle Condit, "The Functions of the Epideictic: The Boston Massacre Orations as Exemplar," Communication Quarterly 33 (1985): 284-291.
24. Condit, 291.
25. Elliott, 14; Stout, 58, 61-63; Richard P. Gildrie, The Profane, the Civil, and the Godly: The Reformation of Manners in Orthodox New England, 1679-1749 (University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994), 104-105; Kenneth Silverman, The Life and Times of Cotton Mother (New York: Harper and Row, 1984), 57, 58.
26. Elliott, 14; Stout, 58, 61-63; Richard P. Gildrie, The Profane, the Civil, and the Godly: The Reformation of Manners in Orthodox New England, 1679-1749 (University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994), 104-105; Kenneth Silverman, The Life and Times of Cotton Mother (New York: Harper and Row, 1984), 57, 58.
27. Elliott, 14; Stout, 58, 61-63; Richard P. Gildrie, The Profane, the Civil, and the Godly: The Reformation of Manners in Orthodox New England, 1679-1749 (University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994), 104-105; Kenneth Silverman, The Life and Times of Cotton Mother (New York: Harper and Row, 1984), 57, 58.
28. Elliott, 14; Stout, 58, 61-63; Richard P. Gildrie, The Profane, the Civil, and the Godly: The Reformation of Manners in Orthodox New England, 1679-1749 (University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994), 104-105; Kenneth Silverman, The Life and Times of Cotton Mother (New York: Harper and Row, 1984), 57, 58.
29. Elliott, 7; Stout, 75; Perry Miller, "The Puritan Way of Life, " in Puritanism in Early America, ed. George M. Waller (Boston: D.C. Heath, 1950), 15. Contrary to widespread perceptions, church membership did not decrease in the 1670s-1690s. Admission to full communion actually increased during this time, but the people's anxieties may have led them to perceive otherwise. See Pope, 273.
30. Elliott, 7; Stout, 75; Perry Miller, "The Puritan Way of Life, " in Puritanism in Early America, ed. George M. Waller (Boston: D.C. Heath, 1950), 15. Contrary to widespread perceptions, church membership did not decrease in the 1670s-1690s. Admission to full communion actually increased during this time, but the people's anxieties may have led them to perceive otherwise. See Pope, 273.
31. Elliott, 7; Stout, 75; Perry Miller, "The Puritan Way of Life, " in Puritanism in Early America, ed. George M. Waller (Boston: D.C. Heath, 1950), 15. Contrary to widespread perceptions, church membership did not decrease in the 1670s-1690s. Admission to full communion actually increased during this time, but the people's anxieties may have led them to perceive otherwise. See Pope, 273.
32. Elliott, 7; Stout, 75; Perry Miller, "The Puritan Way of Life, " in Puritanism in Early America, ed. George M. Waller (Boston: D.C. Heath, 1950), 15. Contrary to widespread perceptions, church membership did not decrease in the 1670s-1690s. Admission to full communion actually increased during this time, but the people's anxieties may have led them to perceive otherwise. See Pope, 273.
33. Pope, 271-272; Stout, 58-59; Selement, 87, 66-67.
34. Pope, 271-272; Stout, 58-59; Selement, 87, 66-67.
35. Pope, 271-272; Stout, 58-59; Selement, 87, 66-67.
36. Stout, 75, 96-98; James W. Jones, The Shattered Synthesis: New England Puritanism Before the Great Awakening (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1973), 86.
37. Stout, 75, 96-98; James W. Jones, The Shattered Synthesis: New England Puritanism Before the Great Awakening (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1973), 86.
38. Elliott, 175; Silverman, 88. The dividing line between internal and external enemies can be a fine one, as the Salem witch trials demonstrate. Yet the Salem accusations dealt with Satan's influence on particular members of the community, an emphasis different than ministers' usual focus on every individual's inherent sinfulness. Paul Johnson also points out that the episode was amazingly brief, especially in relation to comparable incidents such as the search for communists in the 1950s; it started early in 1692 and was ended by the authorities in early fall. See A History of the American People (1997; New York: HarperPerennial, 1999), 81, 83.
39. Elliott, 175; Silverman, 88. The dividing line between internal and external enemies can be a fine one, as the Salem witch trials demonstrate. Yet the Salem accusations dealt with Satan's influence on particular members of the community, an emphasis different than ministers' usual focus on every individual's inherent sinfulness. Paul Johnson also points out that the episode was amazingly brief, especially in relation to comparable incidents such as the search for communists in the 1950s; it started early in 1692 and was ended by the authorities in early fall. See A History of the American People (1997; New York: HarperPerennial, 1999), 81, 83.
40. Elliott, 175; Silverman, 88. The dividing line between internal and external enemies can be a fine one, as the Salem witch trials demonstrate. Yet the Salem accusations dealt with Satan's influence on particular members of the community, an emphasis different than ministers' usual focus on every individual's inherent sinfulness. Paul Johnson also points out that the episode was amazingly brief, especially in relation to comparable incidents such as the search for communists in the 1950s; it started early in 1692 and was ended by the authorities in early fall. See A History of the American People (1997; New York: HarperPerennial, 1999), 81, 83.
41. See Elliott, 189, 196, 55, 125.
42. Stout, 97-98, 176; Pope, 119, 188, 241, 245-246.
43. Stout, 97-98, 176; Pope, 119, 188, 241, 245-246.
44. Condit, 291.
45. Elliott, 55, 125, 185-192.
46. Jones, 81.
47. Robert Middlekauff, The Mathers: Three Generations of Puritan Intellectuals, 1596-1728 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), 242.
48. Elliott, 14, 176. Also see Sacvan Bercovitch, The Puritan Origins of the American Self (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1975), 54; David Levin, Cotton Mather: The Young Life of the Lard's Remembrancer, 1663-1703 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978), 193.
49. Elliott, 14, 176. Also see Sacvan Bercovitch, The Puritan Origins of the American Self (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1975), 54; David Levin, Cotton Mather: The Young Life of the Lard's Remembrancer, 1663-1703 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978), 193.
50. Elliott, 14, 176. Also see Sacvan Bercovitch, The Puritan Origins of the American Self (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1975), 54; David Levin, Cotton Mather: The Young Life of the Lard's Remembrancer, 1663-1703 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978), 193.
51. Elliott, 175.
52. Middlekauff, 243, 275; Elliott, 179-180.
53. Middlekauff, 243, 275; Elliott, 179-180.
54. Quoted in Levin, 161 (italics in original).
55. Gildrie, 226; Miller, "The Puritan Way," 15.
56. Gildrie, 226; Miller, "The Puritan Way," 15.
57. Pope, 276.
58. Gildrie, 39.
59. See John M. Murphy, '"A Time of Shame and Sorrow': Robert F. Kennedy and the American Jeremiad," Quarterly Journal of Speech 76 (1990): 401-414; Ronald H. Carpenter, "The Historical Jeremiad as Rhetorical Genre," in Form and Genre: Shaping Rhetorical Action, ed. Karlyn Kohrs Campbell and Kathleen Hall Jamieson (Falls Church, VA: Speech Communication Association, 1978), 103-117; Sherry Lee Linkon, "Gender and Jeremiad: Gail Hamilton's Antisuffrage Prophecy," in In Her Own Words: Nineteenth-Century American Women Essayists, ed. Sherry Lee Linkon (New York: Garland, 1997), 127-140; John Opie and Norbert Elliot, "Tracking the Elusive Jeremiad: The Rhetorical Character of American Environmental Discourse," in The Symbolic Earth: Discourse and Our Creation of the Environment, ed. James G. Cantrill and Christine L. Oravec (Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1996), 9-37; A. Susan Owen, "Memory, War and American Identity: Saving Private Ryan as Cinematic Jeremiad," in Critical Studies in Media Communication 19 (2002): 249-292; Susan Friend Harding, The Book of Jerry Falwell: Fundamentalist Language and Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000); Richard L. Johannesen, "The Jeremiad and Jenkin Lloyd Jones," Communication Monographs 52 (1985): 156-172; Kurt W. Ritter, "American Political Rhetoric and the Jeremiad Tradition: Presidential Nomination Acceptance Addresses, 1960-1976," Central States Speech Journal 31 (1980): 153-171.
60. See John M. Murphy, '"A Time of Shame and Sorrow': Robert F. Kennedy and the American Jeremiad," Quarterly Journal of Speech 76 (1990): 401-414; Ronald H. Carpenter, "The Historical Jeremiad as Rhetorical Genre," in Form and Genre: Shaping Rhetorical Action, ed. Karlyn Kohrs Campbell and Kathleen Hall Jamieson (Falls Church, VA: Speech Communication Association, 1978), 103-117; Sherry Lee Linkon, "Gender and Jeremiad: Gail Hamilton's Antisuffrage Prophecy," in In Her Own Words: Nineteenth-Century American Women Essayists, ed. Sherry Lee Linkon (New York: Garland, 1997), 127-140; John Opie and Norbert Elliot, "Tracking the Elusive Jeremiad: The Rhetorical Character of American Environmental Discourse," in The Symbolic Earth: Discourse and Our Creation of the Environment, ed. James G. Cantrill and Christine L. Oravec (Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1996), 9-37; A. Susan Owen, "Memory, War and American Identity: Saving Private Ryan as Cinematic Jeremiad," in Critical Studies in Media Communication 19 (2002): 249-292; Susan Friend Harding, The Book of Jerry Falwell: Fundamentalist Language and Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000); Richard L. Johannesen, "The Jeremiad and Jenkin Lloyd Jones," Communication Monographs 52 (1985): 156-172; Kurt W. Ritter, "American Political Rhetoric and the Jeremiad Tradition: Presidential Nomination Acceptance Addresses, 1960-1976," Central States Speech Journal 31 (1980): 153-171.
61. See John M. Murphy, '"A Time of Shame and Sorrow': Robert F. Kennedy and the American Jeremiad," Quarterly Journal of Speech 76 (1990): 401-414; Ronald H. Carpenter, "The Historical Jeremiad as Rhetorical Genre," in Form and Genre: Shaping Rhetorical Action, ed. Karlyn Kohrs Campbell and Kathleen Hall Jamieson (Falls Church, VA: Speech Communication Association, 1978), 103-117; Sherry Lee Linkon, "Gender and Jeremiad: Gail Hamilton's Antisuffrage Prophecy," in In Her Own Words: Nineteenth-Century American Women Essayists, ed. Sherry Lee Linkon (New York: Garland, 1997), 127-140; John Opie and Norbert Elliot, "Tracking the Elusive Jeremiad: The Rhetorical Character of American Environmental Discourse," in The Symbolic Earth: Discourse and Our Creation of the Environment, ed. James G. Cantrill and Christine L. Oravec (Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1996), 9-37; A. Susan Owen, "Memory, War and American Identity: Saving Private Ryan as Cinematic Jeremiad," in Critical Studies in Media Communication 19 (2002): 249-292; Susan Friend Harding, The Book of Jerry Falwell: Fundamentalist Language and Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000); Richard L. Johannesen, "The Jeremiad and Jenkin Lloyd Jones," Communication Monographs 52 (1985): 156-172; Kurt W. Ritter, "American Political Rhetoric and the Jeremiad Tradition: Presidential Nomination Acceptance Addresses, 1960-1976," Central States Speech Journal 31 (1980): 153-171.
62. See John M. Murphy, '"A Time of Shame and Sorrow': Robert F. Kennedy and the American Jeremiad," Quarterly Journal of Speech 76 (1990): 401-414; Ronald H. Carpenter, "The Historical Jeremiad as Rhetorical Genre," in Form and Genre: Shaping Rhetorical Action, ed. Karlyn Kohrs Campbell and Kathleen Hall Jamieson (Falls Church, VA: Speech Communication Association, 1978), 103-117; Sherry Lee Linkon, "Gender and Jeremiad: Gail Hamilton's Antisuffrage Prophecy," in In Her Own Words: Nineteenth-Century American Women Essayists, ed. Sherry Lee Linkon (New York: Garland, 1997), 127-140; John Opie and Norbert Elliot, "Tracking the Elusive Jeremiad: The Rhetorical Character of American Environmental Discourse," in The Symbolic Earth: Discourse and Our Creation of the Environment, ed. James G. Cantrill and Christine L. Oravec (Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1996), 9-37; A. Susan Owen, "Memory, War and American Identity: Saving Private Ryan as Cinematic Jeremiad," in Critical Studies in Media Communication 19 (2002): 249-292; Susan Friend Harding, The Book of Jerry Falwell: Fundamentalist Language and Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000); Richard L. Johannesen, "The Jeremiad and Jenkin Lloyd Jones," Communication Monographs 52 (1985): 156-172; Kurt W. Ritter, "American Political Rhetoric and the Jeremiad Tradition: Presidential Nomination Acceptance Addresses, 1960-1976," Central States Speech Journal 31 (1980): 153-171.
63. See John M. Murphy, '"A Time of Shame and Sorrow': Robert F. Kennedy and the American Jeremiad," Quarterly Journal of Speech 76 (1990): 401-414; Ronald H. Carpenter, "The Historical Jeremiad as Rhetorical Genre," in Form and Genre: Shaping Rhetorical Action, ed. Karlyn Kohrs Campbell and Kathleen Hall Jamieson (Falls Church, VA: Speech Communication Association, 1978), 103-117; Sherry Lee Linkon, "Gender and Jeremiad: Gail Hamilton's Antisuffrage Prophecy," in In Her Own Words: Nineteenth-Century American Women Essayists, ed. Sherry Lee Linkon (New York: Garland, 1997), 127-140; John Opie and Norbert Elliot, "Tracking the Elusive Jeremiad: The Rhetorical Character of American Environmental Discourse," in The Symbolic Earth: Discourse and Our Creation of the Environment, ed. James G. Cantrill and Christine L. Oravec (Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1996), 9-37; A. Susan Owen, "Memory, War and American Identity: Saving Private Ryan as Cinematic Jeremiad," in Critical Studies in Media Communication 19 (2002): 249-292; Susan Friend Harding, The Book of Jerry Falwell: Fundamentalist Language and Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000); Richard L. Johannesen, "The Jeremiad and Jenkin Lloyd Jones," Communication Monographs 52 (1985): 156-172; Kurt W. Ritter, "American Political Rhetoric and the Jeremiad Tradition: Presidential Nomination Acceptance Addresses, 1960-1976," Central States Speech Journal 31 (1980): 153-171.
64. See John M. Murphy, '"A Time of Shame and Sorrow': Robert F. Kennedy and the American Jeremiad," Quarterly Journal of Speech 76 (1990): 401-414; Ronald H. Carpenter, "The Historical Jeremiad as Rhetorical Genre," in Form and Genre: Shaping Rhetorical Action, ed. Karlyn Kohrs Campbell and Kathleen Hall Jamieson (Falls Church, VA: Speech Communication Association, 1978), 103-117; Sherry Lee Linkon, "Gender and Jeremiad: Gail Hamilton's Antisuffrage Prophecy," in In Her Own Words: Nineteenth-Century American Women Essayists, ed. Sherry Lee Linkon (New York: Garland, 1997), 127-140; John Opie and Norbert Elliot, "Tracking the Elusive Jeremiad: The Rhetorical Character of American Environmental Discourse," in The Symbolic Earth: Discourse and Our Creation of the Environment, ed. James G. Cantrill and Christine L. Oravec (Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1996), 9-37; A. Susan Owen, "Memory, War and American Identity: Saving Private Ryan as Cinematic Jeremiad," in Critical Studies in Media Communication 19 (2002): 249-292; Susan Friend Harding, The Book of Jerry Falwell: Fundamentalist Language and Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000); Richard L. Johannesen, "The Jeremiad and Jenkin Lloyd Jones," Communication Monographs 52 (1985): 156-172; Kurt W. Ritter, "American Political Rhetoric and the Jeremiad Tradition: Presidential Nomination Acceptance Addresses, 1960-1976," Central States Speech Journal 31 (1980): 153-171.
65. See John M. Murphy, '"A Time of Shame and Sorrow': Robert F. Kennedy and the American Jeremiad," Quarterly Journal of Speech 76 (1990): 401-414; Ronald H. Carpenter, "The Historical Jeremiad as Rhetorical Genre," in Form and Genre: Shaping Rhetorical Action, ed. Karlyn Kohrs Campbell and Kathleen Hall Jamieson (Falls Church, VA: Speech Communication Association, 1978), 103-117; Sherry Lee Linkon, "Gender and Jeremiad: Gail Hamilton's Antisuffrage Prophecy," in In Her Own Words: Nineteenth-Century American Women Essayists, ed. Sherry Lee Linkon (New York: Garland, 1997), 127-140; John Opie and Norbert Elliot, "Tracking the Elusive Jeremiad: The Rhetorical Character of American Environmental Discourse," in The Symbolic Earth: Discourse and Our Creation of the Environment, ed. James G. Cantrill and Christine L. Oravec (Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1996), 9-37; A. Susan Owen, "Memory, War and American Identity: Saving Private Ryan as Cinematic Jeremiad," in Critical Studies in Media Communication 19 (2002): 249-292; Susan Friend Harding, The Book of Jerry Falwell: Fundamentalist Language and Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000); Richard L. Johannesen, "The Jeremiad and Jenkin Lloyd Jones," Communication Monographs 52 (1985): 156-172; Kurt W. Ritter, "American Political Rhetoric and the Jeremiad Tradition: Presidential Nomination Acceptance Addresses, 1960-1976," Central States Speech Journal 31 (1980): 153-171.
66. See John M. Murphy, '"A Time of Shame and Sorrow': Robert F. Kennedy and the American Jeremiad," Quarterly Journal of Speech 76 (1990): 401-414; Ronald H. Carpenter, "The Historical Jeremiad as Rhetorical Genre," in Form and Genre: Shaping Rhetorical Action, ed. Karlyn Kohrs Campbell and Kathleen Hall Jamieson (Falls Church, VA: Speech Communication Association, 1978), 103-117; Sherry Lee Linkon, "Gender and Jeremiad: Gail Hamilton's Antisuffrage Prophecy," in In Her Own Words: Nineteenth-Century American Women Essayists, ed. Sherry Lee Linkon (New York: Garland, 1997), 127-140; John Opie and Norbert Elliot, "Tracking the Elusive Jeremiad: The Rhetorical Character of American Environmental Discourse," in The Symbolic Earth: Discourse and Our Creation of the Environment, ed. James G. Cantrill and Christine L. Oravec (Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1996), 9-37; A. Susan Owen, "Memory, War and American Identity: Saving Private Ryan as Cinematic Jeremiad," in Critical Studies in Media Communication 19 (2002): 249-292; Susan Friend Harding, The Book of Jerry Falwell: Fundamentalist Language and Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000); Richard L. Johannesen, "The Jeremiad and Jenkin Lloyd Jones," Communication Monographs 52 (1985): 156-172; Kurt W. Ritter, "American Political Rhetoric and the Jeremiad Tradition: Presidential Nomination Acceptance Addresses, 1960-1976," Central States Speech Journal 31 (1980): 153-171.
67. For more on the rhetorical characteristics of jeremiads, see Bercovitch, The American Jeremiad; Carpenter; Johannesen; Murphy, "A Time of Shame"; and Ritter.
68. For more on the rhetorical characteristics of jeremiads, see Bercovitch, The American Jeremiad; Carpenter; Johannesen; Murphy, "A Time of Shame"; and Ritter.
69. Susan Sontag, untitled essay in Talk of the Town, editorial, The New Yorker, 24 September 2001, p. 32. Also see War Resisters League, "Statement from the War Resisters League," press release, September 11, 2001, available from http://www.warresisters.org; Christopher Hitchens, "Stranger in a Strange Land: The Dismay of an Honorable Man of the Left," The Atlantic Monthly, December 2001, pp. 1-3, available from http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/2001/12/hitchens.htm.
70. Susan Sontag, untitled essay in Talk of the Town, editorial, The New Yorker, 24 September 2001, p. 32. Also see War Resisters League, "Statement from the War Resisters League," press release, September 11, 2001, available from http://www.warresisters.org; Christopher Hitchens, "Stranger in a Strange Land: The Dismay of an Honorable Man of the Left," The Atlantic Monthly, December 2001, pp. 1-3, available from http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/2001/12/hitchens.htm.
71. Susan Sontag, untitled essay in Talk of the Town, editorial, The New Yorker, 24 September 2001, p. 32. Also see War Resisters League, "Statement from the War Resisters League," press release, September 11, 2001, available from http://www.warresisters.org; Christopher Hitchens, "Stranger in a Strange Land: The Dismay of an Honorable Man of the Left," The Atlantic Monthly, December 2001, pp. 1-3, available from http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/2001/12/hitchens.htm.
72. "Falwell Apologizes to Gays, Feminists, Lesbians," Cable News Network, 14 September 2001, available from http://www.cnn.com/2001/US/09/14/Falwell,apology/
73. Susan Sontag, "The 'Traitor' Fires Back," interview with David Talbot, Salon, 16 October 2001, available from http://archive.salon.com/news/feature/2001/10/16/susans/index_np.html; Gary Younge, "The Risk Taker," The [U.K.] Guardian, 19 January 2002, available from http://www.guardian.co.uk/Saturday_review/story/̃0,36505,635798,00.html; Hitchens, 1-5.
74. Susan Sontag, "The 'Traitor' Fires Back," interview with David Talbot, Salon, 16 October 2001, available from http://archive.salon.com/news/feature/2001/10/16/susans/index_np.html; Gary Younge, "The Risk Taker," The [U.K.] Guardian, 19 January 2002, available from http://www.guardian.co.uk/Saturday_review/story/̃0,36505,635798,00.html; Hitchens, 1-5.
75. Susan Sontag, "The 'Traitor' Fires Back," interview with David Talbot, Salon, 16 October 2001, available from http://archive.salon.com/news/feature/2001/10/16/susans/index_np.html; Gary Younge, "The Risk Taker," The [U.K.] Guardian, 19 January 2002, available from http://www.guardian.co.uk/Saturday_review/story/̃0,36505,635798,00.html; Hitchens, 1-5.
76. "Falwell Apologizes," 1; William F. Buckley, Jr, "Invoking God's Thunder," editorial, The National Review, n.d., pp. 1-2, available from http://www.nationalreview.com/september11/sept11-buckley.asp; "Falwell: I Blew It," CBS News, 18 September 2001, 1, available from http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2001/09/18/archive/main311660.shtml.
77. "Falwell Apologizes," 1; William F. Buckley, Jr, "Invoking God's Thunder," editorial, The National Review, n.d., pp. 1-2, available from http://www.nationalreview.com/september11/sept11-buckley.asp; "Falwell: I Blew It," CBS News, 18 September 2001, 1, available from http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2001/09/18/archive/main311660.shtml.
78. "Falwell Apologizes," 1; William F. Buckley, Jr, "Invoking God's Thunder," editorial, The National Review, n.d., pp. 1-2, available from http://www.nationalreview.com/september11/sept11-buckley.asp; "Falwell: I Blew It," CBS News, 18 September 2001, 1, available from http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2001/09/18/archive/main311660.shtml.
79. Tom Brokaw, The Greatest Generation (New York: Random House, 1998); Tom Brokaw, The Greatest Generation Speaks: Letters and Reflections (New York: Random House, 1999); Saving Private Ryan, Steven Spielberg, Dreamworks Pictures and Paramount Pictures, 1998 (for an analysis of the jeremiad in Saving Private Ryan, see Owen); Tom Hanks, "World War II Memorial," public service announcement, 1999, available from http://www.wwiimemorial.com; "Tom Hanks Lends Support to National World War II Memorial," press release, April 1999, available from http://www.wwiimemorial.com; Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 251-257; Plaque Inscription, National D-Day Museum, New Orleans, LA; Pearl Harbor, Michael Bay, Touchstone Pictures, 2001; Band of Brothers, Dreamworks Pictures and Home Box Office, 2001; Stephen E. Ambrose, Band of Brothers: E Company, 506th Regiment, 101st Airborne from Normandy to Hitler's Eagle Nest (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001).
80. Tom Brokaw, The Greatest Generation (New York: Random House, 1998); Tom Brokaw, The Greatest Generation Speaks: Letters and Reflections (New York: Random House, 1999); Saving Private Ryan, Steven Spielberg, Dreamworks Pictures and Paramount Pictures, 1998 (for an analysis of the jeremiad in Saving Private Ryan, see Owen); Tom Hanks, "World War II Memorial," public service announcement, 1999, available from http://www.wwiimemorial.com; "Tom Hanks Lends Support to National World War II Memorial," press release, April 1999, available from http://www.wwiimemorial.com; Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 251-257; Plaque Inscription, National D-Day Museum, New Orleans, LA; Pearl Harbor, Michael Bay, Touchstone Pictures, 2001; Band of Brothers, Dreamworks Pictures and Home Box Office, 2001; Stephen E. Ambrose, Band of Brothers: E Company, 506th Regiment, 101st Airborne from Normandy to Hitler's Eagle Nest (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001).
81. Tom Brokaw, The Greatest Generation (New York: Random House, 1998); Tom Brokaw, The Greatest Generation Speaks: Letters and Reflections (New York: Random House, 1999); Saving Private Ryan, Steven Spielberg, Dreamworks Pictures and Paramount Pictures, 1998 (for an analysis of the jeremiad in Saving Private Ryan, see Owen); Tom Hanks, "World War II Memorial," public service announcement, 1999, available from http://www.wwiimemorial.com; "Tom Hanks Lends Support to National World War II Memorial," press release, April 1999, available from http://www.wwiimemorial.com; Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 251-257; Plaque Inscription, National D-Day Museum, New Orleans, LA; Pearl Harbor, Michael Bay, Touchstone Pictures, 2001; Band of Brothers, Dreamworks Pictures and Home Box Office, 2001; Stephen E. Ambrose, Band of Brothers: E Company, 506th Regiment, 101st Airborne from Normandy to Hitler's Eagle Nest (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001).
82. Tom Brokaw, The Greatest Generation (New York: Random House, 1998); Tom Brokaw, The Greatest Generation Speaks: Letters and Reflections (New York: Random House, 1999); Saving Private Ryan, Steven Spielberg, Dreamworks Pictures and Paramount Pictures, 1998 (for an analysis of the jeremiad in Saving Private Ryan, see Owen); Tom Hanks, "World War II Memorial," public service announcement, 1999, available from http://www.wwiimemorial.com; "Tom Hanks Lends Support to National World War II Memorial," press release, April 1999, available from http://www.wwiimemorial.com; Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 251-257; Plaque Inscription, National D-Day Museum, New Orleans, LA; Pearl Harbor, Michael Bay, Touchstone Pictures, 2001; Band of Brothers, Dreamworks Pictures and Home Box Office, 2001; Stephen E. Ambrose, Band of Brothers: E Company, 506th Regiment, 101st Airborne from Normandy to Hitler's Eagle Nest (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001).
83. Tom Brokaw, The Greatest Generation (New York: Random House, 1998); Tom Brokaw, The Greatest Generation Speaks: Letters and Reflections (New York: Random House, 1999); Saving Private Ryan, Steven Spielberg, Dreamworks Pictures and Paramount Pictures, 1998 (for an analysis of the jeremiad in Saving Private Ryan, see Owen); Tom Hanks, "World War II Memorial," public service announcement, 1999, available from http://www.wwiimemorial.com; "Tom Hanks Lends Support to National World War II Memorial," press release, April 1999, available from http://www.wwiimemorial.com; Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 251-257; Plaque Inscription, National D-Day Museum, New Orleans, LA; Pearl Harbor, Michael Bay, Touchstone Pictures, 2001; Band of Brothers, Dreamworks Pictures and Home Box Office, 2001; Stephen E. Ambrose, Band of Brothers: E Company, 506th Regiment, 101st Airborne from Normandy to Hitler's Eagle Nest (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001).
84. Tom Brokaw, The Greatest Generation (New York: Random House, 1998); Tom Brokaw, The Greatest Generation Speaks: Letters and Reflections (New York: Random House, 1999); Saving Private Ryan, Steven Spielberg, Dreamworks Pictures and Paramount Pictures, 1998 (for an analysis of the jeremiad in Saving Private Ryan, see Owen); Tom Hanks, "World War II Memorial," public service announcement, 1999, available from http://www.wwiimemorial.com; "Tom Hanks Lends Support to National World War II Memorial," press release, April 1999, available from http://www.wwiimemorial.com; Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 251-257; Plaque Inscription, National D-Day Museum, New Orleans, LA; Pearl Harbor, Michael Bay, Touchstone Pictures, 2001; Band of Brothers, Dreamworks Pictures and Home Box Office, 2001; Stephen E. Ambrose, Band of Brothers: E Company, 506th Regiment, 101st Airborne from Normandy to Hitler's Eagle Nest (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001).
85. Tom Brokaw, The Greatest Generation (New York: Random House, 1998); Tom Brokaw, The Greatest Generation Speaks: Letters and Reflections (New York: Random House, 1999); Saving Private Ryan, Steven Spielberg, Dreamworks Pictures and Paramount Pictures, 1998 (for an analysis of the jeremiad in Saving Private Ryan, see Owen); Tom Hanks, "World War II Memorial," public service announcement, 1999, available from http://www.wwiimemorial.com; "Tom Hanks Lends Support to National World War II Memorial," press release, April 1999, available from http://www.wwiimemorial.com; Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 251-257; Plaque Inscription, National D-Day Museum, New Orleans, LA; Pearl Harbor, Michael Bay, Touchstone Pictures, 2001; Band of Brothers, Dreamworks Pictures and Home Box Office, 2001; Stephen E. Ambrose, Band of Brothers: E Company, 506th Regiment, 101st Airborne from Normandy to Hitler's Eagle Nest (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001).
86. Tom Brokaw, The Greatest Generation (New York: Random House, 1998); Tom Brokaw, The Greatest Generation Speaks: Letters and Reflections (New York: Random House, 1999); Saving Private Ryan, Steven Spielberg, Dreamworks Pictures and Paramount Pictures, 1998 (for an analysis of the jeremiad in Saving Private Ryan, see Owen); Tom Hanks, "World War II Memorial," public service announcement, 1999, available from http://www.wwiimemorial.com; "Tom Hanks Lends Support to National World War II Memorial," press release, April 1999, available from http://www.wwiimemorial.com; Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 251-257; Plaque Inscription, National D-Day Museum, New Orleans, LA; Pearl Harbor, Michael Bay, Touchstone Pictures, 2001; Band of Brothers, Dreamworks Pictures and Home Box Office, 2001; Stephen E. Ambrose, Band of Brothers: E Company, 506th Regiment, 101st Airborne from Normandy to Hitler's Eagle Nest (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001).
87. Tom Brokaw, The Greatest Generation (New York: Random House, 1998); Tom Brokaw, The Greatest Generation Speaks: Letters and Reflections (New York: Random House, 1999); Saving Private Ryan, Steven Spielberg, Dreamworks Pictures and Paramount Pictures, 1998 (for an analysis of the jeremiad in Saving Private Ryan, see Owen); Tom Hanks, "World War II Memorial," public service announcement, 1999, available from http://www.wwiimemorial.com; "Tom Hanks Lends Support to National World War II Memorial," press release, April 1999, available from http://www.wwiimemorial.com; Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 251-257; Plaque Inscription, National D-Day Museum, New Orleans, LA; Pearl Harbor, Michael Bay, Touchstone Pictures, 2001; Band of Brothers, Dreamworks Pictures and Home Box Office, 2001; Stephen E. Ambrose, Band of Brothers: E Company, 506th Regiment, 101st Airborne from Normandy to Hitler's Eagle Nest (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001).
88. For a more in-depth analysis of the ways that contemporary popular texts about World War II become civics lessons for younger generations, see Barbara A. Biesecker, "Remembering World War II: The Rhetoric and Politics of National Commemoration at the Turn of the 21st Century," Quarterly Journal of Speech 88 (2002): 393-409.
89. For example, see Adam Clymer, "In the Day's Attacks and Explosions, Official Washington Hears the Echoes of Earlier Ones," The New York Times, 12 September 2001, p. A20; Richard Tomkins, "Sen. Warner: 'Another Pearl Harbor,'" United Press International, 11 September 2001, available from http://www.upi.com.
90. For example, see Adam Clymer, "In the Day's Attacks and Explosions, Official Washington Hears the Echoes of Earlier Ones," The New York Times, 12 September 2001, p. A20; Richard Tomkins, "Sen. Warner: 'Another Pearl Harbor,'" United Press International, 11 September 2001, available from http://www.upi.com.
91. For example, see Bret Begun, "The End of Irony," Newsweek Special Issue, 2001, p. 86; Phil Guidry, "Thoughts on 9-11 - The Attack on America," editorial, 11 September 2001, available from http://www.studentnow.com. Also see Jeffrey R. Young, "An RA Says Students 'Truck On Doing Our Daily Lives,'" The Chronicle of Higher Education, 6 September 2002, p. A15.
92. For example, see Bret Begun, "The End of Irony," Newsweek Special Issue, 2001, p. 86; Phil Guidry, "Thoughts on 9-11 - The Attack on America," editorial, 11 September 2001, available from http://www.studentnow.com. Also see Jeffrey R. Young, "An RA Says Students 'Truck On Doing Our Daily Lives,'" The Chronicle of Higher Education, 6 September 2002, p. A15.
93. For example, see Bret Begun, "The End of Irony," Newsweek Special Issue, 2001, p. 86; Phil Guidry, "Thoughts on 9-11 - The Attack on America," editorial, 11 September 2001, available from http://www.studentnow.com. Also see Jeffrey R. Young, "An RA Says Students 'Truck On Doing Our Daily Lives,'" The Chronicle of Higher Education, 6 September 2002, p. A15.
94. Guidry, 1.
95. John M. Murphy, "Epideictic and Deliberative Strategies in Opposition to War: The Paradox of Honor and Expediency," Quarterly Journal of Speech 43 (1992): 67-68, 75; Condit, 287.
96. John M. Murphy, "Epideictic and Deliberative Strategies in Opposition to War: The Paradox of Honor and Expediency," Quarterly Journal of Speech 43 (1992): 67-68, 75; Condit, 287.
97. David Frum, The Right Man: The Surprise Presidency of George W. Bush (New York: Random House, 2003), 5.
98. Richard L. Berke and Janet Elder, "60% in Poll Favor Bush, But Economy Is Major Concern," New York Times, 14 March 2001, p. Al, available from http://web.lexis-nexis.com.
99. Frum, 92; Richard L. Berke, "G.O.P. Defends Bush in Face of Dip in Poll Ratings," New York Times, 29 June 2001, p. A19, available from http://web.lexis-nexis.com.
100. Frum, 92; Richard L. Berke, "G.O.P. Defends Bush in Face of Dip in Poll Ratings," New York Times, 29 June 2001, p. A19, available from http://web.lexis-nexis.com.
101. Although not pertinent to this analysis, Mather and Bush share another intriguing similarity. Cotton Mather, like George W. Bush, grappled with the issue of smallpox inoculation because Mather was the first in New England to advocate it. See Silverman, 339-345. Cotton Mather's relationship with his father was complex because Increase Mather was frequently critical of his son. Increase Mather in turn had conflicts with his father, Richard Mather, a prominent minister who was among the first to advocate the half-way covenant. Increase Mather opposed this initiative for many years, but eventually changed his mind. See Elliott, 43-44, 84; Pope, 182-183; Silverman, 49, 118-119, 199-200.
102. Although not pertinent to this analysis, Mather and Bush share another intriguing similarity. Cotton Mather, like George W. Bush, grappled with the issue of smallpox inoculation because Mather was the first in New England to advocate it. See Silverman, 339-345. Cotton Mather's relationship with his father was complex because Increase Mather was frequently critical of his son. Increase Mather in turn had conflicts with his father, Richard Mather, a prominent minister who was among the first to advocate the half-way covenant. Increase Mather opposed this initiative for many years, but eventually changed his mind. See Elliott, 43-44, 84; Pope, 182-183; Silverman, 49, 118-119, 199-200.
103. Although not pertinent to this analysis, Mather and Bush share another intriguing similarity. Cotton Mather, like George W. Bush, grappled with the issue of smallpox inoculation because Mather was the first in New England to advocate it. See Silverman, 339-345. Cotton Mather's relationship with his father was complex because Increase Mather was frequently critical of his son. Increase Mather in turn had conflicts with his father, Richard Mather, a prominent minister who was among the first to advocate the half-way covenant. Increase Mather opposed this initiative for many years, but eventually changed his mind. See Elliott, 43-44, 84; Pope, 182-183; Silverman, 49, 118-119, 199-200.
104. Although not pertinent to this analysis, Mather and Bush share another intriguing similarity. Cotton Mather, like George W. Bush, grappled with the issue of smallpox inoculation because Mather was the first in New England to advocate it. See Silverman, 339-345. Cotton Mather's relationship with his father was complex because Increase Mather was frequently critical of his son. Increase Mather in turn had conflicts with his father, Richard Mather, a prominent minister who was among the first to advocate the half-way covenant. Increase Mather opposed this initiative for many years, but eventually changed his mind. See Elliott, 43-44, 84; Pope, 182-183; Silverman, 49, 118-119, 199-200.
105. Howard Fineman, "Bush and God," Newsweek, 10 March 2003, pp. 26-27; Frum, 283-284; Molly Ivins and Lou Dubose, Shrub: The Short But Happy Political life of George W. Bush (New York: Random House, 2000), 3-18.
106. Howard Fineman, "Bush and God," Newsweek, 10 March 2003, pp. 26-27; Frum, 283-284; Molly Ivins and Lou Dubose, Shrub: The Short But Happy Political life of George W. Bush (New York: Random House, 2000), 3-18.
107. Howard Fineman, "Bush and God," Newsweek, 10 March 2003, pp. 26-27; Frum, 283-284; Molly Ivins and Lou Dubose, Shrub: The Short But Happy Political life of George W. Bush (New York: Random House, 2000), 3-18.
108. Karlyn Kohrs Campbell and Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Deeds Done in Words: Presidential Rhetoric and the Genres of Governance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 14, 15, 17.
109. Thomas DeFrank, "The 2000 Presidential Campaign: A Journalist's Perspective," address presented at the Ninth Annual Texas A&M University Presidential Rhetoric Conference, College Station, TX, 28 February 2003.
110. See Bercovitch, The American Jeremiad, 7; Carpenter, 104; Elliott, 4, 177; Ritter, 157. Bercovitch notes, quite rightly, that even jeremiads had a semblance of underlying optimism because ministers argued that God's "vengeance was a sign of love, a father's rod used to improve the errant child" (The American Jeremiad, 7).
111. See Bercovitch, The American Jeremiad, 7; Carpenter, 104; Elliott, 4, 177; Ritter, 157. Bercovitch notes, quite rightly, that even jeremiads had a semblance of underlying optimism because ministers argued that God's "vengeance was a sign of love, a father's rod used to improve the errant child" (The American Jeremiad, 7).
112. See Bercovitch, The American Jeremiad, 7; Carpenter, 104; Elliott, 4, 177; Ritter, 157. Bercovitch notes, quite rightly, that even jeremiads had a semblance of underlying optimism because ministers argued that God's "vengeance was a sign of love, a father's rod used to improve the errant child" (The American Jeremiad, 7).
113. See Bercovitch, The American Jeremiad, 7; Carpenter, 104; Elliott, 4, 177; Ritter, 157. Bercovitch notes, quite rightly, that even jeremiads had a semblance of underlying optimism because ministers argued that God's "vengeance was a sign of love, a father's rod used to improve the errant child" (The American Jeremiad, 7).
114. See Bercovitch, The American Jeremiad, 7; Carpenter, 104; Elliott, 4, 177; Ritter, 157. Bercovitch notes, quite rightly, that even jeremiads had a semblance of underlying optimism because ministers argued that God's "vengeance was a sign of love, a father's rod used to improve the errant child" (The American Jeremiad, 7).
115. Loren Baritz, Backfire: A History of How American Culture Led Us Into Vietnam and Made Us Fight the Way We Did (New York: William Morrow, 1985), 26-27; Bercovitch, The American Jeremiad, 69, 176; Michael Novak, Choosing Our King: Powerful Symbols in Presidential Politics (New York: Macmillan, 1974), 288; Ritter, 158-159.
116. Loren Baritz, Backfire: A History of How American Culture Led Us Into Vietnam and Made Us Fight the Way We Did (New York: William Morrow, 1985), 26-27; Bercovitch, The American Jeremiad, 69, 176; Michael Novak, Choosing Our King: Powerful Symbols in Presidential Politics (New York: Macmillan, 1974), 288; Ritter, 158-159.
117. Loren Baritz, Backfire: A History of How American Culture Led Us Into Vietnam and Made Us Fight the Way We Did (New York: William Morrow, 1985), 26-27; Bercovitch, The American Jeremiad, 69, 176; Michael Novak, Choosing Our King: Powerful Symbols in Presidential Politics (New York: Macmillan, 1974), 288; Ritter, 158-159.
118. Loren Baritz, Backfire: A History of How American Culture Led Us Into Vietnam and Made Us Fight the Way We Did (New York: William Morrow, 1985), 26-27; Bercovitch, The American Jeremiad, 69, 176; Michael Novak, Choosing Our King: Powerful Symbols in Presidential Politics (New York: Macmillan, 1974), 288; Ritter, 158-159.
119. George W. Bush, "Remarks to Employees at the Pentagon and an Exchange with Reporters in Arlington, Virginia," 17 September 2001, WCPD 37 (2001): 1326; George W. Bush, "Address to the Nation on the Terrorist Attacks," 11 September 2001, WCPD 37 (2001): 1301; both available from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov.
120. George W. Bush, "Remarks to Employees at the Pentagon and an Exchange with Reporters in Arlington, Virginia," 17 September 2001, WCPD 37 (2001): 1326; George W. Bush, "Address to the Nation on the Terrorist Attacks," 11 September 2001, WCPD 37 (2001): 1301; both available from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov.
121. George W. Bush, "Remarks in a Telephone Conversation with New York City Mayor Rudolph Guiliani and New York Governor George Pataki and an Exchange with Reporters," 13 September 2001, WCPD 37 (2001): 1306, available from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov.
122. George W. Bush, "Remarks at the Islamic Center of Washington," 17 September 2001, WCPD 37 (2001): 1327; George W. Bush, "Remarks Prior to
123. George W. Bush, "Remarks at the Islamic Center of Washington," 17 September 2001, WCPD 37 (2001): 1327; George W. Bush, "Remarks Prior to a Meeting with Sikh Community Leaders," 26 September 2001, WCPD 37 (2001): 1378; both available from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov.
124. Quoted in Mike Allen, "For Bush's Speechwriter, Job Grows Beyond Words: 'Scribe' Helps Shape, Set Tone for Evolving Foreign Policy," The Washington Post, 11 October 2002, p. A35, available from http://www.lexis-nexis.com.
125. Bush, "Address to the Nation," September 11, 2001, 1302; Bush, "Remarks at Islamic Center," 1327.
126. Bush, "Address to the Nation," September 11, 2001, 1302; Bush, "Remarks at Islamic Center," 1327.
127. George W. Bush, "Remarks at National Day of Prayer and Remembrance Service," September 14, 2001, WCPD 37 (2001): 1310, available from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov. See also Romans 8: 38-39.
128. George W. Bush, "Remarks at National Day of Prayer and Remembrance Service," September 14, 2001, WCPD 37 (2001): 1310, available from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov. See also Romans 8: 38-39.
129. George W. Bush, "Remarks Prior to Discussions with Muslim Community Leaders and an Exchange With Reporters," 26 September 2001, WCPD 37 (2001): 1380, available from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov.
130. Bush, "Remarks at National Day of Prayer," 1310; Abraham Lincoln, "The Second Inaugural Address," 4 March 1865, in America-II, vol. 9 of The World's Famous Orations, ed. William Jennings Bryan (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1906), 257.
131. Bush, "Remarks at National Day of Prayer," 1310; Abraham Lincoln, "The Second Inaugural Address," 4 March 1865, in America-II, vol. 9 of The World's Famous Orations, ed. William Jennings Bryan (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1906), 257.
132. George W. Bush, "Remarks to the United Nations General Assembly in New York City," 10 November 2001, WCPD 37 (2001): 1641; George W. Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session of the Congress on the United States Response to the Terrorist Attacks of September 11," 20 September 2001, WCPD 37 (2001): 1351; both available from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov.
133. George W. Bush, "Remarks to the United Nations General Assembly in New York City," 10 November 2001, WCPD 37 (2001): 1641; George W. Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session of the Congress on the United States Response to the Terrorist Attacks of September 11," 20 September 2001, WCPD 37 (2001): 1351; both available from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov.
134. George W. Bush, "The President's News Conference," 11 October 2001, WCPD 37 (2001): 1461, available from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov.
135. Bercovitch, The American Jeremiad, 178.,
136. Ellis, 9.
137. Bush, "Address to the Nation," 11 September 2001, 1301; D.T. Max, "The Making of the Speech," The New York Times, 7 October 2001, p. 1, available from http://www.web.lexis-nexis.com; George W. Bush, "Proclamation 7462 - National Day of Prayer and Remembrance for the Victims of the Terrorist Attacks on September 11, 2001," WCPD 37 (2001): 1308, available from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov.
138. Bush, "Address to the Nation," 11 September 2001, 1301; D.T. Max, "The Making of the Speech," The New York Times, 7 October 2001, p. 1, available from http://www.web.lexis-nexis.com; George W. Bush, "Proclamation 7462 - National Day of Prayer and Remembrance for the Victims of the Terrorist Attacks on September 11, 2001," WCPD 37 (2001): 1308, available from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov.
139. Bush, "Address to the Nation," 11 September 2001, 1301; D.T. Max, "The Making of the Speech," The New York Times, 7 October 2001, p. 1, available from http://www.web.lexis-nexis.com; George W. Bush, "Proclamation 7462 - National Day of Prayer and Remembrance for the Victims of the Terrorist Attacks on September 11, 2001," WCPD 37 (2001): 1308, available from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov.
140. Bush, "Address to the Nation," 11 September 2001, 1301.
141. William Jefferson Clinton, "Oklahoma Bombing Memorial Prayer Service Address," 23 April 1995, 2, available from http://www.americanrhetoric.com.
142. Bush, "The President's News Conference," 1460; Bush, "Remarks to Employees," 1326; George W. Bush, "Address to the Nation on Homeland Security from Atlanta," 8 November 2001, WCPD 37 (2001): 1615, available from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov.
143. Bush, "The President's News Conference," 1460; Bush, "Remarks to Employees," 1326; George W. Bush, "Address to the Nation on Homeland Security from Atlanta," 8 November 2001, WCPD 37 (2001): 1615, available from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov.
144. Bush, "The President's News Conference," 1460; Bush, "Remarks to Employees," 1326; George W. Bush, "Address to the Nation on Homeland Security from Atlanta," 8 November 2001, WCPD 37 (2001): 1615, available from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov.
145. Bush, "Remarks to the United Nations," 1639; George W. Bush, "Remarks in a Meeting with the National Security Team and an Exchange with Reporters," 15 September 2001, WCPD 37 (2001): 1320, available from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov.
146. Bush, "Remarks to the United Nations," 1639; George W. Bush, "Remarks in a Meeting with the National Security Team and an Exchange with Reporters," 15 September 2001, WCPD 37 (2001): 1320, available from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov.
147. Robert L. Ivie, "Presidential Motives for War," Quarterly Journal of Speech 60 (1974): 340-343.
148. Bush, "Address Before Joint Session," 20 September 2001, 1347.
149. Bush, "Address Before Joint Session," 20 September 2001, 1348.
150. Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session of Congress on the State of the Union," 29 January 2002, WCPD 38 (2002) 135. The origins of the phrase "axis of evil" are not entirely clear. In an e-mail to friends that later was leaked to the press, the wife of speechwriter David Frum said that he had coined the phrase. Frum claimed that Bush made the edit, but later wrote that he (Frum) came up with "axis of hate," which head speechwriter Michael Gerson then revised as "axis of evil." See Tim Noah, "David Frum: On Second Thought, I Didn't Coin Axis of Evil," Slate Magazine, 26 February 2002, pp. 1-2; "Axis of Evil Writer Leaves Bush's Staff," The Washington Times, 26 February 2002, pp. 1-2; both available from http://www.web.lexis-nexis.com; Frum, 238.
151. Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session of Congress on the State of the Union," 29 January 2002, WCPD 38 (2002) 135. The origins of the phrase "axis of evil" are not entirely clear. In an e-mail to friends that later was leaked to the press, the wife of speechwriter David Frum said that he had coined the phrase. Frum claimed that Bush made the edit, but later wrote that he (Frum) came up with "axis of hate," which head speechwriter Michael Gerson then revised as "axis of evil." See Tim Noah, "David Frum: On Second Thought, I Didn't Coin Axis of Evil," Slate Magazine, 26 February 2002, pp. 1-2; "Axis of Evil Writer Leaves Bush's Staff," The Washington Times, 26 February 2002, pp. 1-2; both available from http://www.web.lexis-nexis.com; Frum, 238.
152. Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session of Congress on the State of the Union," 29 January 2002, WCPD 38 (2002) 135. The origins of the phrase "axis of evil" are not entirely clear. In an e-mail to friends that later was leaked to the press, the wife of speechwriter David Frum said that he had coined the phrase. Frum claimed that Bush made the edit, but later wrote that he (Frum) came up with "axis of hate," which head speechwriter Michael Gerson then revised as "axis of evil." See Tim Noah, "David Frum: On Second Thought, I Didn't Coin Axis of Evil," Slate Magazine, 26 February 2002, pp. 1-2; "Axis of Evil Writer Leaves Bush's Staff," The Washington Times, 26 February 2002, pp. 1-2; both available from http://www.web.lexis-nexis.com; Frum, 238.
153. Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session of Congress on the State of the Union," 29 January 2002, WCPD 38 (2002) 135. The origins of the phrase "axis of evil" are not entirely clear. In an e-mail to friends that later was leaked to the press, the wife of speechwriter David Frum said that he had coined the phrase. Frum claimed that Bush made the edit, but later wrote that he (Frum) came up with "axis of hate," which head speechwriter Michael Gerson then revised as "axis of evil." See Tim Noah, "David Frum: On Second Thought, I Didn't Coin Axis of Evil," Slate Magazine, 26 February 2002, pp. 1-2; "Axis of Evil Writer Leaves Bush's Staff," The Washington Times, 26 February 2002, pp. 1-2; both available from http://www.web.lexis-nexis.com; Frum, 238.
154. George W. Bush, "Remarks on Arrival at the White House and an Exchange with Reporters," 16 September 2001, WCPD 37 (2001), 1323.
155. Other presidents have used World War II analogies, albeit not always as consistently and insistently as Bush did. See, for example, Denise M. Bostdorff, The Presidency and the Rhetoric of Foreign Crisis (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1994), 70-71, 103-104. Ironically, one president who used such analogies effectively was George H. W. Bush in his rhetoric about the Persian Gulf War. See Mary E. Stuckey, "Remembering the Future: Rhetorical Echoes of World War II and Vietnam in George Bush's Public Speech on the Gulf War," Communication Studies 43 (1992): 251-253. For more on how presidents use analogies to frame foreign policy issues, see Roland Paris, "Kosovo and the Metaphor War," Political Science Quarterly 117 (2002): 423-450.
156. Other presidents have used World War II analogies, albeit not always as consistently and insistently as Bush did. See, for example, Denise M. Bostdorff, The Presidency and the Rhetoric of Foreign Crisis (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1994), 70-71, 103-104. Ironically, one president who used such analogies effectively was George H. W. Bush in his rhetoric about the Persian Gulf War. See Mary E. Stuckey, "Remembering the Future: Rhetorical Echoes of World War II and Vietnam in George Bush's Public Speech on the Gulf War," Communication Studies 43 (1992): 251-253. For more on how presidents use analogies to frame foreign policy issues, see Roland Paris, "Kosovo and the Metaphor War," Political Science Quarterly 117 (2002): 423-450.
157. Other presidents have used World War II analogies, albeit not always as consistently and insistently as Bush did. See, for example, Denise M. Bostdorff, The Presidency and the Rhetoric of Foreign Crisis (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1994), 70-71, 103-104. Ironically, one president who used such analogies effectively was George H. W. Bush in his rhetoric about the Persian Gulf War. See Mary E. Stuckey, "Remembering the Future: Rhetorical Echoes of World War II and Vietnam in George Bush's Public Speech on the Gulf War," Communication Studies 43 (1992): 251-253. For more on how presidents use analogies to frame foreign policy issues, see Roland Paris, "Kosovo and the Metaphor War," Political Science Quarterly 117 (2002): 423-450.
158. Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session," 20 September 2001, 1348; Bush, "The President's News Conference," 1454.
159. Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session," 20 September 2001, 1348; Bush, "The President's News Conference," 1454.
160. Bush, "Remarks at National Day of Prayer," 1309; Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session," 29 January 2002, 135.
161. Bush, "Remarks at National Day of Prayer," 1309; Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session," 29 January 2002, 135.
162. Dan Balz and Bob Woodward, "A Presidency Defined in One Speech: Bush Saw Address as Both Reassurance and Resolve to a Troubled Nation," The Washington Post, 2 February 2002, p. 4, available from http://www.lexis-nexis.com.
163. Bush, "Remarks to the United Nations," 1641.
164. Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session," 20 September 2001, 1349; and, for example, Ron Hutcheson, "Bush Vows to Go After Saddam, Will Consider 'All Options,'" Knight-Ridder News Service, 14 March 2002, available from http://www.web.lexis-nexis.com. As a way of harking back to the days of Wilson's and FDR's war declaration speeches and Truman's Truman Doctrine address, White House strategist Karl Rove recommended that the president speak to a joint session of Congress on September 20, rather than delivering a televised address from the Oval Office. See Frum, 135-136.
165. Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session," 20 September 2001, 1349; and, for example, Ron Hutcheson, "Bush Vows to Go After Saddam, Will Consider 'All Options,'" Knight-Ridder News Service, 14 March 2002, available from http://www.web.lexis-nexis.com. As a way of harking back to the days of Wilson's and FDR's war declaration speeches and Truman's Truman Doctrine address, White House strategist Karl Rove recommended that the president speak to a joint session of Congress on September 20, rather than delivering a televised address from the Oval Office. See Frum, 135-136.
166. Bush, "Address before a Joint Session," 20 September 2001, 1349; and, for example, Ron Hutcheson, "Bush Vows to Go After Saddam, Will Consider 'All Options,'" Knight-Ridder News Service, 14 March 2002, available from http://www.web.lexis-nexis.com. As a way of harking back to the days of Wilson's and FDR's war declaration speeches and Truman's Truman Doctrine address, White House strategist Karl Rove recommended that the president speak to a joint session of Congress on September 20, rather than delivering a televised address from the Oval Office. See Frum, 135-136.
167. James Jasinski, "Rearticulating History in Epideictic Discourse: Frederick Douglass's 'The Meaning of the Fourth of July to the Negro,'" in Rhetoric and Political Culture in Nineteenth-Century America, ed. Thomas W. Benson (Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 1997), 78.
168. Bush, "Remarks to the United Nations," 1638.
169. George W. Bush, "Address to the Nation Announcing Strikes Against Al Qaida Training Camps and Taliban Military Installations in Afghanistan, " 7 October 2001, WCPD 37 (2001): 1432, available from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov.
170. For example, see Bush, "Remarks in a Meeting," 1320; Bush, "Remarks on Arrival," 1323. Williams (2002, p. 91) made the first observation of which I am aware that Bush had returned to the rhetoric of total war, and did so before the issue of pre-emptive strikes dominated newspaper headlines in spring 2002. See Jordan N. Williams, George W. Bush's Rhetoric in the War on Terrorism: An Analysis of the Presidential Response to the Attacks of September 11, unpublished senior independent study thesis, The College of Wooster, Wooster, OH, 2002. The only qualifier that Bush placed on his stated intention to "eradicate the evil of terrorism" ("The President's Radio Address," 15 September 2001, 1321) came in his initial address to Congress when he said that the war on terrorism "will not end until every terrorist group of global reach has been found, stopped, and defeated" ("Address Before a Joint Session," 20 September 2001, 1348). After hearing this line, a Russian diplomat told political scientist Robert Jervis, "Ah, a global reach - that means terrorists who can attack the U.S." Quoted in Robert Jervis, "An Interim Assessment of September 11: What Has Changed and What Has Not?" Political Science Quarterly 117 (2002): 48.
171. For example, see Bush, "Remarks in a Meeting," 1320; Bush, "Remarks on Arrival," 1323. Williams (2002, p. 91) made the first observation of which I am aware that Bush had returned to the rhetoric of total war, and did so before the issue of pre-emptive strikes dominated newspaper headlines in spring 2002. See Jordan N. Williams, George W. Bush's Rhetoric in the War on Terrorism: An Analysis of the Presidential Response to the Attacks of September 11, unpublished senior independent study thesis, The College of Wooster, Wooster, OH, 2002. The only qualifier that Bush placed on his stated intention to "eradicate the evil of terrorism" ("The President's Radio Address," 15 September 2001, 1321) came in his initial address to Congress when he said that the war on terrorism "will not end until every terrorist group of global reach has been found, stopped, and defeated" ("Address Before a Joint Session," 20 September 2001, 1348). After hearing this line, a Russian diplomat told political scientist Robert Jervis, "Ah, a global reach - that means terrorists who can attack the U.S." Quoted in Robert Jervis, "An Interim Assessment of September 11: What Has Changed and What Has Not?" Political Science Quarterly 117 (2002): 48.
172. For example, see Bush, "Remarks in a Meeting," 1320; Bush, "Remarks on Arrival," 1323. Williams (2002, p. 91) made the first observation of which I am aware that Bush had returned to the rhetoric of total war, and did so before the issue of pre-emptive strikes dominated newspaper headlines in spring 2002. See Jordan N. Williams, George W. Bush's Rhetoric in the War on Terrorism: An Analysis of the Presidential Response to the Attacks of September 11, unpublished senior independent study thesis, The College of Wooster, Wooster, OH, 2002. The only qualifier that Bush placed on his stated intention to "eradicate the evil of terrorism" ("The President's Radio Address," 15 September 2001, 1321) came in his initial address to Congress when he said that the war on terrorism "will not end until every terrorist group of global reach has been found, stopped, and defeated" ("Address Before a Joint Session," 20 September 2001, 1348). After hearing this line, a Russian diplomat told political scientist Robert Jervis, "Ah, a global reach - that means terrorists who can attack the U.S." Quoted in Robert Jervis, "An Interim Assessment of September 11: What Has Changed and What Has Not?" Political Science Quarterly 117 (2002): 48.
173. For example, see Bush, "Remarks in a Meeting," 1320; Bush, "Remarks on Arrival," 1323. Williams (2002, p. 91) made the first observation of which I am aware that Bush had returned to the rhetoric of total war, and did so before the issue of pre-emptive strikes dominated newspaper headlines in spring 2002. See Jordan N. Williams, George W. Bush's Rhetoric in the War on Terrorism: An Analysis of the Presidential Response to the Attacks of September 11, unpublished senior independent study thesis, The College of Wooster, Wooster, OH, 2002. The only qualifier that Bush placed on his stated intention to "eradicate the evil of terrorism" ("The President's Radio Address," 15 September 2001, 1321) came in his initial address to Congress when he said that the war on terrorism "will not end until every terrorist group of global reach has been found, stopped, and defeated" ("Address Before a Joint Session," 20 September 2001, 1348). After hearing this line, a Russian diplomat told political scientist Robert Jervis, "Ah, a global reach - that means terrorists who can attack the U.S." Quoted in Robert Jervis, "An Interim Assessment of September 11: What Has Changed and What Has Not?" Political Science Quarterly 117 (2002): 48.
174. For example, see Bush, "Remarks in a Meeting," 1320; Bush, "Remarks on Arrival," 1323. Williams (2002, p. 91) made the first observation of which I am aware that Bush had returned to the rhetoric of total war, and did so before the issue of pre-emptive strikes dominated newspaper headlines in spring 2002. See Jordan N. Williams, George W. Bush's Rhetoric in the War on Terrorism: An Analysis of the Presidential Response to the Attacks of September 11, unpublished senior independent study thesis, The College of Wooster, Wooster, OH, 2002. The only qualifier that Bush placed on his stated intention to "eradicate the evil of terrorism" ("The President's Radio Address," 15 September 2001, 1321) came in his initial address to Congress when he said that the war on terrorism "will not end until every terrorist group of global reach has been found, stopped, and defeated" ("Address Before a Joint Session," 20 September 2001, 1348). After hearing this line, a Russian diplomat told political scientist Robert Jervis, "Ah, a global reach - that means terrorists who can attack the U.S." Quoted in Robert Jervis, "An Interim Assessment of September 11: What Has Changed and What Has Not?" Political Science Quarterly 117 (2002): 48.
175. For example, see Bush, "Remarks in a Meeting," 1320; Bush, "Remarks on Arrival," 1323. Williams (2002, p. 91) made the first observation of which I am aware that Bush had returned to the rhetoric of total war, and did so before the issue of pre-emptive strikes dominated newspaper headlines in spring 2002. See Jordan N. Williams, George W. Bush's Rhetoric in the War on Terrorism: An Analysis of the Presidential Response to the Attacks of September 11, unpublished senior independent study thesis, The College of Wooster, Wooster, OH, 2002. The only qualifier that Bush placed on his stated intention to "eradicate the evil of terrorism" ("The President's Radio Address," 15 September 2001, 1321) came in his initial address to Congress when he said that the war on terrorism "will not end until every terrorist group of global reach has been found, stopped, and defeated" ("Address Before a Joint Session," 20 September 2001, 1348). After hearing this line, a Russian diplomat told political scientist Robert Jervis, "Ah, a global reach - that means terrorists who can attack the U.S." Quoted in Robert Jervis, "An Interim Assessment of September 11: What Has Changed and What Has Not?" Political Science Quarterly 117 (2002): 48.
176. Bush, "Remarks at National Day of Prayer," 1310. For more on the concept of civil religion, see Robert N. Bellah, "Civil Religion in America," Daedalus 96 (1967): 1-21; Roderick P. Hart, The Political Pulpit (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1977).
177. Bush, "Remarks at National Day of Prayer," 1310. For more on the concept of civil religion, see Robert N. Bellah, "Civil Religion in America," Daedalus 96 (1967): 1-21; Roderick P. Hart, The Political Pulpit (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1977).
178. Bush, "Remarks at National Day of Prayer," 1310. For more on the concept of civil religion, see Robert N. Bellah, "Civil Religion in America," Daedalus 96 (1967): 1-21; Roderick P. Hart, The Political Pulpit (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1977).
179. Bush, "Remarks to the United Nations," 1638, 1641. Bush obviously was attempting to gain support for his policies from the current generation of world leaders, but I am focusing on his appeals to U.S. citizens.
180. Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session," 20 September 2001, 1350.
181. Winston S. Churchill, "Give Us the Tools," London Broadcast, 9 February 1941, in Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches, Vol. 6: 1935-1942, ed. Robert Rhodes James (New York: Chelsea House Publishers in association with R.R. Bowker, 1974), 6350.
182. Max, 2; Winston S. Churchill, "Some Chicken! Some Neck!" speech delivered to joint session of the Canadian Parliament, Ottawa, 30 December 1941, in Winston S. Churchill, 6543. The New York Times' Tom Kuntz observed that in Bush's speech before Congress in September 2001, "he took his foot from his mouth" to approach the eloquence of Churchill. See Tom Kuntz, "Who Let the Bulldog Out?", editorial, New York Times, 23 September 2001, p. D3, available from http://www.lexis-nexis.com.
183. Max, 2; Winston S. Churchill, "Some Chicken! Some Neck!" speech delivered to joint session of the Canadian Parliament, Ottawa, 30 December 1941, in Winston S. Churchill, 6543. The New York Times' Tom Kuntz observed that in Bush's speech before Congress in September 2001, "he took his foot from his mouth" to approach the eloquence of Churchill. See Tom Kuntz, "Who Let the Bulldog Out?", editorial, New York Times, 23 September 2001, p. D3, available from http://www.lexis-nexis.com.
184. Max, 2; Winston S. Churchill, "Some Chicken! Some Neck!" speech delivered to joint session of the Canadian Parliament, Ottawa, 30 December 1941, in Winston S. Churchill, 6543. The New York Times' Tom Kuntz observed that in Bush's speech before Congress in September 2001, "he took his foot from his mouth" to approach the eloquence of Churchill. See Tom Kuntz, "Who Let the Bulldog Out?", editorial, New York Times, 23 September 2001, p. D3, available from http://www.lexis-nexis.com.
185. George W. Bush, "The President's Radio Address," 29 September 2001, WCPD 37 (2001): 1398, available from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov.
186. Bush, "Address to the Nation," 8 November 2001, 1618; Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session," 20 September 2001, 1351.
187. Bush, "Address to the Nation," 8 November 2001, 1618; Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session," 20 September 2001, 1351.
188. Bormann, The Force of Fantasy, 50.
189. Elliott, 14, 176.
190. George W. Bush, "Remarks on the Terrorist Attacks at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana," 11 September 2001, WCPD 37 (2001), 1300; George W. Bush, "The President's Radio Address," 15 September 2001, WCPD 37 (2001), 1321; both available from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov; Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session," 20 September 2001, 1347; Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session," 29 January 2002, 134.
191. George W. Bush, "Remarks on the Terrorist Attacks at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana," 11 September 2001, WCPD 37 (2001), 1300; George W. Bush, "The President's Radio Address," 15 September 2001, WCPD 37 (2001), 1321; both available from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov; Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session," 20 September 2001, 1347; Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session," 29 January 2002, 134.
192. George W. Bush, "Remarks on the Terrorist Attacks at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana," 11 September 2001, WCPD 37 (2001), 1300; George W. Bush, "The President's Radio Address," 15 September 2001, WCPD 37 (2001), 1321; both available from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov; Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session," 20 September 2001, 1347; Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session," 29 January 2002, 134.
193. George W. Bush, "Remarks on the Terrorist Attacks at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana," 11 September 2001, WCPD 37 (2001), 1300; George W. Bush, "The President's Radio Address," 15 September 2001, WCPD 37 (2001), 1321; both available from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov; Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session," 20 September 2001, 1347; Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session," 29 January 2002, 134.
194. Bush, "Remarks at National Day of Prayer," 1310.
195. Bostdorff, 5-6, 207-208. Murray Edelman points out that crises also allow leaders to rationalize policies and to shore up perceptions of their leadership. See Constructing the Political Spectacle (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 31-32, 64.
196. Bostdorff, 5-6, 207-208. Murray Edelman points out that crises also allow leaders to rationalize policies and to shore up perceptions of their leadership. See Constructing the Political Spectacle (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 31-32, 64.
197. Bormann, The Force of Fantasy, 48; also see Ernest G. Bormann, "Fetching Good Out of Evil: A Rhetorical Use of Calamity," Quarterly Journal of Speech 63 (1977): 130-139.
198. Bormann, The Force of Fantasy, 48; also see Ernest G. Bormann, "Fetching Good Out of Evil: A Rhetorical Use of Calamity," Quarterly Journal of Speech 63 (1977): 130-139.
199. Bush, "Address to the Nation," 8 November 2001, 1614, 1617; Bush, "The President's News Conference," 1461.
200. Bush, "Address to the Nation," 8 November 2001, 1614, 1617; Bush, "The President's News Conference," 1461.
201. Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session," 29 January 2002, 137.
202. Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session," 29 January 2002, 138.
203. Jones, 85; Elliott, 175.
204. Jones, 85; Elliott, 175.
205. Bush, "Address to the Nation," 11 September 2001, 1302; Bush, "Proclamation 7462," 1308; Bush, "Remarks in a Meeting," 1321, 1320.
206. Bush, "Address to the Nation," 11 September 2001, 1302; Bush, "Proclamation 7462," 1308; Bush, "Remarks in a Meeting," 1321, 1320.
207. Bush, "Address to the Nation," 11 September 2001, 1302; Bush, "Proclamation 7462," 1308; Bush, "Remarks in a Meeting," 1321, 1320.
208. Bush, "Remarks in a Meeting," 1320-1321; Bush, "Remarks on Arrival," 1322.
209. Bush, "Remarks in a Meeting," 1320-1321; Bush, "Remarks on Arrival," 1322.
210. Bush, "Remarks on Arrival," 1322.
211. Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session," 20 September 2001, 1349; Bush, "The President's News Conference," 1455. Also see George W. Bush, "The President's Radio Address," 22 September 2001, WCPD 37 (2001): 1357.
212. Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session," 20 September 2001, 1349; Bush, "The President's News Conference," 1455. Also see George W. Bush, "The President's Radio Address," 22 September 2001, WCPD 37 (2001): 1357.
213. Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session," 20 September 2001, 1349; Bush, "The President's News Conference," 1455. Also see George W. Bush, "The President's Radio Address," 22 September 2001, WCPD 37 (2001): 1357.
214. Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session," 20 September 2001, 1349-1350.
215. Bush, "The President's News Conference," 1455; Bush, "Address to the Nation," 8 November 2001, 1616-1617.
216. Bush, "The President's News Conference," 1455; Bush, "Address to the Nation," 8 November 2001, 1616-1617.
217. Bush, "The President's News Conference," 1462.
218. For example, see Bush, "The President's News Conference," 1460; Robert D. Putnam, "A Better Society in a Time of War," editorial, New York Times, 19 October 2001, p. A19.
219. For example, see Bush, "The President's News Conference," 1460; Robert D. Putnam, "A Better Society in a Time of War," editorial, New York Times, 19 October 2001, p. A19.
220. Bush, "Address to the Nation," 8 November 2001, 1617; Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session," 29 January 2002, 138.
221. Bush, "Address to the Nation," 8 November 2001, 1617; Bush, "Address Before a Joint Session," 29 January 2002, 138.
222. The White House, "In Our Communities," 2002, available from http://www.whitehouse.gov; USA Freedom Corps, "Progress Report," 1 November 2002 USA Freedom Corps, "Announcements," 2 November 2002; both available from http://www.usafreedomcorps.gov.
223. The White House, "In Our Communities," 2002, available from http://www.whitehouse.gov; USA Freedom Corps, "Progress Report," 1 November 2002 USA Freedom Corps, "Announcements," 2 November 2002; both available from http://www.usafreedomcorps.gov.
224. The White House, "In Our Communities," 2002, available from http://www.whitehouse.gov; USA Freedom Corps, "Progress Report," 1 November 2002 USA Freedom Corps, "Announcements," 2 November 2002; both available from http://www.usafreedomcorps.gov.
225. Winston S. Churchill, "Blood, Toil, Tears and Sweat," speech delivered in the House of Commons, 13 May 1940, in Winston S. Churchill, 6220.
226. Jones, 86.
227. David S. Broder, "Will It Live in Infamy?" editorial, Washington Post, 11 September 2002, p. A17, available from http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename = article&node = opinion/columns/broderdavid; Putnam, "A Better Society," p. A19; "An Uncertain Trumpet," editorial, New York Times, 8 September 2002, p. D14, available from http://web.lexis-nexis.com. Also see Michael Booth, "Americans Sacrificing Little in Wartime Effort," The Denver Post, 6 December 2001, p. Al; Mark Brown, "Is Sacrifice Out of Reach for this Generation?" The Chicago Sun-Times, 1 November 2001, news special edition, p. 2; both available from http://web.lexis-nexis.com.
228. David S. Broder, "Will It Live in Infamy?" editorial, Washington Post, 11 September 2002, p. A17, available from http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename = article&node = opinion/columns/broderdavid; Putnam, "A Better Society," p. A19; "An Uncertain Trumpet," editorial, New York Times, 8 September 2002, p. D14, available from http://web.lexis-nexis.com. Also see Michael Booth, "Americans Sacrificing Little in Wartime Effort," The Denver Post, 6 December 2001, p. Al; Mark Brown, "Is Sacrifice Out of Reach for this Generation?" The Chicago Sun-Times, 1 November 2001, news special edition, p. 2; both available from http://web.lexis-nexis.com.
229. David S. Broder, "Will It Live in Infamy?" editorial, Washington Post, 11 September 2002, p. A17, available from http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename = article&node = opinion/columns/broderdavid; Putnam, "A Better Society," p. A19; "An Uncertain Trumpet," editorial, New York Times, 8 September 2002, p. D14, available from http://web.lexis-nexis.com. Also see Michael Booth, "Americans Sacrificing Little in Wartime Effort," The Denver Post, 6 December 2001, p. Al; Mark Brown, "Is Sacrifice Out of Reach for this Generation?" The Chicago Sun-Times, 1 November 2001, news special edition, p. 2; both available from http://web.lexis-nexis.com.
230. David S. Broder, "Will It Live in Infamy?" editorial, Washington Post, 11 September 2002, p. A17, available from http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename = article&node = opinion/columns/broderdavid; Putnam, "A Better Society," p. A19; "An Uncertain Trumpet," editorial, New York Times, 8 September 2002, p. D14, available from http://web.lexis-nexis.com. Also see Michael Booth, "Americans Sacrificing Little in Wartime Effort," The Denver Post, 6 December 2001, p. Al; Mark Brown, "Is Sacrifice Out of Reach for this Generation?" The Chicago Sun-Times, 1 November 2001, news special edition, p. 2; both available from http://web.lexis-nexis.com.
231. David S. Broder, "Will It Live in Infamy?" editorial, Washington Post, 11 September 2002, p. A17, available from http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename = article&node = opinion/columns/broderdavid; Putnam, "A Better Society," p. A19; "An Uncertain Trumpet," editorial, New York Times, 8 September 2002, p. D14, available from http://web.lexis-nexis.com. Also see Michael Booth, "Americans Sacrificing Little in Wartime Effort," The Denver Post, 6 December 2001, p. Al; Mark Brown, "Is Sacrifice Out of Reach for this Generation?" The Chicago Sun-Times, 1 November 2001, news special edition, p. 2; both available from http://web.lexis-nexis.com.
232. "Make Sense of Our Times," advertisement, New York Times, 3 November 2001, p. B12.
233. Bush did not use the term "covenant," perhaps because of his predecessor's use of it. For an analysis of Clinton's "new covenant" rhetoric, see Rachel L. Holloway, "Taking the Middle Ground: Clinton's Rhetoric of Conjoined Values," in The 1996 Presidential Campaign: A Communication Perspective, ed. Robert E. Denton, Jr (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998), 123-141.
234. For more on the contradictions in Wilson's League of Nations discourse, see Jeffrey K. Tulis, The Rhetorical Presidency (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987), 157-161.
235. James L. Hoban, Jr, "Rhetorical Rituals of Rebirth," Quarterly Journal of Speech 66 (1980): 281, 284-285.
236. Allen, A35; Anne E. Kornblut, "As a Speaker, Bush Is Gaining Command Confidence, Effort Improves Delivery," The Boston Globe, 12 February 2001, p. A1, available from http://web.lexis-nexis.com.
237. Allen, A35; Anne E. Kornblut, "As a Speaker, Bush Is Gaining Command Confidence, Effort Improves Delivery," The Boston Globe, 12 February 2001, p. A1, available from http://web.lexis-nexis.com.
238. The president's speechwriters shared this perception and referred to his nationwide address on September 11 as the "awful office address." See Frum, 119-120, 126-128, 146.
239. George W. Bush, "Remarks to Police, Firemen, and Rescueworkers at the World Trade Center Site in New York City," 14 September 2001, WCPD 37 (2001): 1313, available from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov.
240. See, for example, Paul Bedard, Edward T. Pound, and Suzi Parker, "'B' for Bush - in Speechmaking," Washington Whispers, U.S. News & World Report, 27 May 2002, p. 10; 'Just the Right Words; Mr. Bush Shows Leadership in Strong Speech to Congress," editorial, Pittsburgh [PA] Post-Gazette, 23 September 2001, p. B2; both available from http://web.lexis-nexis.com; Kuntz, D3.
241. See, for example, Paul Bedard, Edward T. Pound, and Suzi Parker, "'B' for Bush - in Speechmaking," Washington Whispers, U.S. News & World Report, 27 May 2002, p. 10; 'Just the Right Words; Mr. Bush Shows Leadership in Strong Speech to Congress," editorial, Pittsburgh [PA] Post-Gazette, 23 September 2001, p. B2; both available from http://web.lexis-nexis.com; Kuntz, D3.
242. See, for example, Paul Bedard, Edward T. Pound, and Suzi Parker, "'B' for Bush - in Speechmaking," Washington Whispers, U.S. News & World Report, 27 May 2002, p. 10; 'Just the Right Words; Mr. Bush Shows Leadership in Strong Speech to Congress," editorial, Pittsburgh [PA] Post-Gazette, 23 September 2001, p. B2; both available from http://web.lexis-nexis.com; Kuntz, D3.
243. Ceremonial messages have become increasingly prominent in presidential discourse, although Dan Hahn may exaggerate when he asserts that all presidential rhetoric is epideictic in character. See Roderick P. Hart, The Sound of Leadership: Presidential Communication in the Modem Age (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 17, 69; Dan Hahn, "The Media and the Presidency: Ten Propositions," Communication Quarterly 35 (1987): 260. For more on the advantages of the epideictic, see Denise M. Bostdorff and Steven L. Vibbert, "Values Advocacy: Enhancing Organizational Images, Deflecting Public Criticism, and Grounding Future Arguments," Public Relations Review 20 (1994): 146, 153-154; Campbell and Jamieson, 21, 29; Richard E. Crable and Steven L. Vibbert, "Mobil's Epideictic Advocacy: 'Observations' of Prometheus-Bound," Communication Monographs 50 (1983): 389; Hart, The Sound, 69-70; Murphy, "Epideictic," 72.
244. Ceremonial messages have become increasingly prominent in presidential discourse, although Dan Hahn may exaggerate when he asserts that all presidential rhetoric is epideictic in character. See Roderick P. Hart, The Sound of Leadership: Presidential Communication in the Modem Age (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 17, 69; Dan Hahn, "The Media and the Presidency: Ten Propositions," Communication Quarterly 35 (1987): 260. For more on the advantages of the epideictic, see Denise M. Bostdorff and Steven L. Vibbert, "Values Advocacy: Enhancing Organizational Images, Deflecting Public Criticism, and Grounding Future Arguments," Public Relations Review 20 (1994): 146, 153-154; Campbell and Jamieson, 21, 29; Richard E. Crable and Steven L. Vibbert, "Mobil's Epideictic Advocacy: 'Observations' of Prometheus-Bound," Communication Monographs 50 (1983): 389; Hart, The Sound, 69-70; Murphy, "Epideictic," 72.
245. Ceremonial messages have become increasingly prominent in presidential discourse, although Dan Hahn may exaggerate when he asserts that all presidential rhetoric is epideictic in character. See Roderick P. Hart, The Sound of Leadership: Presidential Communication in the Modem Age (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 17, 69; Dan Hahn, "The Media and the Presidency: Ten Propositions," Communication Quarterly 35 (1987): 260. For more on the advantages of the epideictic, see Denise M. Bostdorff and Steven L. Vibbert, "Values Advocacy: Enhancing Organizational Images, Deflecting Public Criticism, and Grounding Future Arguments," Public Relations Review 20 (1994): 146, 153-154; Campbell and Jamieson, 21, 29; Richard E. Crable and Steven L. Vibbert, "Mobil's Epideictic Advocacy: 'Observations' of Prometheus-Bound," Communication Monographs 50 (1983): 389; Hart, The Sound, 69-70; Murphy, "Epideictic," 72.
246. Ceremonial messages have become increasingly prominent in presidential discourse, although Dan Hahn may exaggerate when he asserts that all presidential rhetoric is epideictic in character. See Roderick P. Hart, The Sound of Leadership: Presidential Communication in the Modem Age (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 17, 69; Dan Hahn, "The Media and the Presidency: Ten Propositions," Communication Quarterly 35 (1987): 260. For more on the advantages of the epideictic, see Denise M. Bostdorff and Steven L. Vibbert, "Values Advocacy: Enhancing Organizational Images, Deflecting Public Criticism, and Grounding Future Arguments," Public Relations Review 20 (1994): 146, 153-154; Campbell and Jamieson, 21, 29; Richard E. Crable and Steven L. Vibbert, "Mobil's Epideictic Advocacy: 'Observations' of Prometheus-Bound," Communication Monographs 50 (1983): 389; Hart, The Sound, 69-70; Murphy, "Epideictic," 72.
247. Ceremonial messages have become increasingly prominent in presidential discourse, although Dan Hahn may exaggerate when he asserts that all presidential rhetoric is epideictic in character. See Roderick P. Hart, The Sound of Leadership: Presidential Communication in the Modem Age (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 17, 69; Dan Hahn, "The Media and the Presidency: Ten Propositions," Communication Quarterly 35 (1987): 260. For more on the advantages of the epideictic, see Denise M. Bostdorff and Steven L. Vibbert, "Values Advocacy: Enhancing Organizational Images, Deflecting Public Criticism, and Grounding Future Arguments," Public Relations Review 20 (1994): 146, 153-154; Campbell and Jamieson, 21, 29; Richard E. Crable and Steven L. Vibbert, "Mobil's Epideictic Advocacy: 'Observations' of Prometheus-Bound," Communication Monographs 50 (1983): 389; Hart, The Sound, 69-70; Murphy, "Epideictic," 72.
248. Ceremonial messages have become increasingly prominent in presidential discourse, although Dan Hahn may exaggerate when he asserts that all presidential rhetoric is epideictic in character. See Roderick P. Hart, The Sound of Leadership: Presidential Communication in the Modem Age (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 17, 69; Dan Hahn, "The Media and the Presidency: Ten Propositions," Communication Quarterly 35 (1987): 260. For more on the advantages of the epideictic, see Denise M. Bostdorff and Steven L. Vibbert, "Values Advocacy: Enhancing Organizational Images, Deflecting Public Criticism, and Grounding Future Arguments," Public Relations Review 20 (1994): 146, 153-154; Campbell and Jamieson, 21, 29; Richard E. Crable and Steven L. Vibbert, "Mobil's Epideictic Advocacy: 'Observations' of Prometheus-Bound," Communication Monographs 50 (1983): 389; Hart, The Sound, 69-70; Murphy, "Epideictic," 72.
249. Ceremonial messages have become increasingly prominent in presidential discourse, although Dan Hahn may exaggerate when he asserts that all presidential rhetoric is epideictic in character. See Roderick P. Hart, The Sound of Leadership: Presidential Communication in the Modem Age (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 17, 69; Dan Hahn, "The Media and the Presidency: Ten Propositions," Communication Quarterly 35 (1987): 260. For more on the advantages of the epideictic, see Denise M. Bostdorff and Steven L. Vibbert, "Values Advocacy: Enhancing Organizational Images, Deflecting Public Criticism, and Grounding Future Arguments," Public Relations Review 20 (1994): 146, 153-154; Campbell and Jamieson, 21, 29; Richard E. Crable and Steven L. Vibbert, "Mobil's Epideictic Advocacy: 'Observations' of Prometheus-Bound," Communication Monographs 50 (1983): 389; Hart, The Sound, 69-70; Murphy, "Epideictic," 72.
250. Stout, 98.
251. As Martin E. Marty, a Lutheran minister and former president of the American Catholic Historical Association, noted of Bush's "God talk": "The problem isn't with Bush's sincerity, but with his evident conviction that he's doing God's will." See "The Sin of Pride," Newsweek, 10 March 2003, p. 32.