Human Rights in the European Union: Internal Versus External Objectives

Cornell International Law Journal

Volumn 34, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 364-395

  Duquette, Elizabeth Shaver ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0347086550     PISSN: 00108812     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (251)

1. Due to space constraints, I will compare the EU's application of its human rights policies in these countries only. However, as the wealth of literature illustrates, the EU exercises great diversity in its efforts to attain human rights goals depending on its political relations with numerous third countries.
2. TREATY ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY, Mar. 25 1957, 298 U.N.T.S. 11, amended by TREATY ON EUROPEAN UNION, Feb. 7, 1992, O.J. (C 224) 1 (1992) [hereinafter TEU], amended by TREATY OF AMSTERDAM AMENDING THE TREATY ON EUROPEAN UNION, THE TREATIES ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES AND CERTAIN RELATED ACTS, Oct. 2, 1997, O.J. (C 340) 1 (1997) [hereinafter TREATY OF AMSTERDAM]. The Treaty is now the CONSOLIDATED VERSION OF THE TREATY ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY, Nov. 10, 1997, O.J. (C 340) 3 (1997) [hereinafter EC TREATY]. The Member States originally formed the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). TREATY ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN COAL AND STEEL COMMUNITY, Apr. 18, 1951, 261 U.N.T.S. 140. This treaty is to expire in 2002. Subsequently, the original Member States signed the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) Treaty to address the non-military use of atomic energy. TREATY ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN ATOMIC ENERGY COMMUNITY, Mar. 25, 1957, 298 U.N.T.S. 167. The Euratom Treaty was signed in conjunction with the EEC Treaty and has no expiration date.
3. TREATY ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY, Mar. 25 1957, 298 U.N.T.S. 11, amended by TREATY ON EUROPEAN UNION, Feb. 7, 1992, O.J. (C 224) 1 (1992) [hereinafter TEU], amended by TREATY OF AMSTERDAM AMENDING THE TREATY ON EUROPEAN UNION, THE TREATIES ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES AND CERTAIN RELATED ACTS, Oct. 2, 1997, O.J. (C 340) 1 (1997) [hereinafter TREATY OF AMSTERDAM]. The Treaty is now the CONSOLIDATED VERSION OF THE TREATY ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY, Nov. 10, 1997, O.J. (C 340) 3 (1997) [hereinafter EC TREATY]. The Member States originally formed the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). TREATY ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN COAL AND STEEL COMMUNITY, Apr. 18, 1951, 261 U.N.T.S. 140. This treaty is to expire in 2002. Subsequently, the original Member States signed the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) Treaty to address the non-military use of atomic energy. TREATY ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN ATOMIC ENERGY COMMUNITY, Mar. 25, 1957, 298 U.N.T.S. 167. The Euratom Treaty was signed in conjunction with the EEC Treaty and has no expiration date.
4. TREATY ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY, Mar. 25 1957, 298 U.N.T.S. 11, amended by TREATY ON EUROPEAN UNION, Feb. 7, 1992, O.J. (C 224) 1 (1992) [hereinafter TEU], amended by TREATY OF AMSTERDAM AMENDING THE TREATY ON EUROPEAN UNION, THE TREATIES ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES AND CERTAIN RELATED ACTS, Oct. 2, 1997, O.J. (C 340) 1 (1997) [hereinafter TREATY OF AMSTERDAM]. The Treaty is now the CONSOLIDATED VERSION OF THE TREATY ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY, Nov. 10, 1997, O.J. (C 340) 3 (1997) [hereinafter EC TREATY]. The Member States originally formed the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). TREATY ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN COAL AND STEEL COMMUNITY, Apr. 18, 1951, 261 U.N.T.S. 140. This treaty is to expire in 2002. Subsequently, the original Member States signed the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) Treaty to address the non-military use of atomic energy. TREATY ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN ATOMIC ENERGY COMMUNITY, Mar. 25, 1957, 298 U.N.T.S. 167. The Euratom Treaty was signed in conjunction with the EEC Treaty and has no expiration date.
5. TREATY ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY, Mar. 25 1957, 298 U.N.T.S. 11, amended by TREATY ON EUROPEAN UNION, Feb. 7, 1992, O.J. (C 224) 1 (1992) [hereinafter TEU], amended by TREATY OF AMSTERDAM AMENDING THE TREATY ON EUROPEAN UNION, THE TREATIES ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES AND CERTAIN RELATED ACTS, Oct. 2, 1997, O.J. (C 340) 1 (1997) [hereinafter TREATY OF AMSTERDAM]. The Treaty is now the CONSOLIDATED VERSION OF THE TREATY ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY, Nov. 10, 1997, O.J. (C 340) 3 (1997) [hereinafter EC TREATY]. The Member States originally formed the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). TREATY ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN COAL AND STEEL COMMUNITY, Apr. 18, 1951, 261 U.N.T.S. 140. This treaty is to expire in 2002. Subsequently, the original Member States signed the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) Treaty to address the non-military use of atomic energy. TREATY ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN ATOMIC ENERGY COMMUNITY, Mar. 25, 1957, 298 U.N.T.S. 167. The Euratom Treaty was signed in conjunction with the EEC Treaty and has no expiration date.
6. TREATY ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY, Mar. 25 1957, 298 U.N.T.S. 11, amended by TREATY ON EUROPEAN UNION, Feb. 7, 1992, O.J. (C 224) 1 (1992) [hereinafter TEU], amended by TREATY OF AMSTERDAM AMENDING THE TREATY ON EUROPEAN UNION, THE TREATIES ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES AND CERTAIN RELATED ACTS, Oct. 2, 1997, O.J. (C 340) 1 (1997) [hereinafter TREATY OF AMSTERDAM]. The Treaty is now the CONSOLIDATED VERSION OF THE TREATY ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY, Nov. 10, 1997, O.J. (C 340) 3 (1997) [hereinafter EC TREATY]. The Member States originally formed the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). TREATY ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN COAL AND STEEL COMMUNITY, Apr. 18, 1951, 261 U.N.T.S. 140. This treaty is to expire in 2002. Subsequently, the original Member States signed the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) Treaty to address the non-military use of atomic energy. TREATY ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN ATOMIC ENERGY COMMUNITY, Mar. 25, 1957, 298 U.N.T.S. 167. The Euratom Treaty was signed in conjunction with the EEC Treaty and has no expiration date.
7. TREATY ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY, Mar. 25 1957, 298 U.N.T.S. 11, amended by TREATY ON EUROPEAN UNION, Feb. 7, 1992, O.J. (C 224) 1 (1992) [hereinafter TEU], amended by TREATY OF AMSTERDAM AMENDING THE TREATY ON EUROPEAN UNION, THE TREATIES ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES AND CERTAIN RELATED ACTS, Oct. 2, 1997, O.J. (C 340) 1 (1997) [hereinafter TREATY OF AMSTERDAM]. The Treaty is now the CONSOLIDATED VERSION OF THE TREATY ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY, Nov. 10, 1997, O.J. (C 340) 3 (1997) [hereinafter EC TREATY]. The Member States originally formed the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). TREATY ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN COAL AND STEEL COMMUNITY, Apr. 18, 1951, 261 U.N.T.S. 140. This treaty is to expire in 2002. Subsequently, the original Member States signed the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) Treaty to address the non-military use of atomic energy. TREATY ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN ATOMIC ENERGY COMMUNITY, Mar. 25, 1957, 298 U.N.T.S. 167. The Euratom Treaty was signed in conjunction with the EEC Treaty and has no expiration date.
8. TEU tit. V.
9. Id. tit. VI.
10. EC TREATY art. 2. This Article uses the new treaty numbering that came into effect on May 1, 1999 with the Treaty of Amsterdam. Unless otherwise designated, all treaty references are to the European Community Treaty.
11. T. C. HARTLEY, THE FOUNDATIONS OF EUROPEAN COMMUNITY LAW 130-147 (4th ed. 1998) [hereinafter FOUNDATIONS].
12. Case 44/79, Hauer v. Land Rheinland-Pfaltz, [1979] E.C.R. 3727.
13. FOUNDATIONS, supra note 6, at 132.
14. Case 26/62, Van Gend & Loos v. Nederlandse Administratie der Belastingen, [1963] E.C.R. 1, 2 C.M.L.R. 105 (1963).
15. Case 6/64, Costa v. ENEL, [1964] E.C.R. 585, 3 C.M.L.R. 425 (1964).
16. Case 26/62, Van Gend & Loos v. Nederlandse Administratie der Belastingen, [1963] E.C.R. 1, 2 C.M.L.R. 105 (1963); Case 6/64, Costa v. ENEL, [1964] E.C.R. 585, 3 C.M.L.R. 425 (1964).
17. See generally Case 11/70, Internationale Handelsgesellschaft v. EVGF, [1970] E.C.R. 1125, 11 C.M.L.R. 225 (1972).
18. FOUNDATIONS, supra note 6, at 133.
19. Case 29/69, Stauder v. City of Ulm, [1969] E.C.R. 419, 9 C.M.L.R. 112 (1970).
20. Case 11/70, Internationale Handelsgesellschaft v. EVGF, [1970] E.C.R. 1125, 11 C.M.L.R. 225 (1972).
21. Id.
22. Id.
23. Id. at 1136.
24. Case 2 BvL 52/71, Internationale Handelsgesellschaft v. EVGF, 2 C.M.L.R. 540 (1974) (Bundesverfassungsgericht).
25. Id.
26. 21. Id. Because the German Constitutional Court found that the EC export license system did not violate fundamental human rights as defined by the German Constitution, it did not in fact rebel against the ECJ's holding.
27. Re the Application of Wünsche Handelsgesellschaft, [1987] 3 C.M.L.R. 225 (1987) (Bundesverfassungsgericht).
28. Id.
29. Id.
30. TEU art. 6(2).
31. Memorandum on the Accession of the European Communities to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, BULL. EUR. COMMUNITIES, Supp. 2/79, at 5 (1979); Commission Press Release, IP(90)892, Oct. 31, 1990.
32. Id.
33. Opinion 2/94, [1996] E.C.R. I-1759.
34. FOUNDATIONS, supra note 6, at 170.
35. Marise Cremona, External Relations and External Competence: The Emergence of an Integrated Policy, in THE EVOLUTION OF EU LAW 137, 151 (Craig & de Burca eds., 1999) [hereinafter External Relations]. Article 5 states that the EC must act within the powers and the objectives conferred by the Treaty.
36. Id.
37. Opinion 2/94, [1996] E.C.R. 1-1759, ¶ 34. The ECJ acknowledged that it protected fundamental human rights as a general principle of law and that it was inspired by how Member States and international treaties sought to protect human rights. Moreover, it even proclaimed that the lawfulness of all EC acts were dependent on respect for human rights.
38. Id. ¶¶ 34-35.
39. Id.
40. Leading by Example: A Human Rights Agenda for the EU for the Year 2000, 29, http://www.iue.it/AEL/events.htm (last visited Mar. 12, 2001) [hereinafter EU Human Rights Agenda].
41. FOUNDATIONS, supra note 6, at 141.
42. Case 11/70, Internationale Handelsgesellschaft v. EVGF, [1970] E.C.R. 1125, 11 C.M.L.R. 225 (1972).
43. Id.
44. External Relations, supra note 30, at 151-52.
45. TREVOR C. HARTLEY, CONSTITUTIONAL PROBLEMS OF THE EUROPEAN UNION 41 (1999) [hereinafter CONSTITUTIONAL PROBLEMS].
46. EC TREATY art. 230; Case 45/86, Commission of the European Communities v. Council of the European Communities, [1987] E.C.R. 1493; Case C-300/89, Commission of the European Communities v. Council of the European Communities, [1991] I. E.C.R. 2867.
47. EC TREATY art. 5.
48. See, e.g., id. art. 133 (discussing the common commercial policy), art. 310 (discussing association agreements).
49. Case 22/70, Commission of the European Communities v. Council of the European Communities, [1971] E.C.R. 263.
50. EC TREATY art. 308.
51. EU Human Rights Agenda, supra note 35, ¶ 60, at 45.
52. Id. ¶ 60, at 45-46.
53. Id. ¶ 70, at 49.
54. FOUNDATIONS, supra note 6, at 133.
55. Opinion 2/94, [1996] E.C.R. 1-1759, ¶ 34.
56. External Relations, supra note 30, at 151.
57. Case 29/69, Stauder v. City of Ulm, [1969] E.C.R. 419, 9 C.M.L.R. 112 (1970); Case 11/70, Internationale Handelsgesellschaft v. EVGF, [1970] E.C.R. 1125, 11 C.M.L.R. 225 (1972).
58. See discussion supra Part I.C.
59. Opinion 2/94, [1996] E.C.R. 1-1759, ¶ 27.
60. Id. ¶ 35.
61. Angela Ward, Frameworks for Cooperation between the European Union and Third States: A Viable Matrix for Uniform Human Rights Standards?, 3 EUR. FOREIGN AFF. REV. 505, 528-31 (1998).
62. Philip Alston & J. H. H. Weiler, An EU Human Rights Policy, in THE EU AND HUMAN RIGHTS 3, 24-27 (Philip Alston ed., 1999).
63. Opinion 2/94, [1996] E.C.R. 1-1759, ¶ 34.
64. Id. ¶ 35.
65. J. H. H. Weiler & Sybilla Fries, A Human Rights Policy for the European Community and Union: The Question of Competences, in THE EU AND HUMAN RIGHTS 147, 160 (Philip Alston ed., 1999).
66. EU Human Rights Agenda, supra note 35, ¶ 81, at 52.
67. Case C-268/94, Portugal v. Council, [1996] E.C.R. I-6177.
68. Id. ¶ 24.
69. Weiler and Fries, supra note 60, at 148; Ward, supra note 56, at 531.
70. EC TREATY art. 5.
71. Id.
72. Id.
73. CONSTITUTIONAL PROBLEMS, supra note 40, at 85.
74. See id.
75. See discussion supra Part I.
76. EU Human Rights Agenda, supra note 35, ¶¶ 82-84, at 52-53.
77. Brunner v. European Union Treaty, [1994] 1 C.M.L.R. 57 (1993), 33 I.L.M. 388; see also CONSTITUTIONAL PROBLEMS, supra note 40, at 157.
78. See discussion supra Part I.B.
79. TEU art. 6.
80. Id. art. 11.
81. EC Treaty art. 177(2).
82. The External Dimension of Human Rights Policy, from Rome to Maastricht and Beyond, Communication from the Commission, COM(95)567, § 2.
83. TEU art. 6(1).
84. Id. art. 6 (2).
85. Id. art. 46(d). This Article states that Article 6(2) is justiciable in the ECJ.
86. Id. art. 7.
87. Id.; TREATY OF AMSTERDAM.
88. TEU arts. 6(1), 49.
89. Barbara Brandtner and Allan Rosas, Human Rights and the External Relations of the European Community: An Analysis of Doctrine and Practice, 9 EUR. J. INT'L L. 468, 472 (1998).
90. EU Human Rights Agenda, supra note 35, ¶ 44, at 38-39.
91. See generally id.; see also European Parliament Annual Report on Human Rights Throughout the World in 1995-1996 and the Union's Human Rights Policy, Rapporteur: Mrs. Catherine Lalumière, EUR. PARL. Doc. (A4-0400/96) (1996) [hereinafter 1995-1996 European Parliament Annual Report on Human Rights].
92. EU Human Rights Agenda, supra note 35, ¶ 5, at 23-24.
93. The acquis communautaire comprises the existing laws and regulations of the EU.
94. EU Human Rights Agenda, supra note 35, ¶¶ 53, 54, at 43-44.
95. Id. ¶ 55, at 44.
96. See discussion supra Part II.
97. EU Human Rights Agenda, supra note 35, ¶ 34, at 35.
98. Id.
99. See discussion supra Part II.
100. Bishop Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo, The Dignity of the Individual, in REFLECTION ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS 62 (Barend Van Der Heijden & Bahia Tahzib-Lie eds., 1998).
101. G.A. Res. 217 (III), U.M. Doc. A/810 (1948).
102. See Pierre Sané, An Unfinished Revolution, in REFLECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS, supra note 95, at 281.
103. Gabrielle Kirk McDonald, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: The International and the American Dream, in REFLECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS, supra note 95, at 180.
104. William Pfaff, Everyone Has a Responsibility, in REFLECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS, supra note 95, at 237.
105. Brandtner and Rosas, supra note 84, at 484-87; Proposal for a Council Regulation on the Development and Consolidation of Democracy and the Rule of Law and Respect for Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, COM(97)357 final [hereinafter Council Regulation on the Development and Consolidation of Democracy]; Council Regulation 975/1999, ¶ 5, 1999 O.J. (L 120) 1; Council Regulation 976/1999, ¶ 5, 1999 O.J. (L 120) 8; Council of the European Union, European Union Annual Report on Human Rights, § 5.2., available at http://ue.eu.int/pesc/human_rights/en/99/ main5.htm (last visited Oct. 1, 1999) [hereinafter 1999 EU Annual Report on Human Rights].
106. Brandtner and Rosas, supra note 84, at 484-87; Proposal for a Council Regulation on the Development and Consolidation of Democracy and the Rule of Law and Respect for Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, COM(97)357 final [hereinafter Council Regulation on the Development and Consolidation of Democracy]; Council Regulation 975/1999, ¶ 5, 1999 O.J. (L 120) 1; Council Regulation 976/1999, ¶ 5, 1999 O.J. (L 120) 8; Council of the European Union, European Union Annual Report on Human Rights, § 5.2., available at http://ue.eu.int/pesc/human_rights/en/99/ main5.htm (last visited Oct. 1, 1999) [hereinafter 1999 EU Annual Report on Human Rights].
107. Emma Bonino, Humanitarian Aid and International Policy, in REFLECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS, supra note 95, at 70.
108. Brandtner and Rosas, supra note 84, at 485.
109. Karen E. Smith, The Use of Political Conditionality in the EU's Relations with Third Countries: How Effective?, 3 EUR. FOREIGN AFF. REV. 253, 257 (1998).
110. See Ali Alatas, An Indonesian View on Human Rights, in REFLECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS, supra note 95, at 25.
111. Id. at 23.
112. Pfaff, supra note 99, at 237.
113. See Report on the Communication from the Commission on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements Between the Community and Third Countries, COM(95)216, Motion for a Resolution, ¶¶ I-K [hereinafter Report on the Communication from the Commission on the Inclusion of Respect].
114. Franklin L. Lavin, Asphyxiation or Oxygen? The Sanctions Dilemma, FOREIGN POL'Y, Fall 1996, at 138.
115. Alatas, supra note 104, at 24.
116. See generally Smith, supra note 103.
117. Id.
118. Cf. EU Human Rights Agenda, supra note 35, ¶ 4, at 22-23.
119. Third ACP-EEC Convention, Dec. 8, 1984, 24 I.L.M. 571 (1985). The first two Lomé Conventions did not mention human rights. As a reaction to the horrific work of Uganda's Idi Amin in the mid-1970's, the EC insisted on incorporating human rights as an objective of development cooperation with the ACP countries. See also Smith, supra note 103, at 259.
120. Ward, supra note 56, at 507-508.
121. Marise Cremona, Human Rights and Democracy Clauses in the EC's Trade Agreements, in THE EUROPEAN UNION AND WORLD TRADE LAW: AFTER THE GATT URUGUAY ROUND 62 (Nicholas Emiliou & David O'Keeffe eds., 1996) [hereinafter EU AND WORLD TRADE LAW].
122. Fourth ACP-EEC Convention, Dec. 15, 1989, 29 I.L.M. 783 (1990).
123. Smith, supra note 103, at 259; Ward, supra note 56, at 508.
124. EU AND WORLD TRADE LAW, supra note 115, at 63; Resolution of the Council and of the Member States Meeting in Council on Human Rights, Democracy and Development, BULL. EUR. COMMUNITIES, 11-1991, at 122 (1991).
125. EU AND WORLD TRADE LAW, supra note 115, at 63; Resolution of the Council and of the Member States Meeting in Council on Human Rights, Democracy and Development, BULL. EUR. COMMUNITIES, 11-1991, at 122 (1991).
126. Id.
127. The EC is limited in its ability to impose full economic sanctions by its obligations under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. While the suspension of underlying GATT-based obligations is impossible, the EC can rely on United Nations Security Council resolutions to impose a trade embargo to the extent that GATT allows parties to maintain international peace and security. See Cremona, supra note 115, at 71-73.
128. See generally Smith, supra note 103.
129. Id. at 253.
130. Council Conclusions on the Principle of Conditionality Governing the Development of the European Union's Relations with Certain Countries of South-East Europe, BULL. EUR. UNION, 4-97, at 132 (1997).
131. Id.
132. Id.
133. It should be noted that these human rights clauses merely reflect commonly shared values and reaffirm commitments which, as a matter of international law, already bind states, as well as the EC. See Brandtner & Rosas, supra note 84, at 473; see also EU AND WORLD TRADE LAW, supra note 115, at 62;
134. 1999 EU Annual Report on Human Rights, supra note 100, § 4.2.5.
135. EU AND WORLD TRADE LAW, supra note 115, at 71.
136. Id.
137. Id. at 72-75.
138. Id. at 72.
139. Id. at 74-75.
140. See generally Report on the Communication from the Commission on the Inclusion of Respect, supra note 107.
141. Id.
142. Id. at 7, 17.
143. Id. at 8; Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, May 23, 1969, art. 60(3), 8 I.L.M. 679.
144. Report on the Communication from the Commission on the Inclusion of Respect, supra note 107, at 7.
145. Id. at 4-5.
146. Id. at 10.
147. Id. at 16.
148. Id. at 13.
149. See discussion infra Part IV.C.
150. 1999 EU Annual Report on Human Rights, supra note 100; id. at 16, § 4.2.5.
151. Human rights clauses are generally excluded from sectoral agreements covering discrete subject areas between the EU and third states, which could lead to inconsistent reactions by the EU to human rights abuses. See Ward, supra note 56, at 519.
152. Case C-268/94, Portugal v. Council, [1996] E.C.R. 1-6177, ¶ 27; Brandtner & Rosas, supra note 84, at 474.
153. In 1996 Australia refused to accept a human rights clause as part of a trade and cooperation agreement. Instead, Australia and the EU adopted a political declaration. See Joint Declaration on EU-Australia Relations, BULL. EUR. UNION, 6-1997, at 117-18 (1997).
154. Council Regulation 975/1999, 1999 O.J. (L 120) 1; Council Regulation 976/ 1999, 1999 O.J. (L 120) 8.
155. Council Regulation, 975/1999, 1999 O.J. (L120) 1; EC TREATY art. 179.
156. In the Commission's original proposal (COM(97)357 final), the only legal base suggested was Article 179. Council Regulation on the Development and Consolidation of Democracy, supra note 100, preamble. The Committee of Permanent Representatives (COREPER), however, argued that this legal basis alone would not cover operations outside the area of development cooperation. Thus, in November 1997, the Commission split the proposal into two separate acts: one based on Article 179 for developing countries, and the other based on Article 308 for operations in non-developing countries. See Common Position (EC) No. 15/1999, 1999 O.J. (C58) 17, 25. It now appears conclusive that Article 308 (EC) is a legitimate basis for the EC's external human rights activities. EC TREATY art. 308.
157. Under Article 308 EC, the Council's decision must be unanimous, whereas under Article 179 EC, the cooperation procedure is used.
158. Council Regulation 975/1999, 1999 O.J. (L 120) 1; Council Regulation 976/ 1999 O.J. (L120) 8.
159. Council Regulation 975/1999, art. 3, 1999 O.J. (L 120) 1, 4; Council Regulation 976/1999, art. 4, 1999 O.J. (L 120) 8, 11.
160. Council Regulation 975/1999, art. 13, 1999 O.J. (L 120) 1, 6; Council Regulation 976/1999, art. 14, 1999 O.J. (L 120) 8, 13.
161. Council Regulation 975/1999, art. 13, 1999 O.J. (L 120) 1, 6; Council Regulation 976/1999, art. 14, 1999 O.J. (L 120) 8, 13.
162. Through Technical Assistance to the Commonwealth of Independent States (TACIS), the EC assists the New Independent States resulting from the collapse of the Soviet Union. The MEDA regulation provides a vehicle for EC assistance to Mediterranean countries. Poland and Hungary Assistance for the Restructuring of the Economy (PHARE) supports reform in many central and Eastern European countries.
163. EU Human Rights Agenda, supra note 35, ¶ 158, at 86.
164. Id.
165. CONSTITUTIONAL PROBLEMS, supra note 40, at 18-21.
166. EU Human Rights Agenda, supra note 35, ¶ 159, at 86.
167. Id. ¶ 159, at 85.
168. Brandtner & Rosas, supra note 84, at 483.
169. TEU tit. V.
170. Id. art. 11.
171. Because the EU lacks legal personality, it cannot conclude agreements with third countries. Instead, it must either have the participation of the Member States or use unilateral measures, such as common positions.
172. TEU art. 18.
173. EU Human Rights Agenda, supra note 35, ¶ 165, at 88.
174. Id. ¶ 169, at 89.
175. Id. ¶ 20, at 30.
176. Case 29/69, Stauder v. City of Ulm, [1969] E.C.R. 419, 9 C.M.L.R. 112 (1970).
177. Trade Agreement between the European Economic Community and the People's Republic of China, 1978 O.J. (L 123) 2.
178. Agreement on Trade and Cooperation between the European Economic Community and the People's Republic of China, 1985 O.J. (L 250) 1 [hereinafter 1985 Agreement]; see also Francis Snyder, Legal Aspects of Trade Between The European Union and China: Preliminary Reflections, in THE EUROPEAN UNION AND WORLD TRADE LAW: AFTER THE GATT URUGUAY ROUND, supra note 115, at 363, at 366 [hereinafter Legal Aspects of Trade].
179. Agreement on Trade and Cooperation between the European Economic Community and the People's Republic of China, 1985 O.J. (L 250) 1 [hereinafter 1985 Agreement]; see also Francis Snyder, Legal Aspects of Trade Between The European Union and China: Preliminary Reflections, in THE EUROPEAN UNION AND WORLD TRADE LAW: AFTER THE GATT URUGUAY ROUND, supra note 115, at 363, at 366 [hereinafter Legal Aspects of Trade].
180. 1985 Agreement, supra note 169.
181. Council Regulation EC No. 519/94, Common Rules for Imports from Certain Third Countries, 1994 O.J. (L 67) 89. Note, this regulation does not affect trade in textiles, which is governed by a separate regulation. See Francis Snyder, INTERNATIONAL TRADE AND CUSTOMS LAW OF THE EUROPEAN UNION 595 (1998).
182. Council Regulation EC No. 519/94, Common Rules for Imports from Certain Third Countries, 1994 O.J. (L 67) 89. Note, this regulation does not affect trade in textiles, which is governed by a separate regulation. See Francis Snyder, INTERNATIONAL TRADE AND CUSTOMS LAW OF THE EUROPEAN UNION 595 (1998).
183. 1999 EU Annual Report on Human Rights, supra note 100, § 4.2.3.
184. Id. Interestingly, EU relations with China were only temporarily interrupted with China following the events of Tiananmen Square. The EC instituted trade sanctions between June 4, 1989 and October 22, 1990. Legal Aspects of Trade, supra note 169, at 365.
185. Communication from the Commission to the Council, Towards a New Asia Strategy, COM(94)314 final, at 1 [hereinafter Towards a New Asia Strategy].
186. Communication from the Commission, A Long Term Policy for China-Europe Relations, COM(95)279 final, at 9 [hereinafter A Long Term Policy for China-Europe Relations].
187. Id.
188. Id. A European Currency Unit [ECU] is a fluctuating value calculated from a basket of national currencies which are weighted according to their strengths.
189. Towards a New Asia Strategy, supra note 174, at 3; see also EU AND WORLD TRADE LAW, supra note 115, at 67-68.
190. Towards a New Asia Strategy, supra note 174, at 3; see also EU AND WORLD TRADE LAW, supra note 115, at 67-68.
191. Towards a New Asia Strategy, supra note 174, at 1.
192. Id. at 2.
193. Id. at 3.
194. Id. at 12, 18.
195. See generally id.
196. Id. at 8.
197. Id. at 12.
198. See discussion supra Part V.A.
199. Legal Aspects of Trade, supra note 169, at 375.
200. European Parliament, Resolution on Relations between the European Union and the People's Republic of China, 1994 O.J. (C 61) 71-74 [hereinafter Resolution on Relations between the European Union and China].
201. Id. at 72.
202. Id. at 72-73.
203. Id. at 73.
204. Id. at 74.
205. A Long Term Policy for China-Europe Relations, supra note 175.
206. Id. at 1.
207. Id. at 2.
208. Id. at 4.
209. Id.
210. Resolution on Relations between the European Union and China, supra note 188, at 71-74.
211. A Long Term Policy for China-Europe Relations, supra note 175, at 5.
212. Id. at 6.
213. Communication from the Commission, Building a Comprehensive Partnership with China, COM(98)181 final, at 3 [hereinafter Building a Comprehensive Partnership with China].
214. Id. at 4.
215. Id.
216. See generally id.
217. Id. at 9.
218. 1995-1996 European Parliament Annual Report on Human Rights, supra note 86, at 67.
219. See generally Report on the Communication from the Commission on the Inclusion of Respect, supra note 107.
220. Ward, supra note 56, at 520.
221. Id.
222. Id. at 527.
223. Legal Aspects of Trade, supra note 169, at 369.
224. Id. at 372; Agreement between the European Community and the People's Republic of China on Trade in Textile Products not Covered by the MFA Bilateral Agreement, 1995 O.J. (L 104) 2.
225. Ward, supra note 56, at 520.
226. A Long Term Policy for China-Europe Relations, supra note 175, at 4.
227. Id.
228. Building a Comprehensive Partnership with China, supra note 201, at 5.
229. See generally EU Annual Report on Human Rights, supra note 100.
230. Id. § 4.2.3.
231. The current members of ASEAN are Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam.
232. Agence Europe No. 7025, Jul. 28-29, 1997.
233. Id.
234. Id.
235. Id.
236. 1999 EU Annual Report on Human Rights, supra note 100, § 4.2.5. The GSP is the scheme under which the EC grants non-reciprocal trade preferences to developing countries as a means of using trade as a development tool.
237. Council Regulation (EC) 552/97, Temporarily Withdrawing Access to Generalized Tariff Preferences from the Union of Myanmar, 1997 O.J. (L 085) 8-9 (Mar. 24, 1997) [hereinafter Temporarily Withdrawing Access]; Proposal for a Council Regulation (EC), COM(96)711 final, at 1-2.
238. Temporarily Withdrawing Access, supra note 225, at 9; Proposal for a Council Regulation, COM(96)711 final, supra note 225, at 2.
239. Temporarily Withdrawing Access, supra note 225, at 9; Proposal for a Council Regulation, COM(96)711 final, supra note 225, at 2.
240. Opinion of the Economic and Social Committee, 1997 O.J. (C 133) 47.
241. Id. at 48.
242. Id.
243. Id.
244. 1999 EU Annual Report on Human Rights, supra note 100, § 5.9.
245. Id.
246. Common Position of 28 October 1996 Defined by the Council on the Basis of Article J.2 of the Treaty on European Union, on Burma/Myanmar, 1996 O.J. (L 287) 1-2 [hereinafter Common Position on Burma/Myanmar]; Council Common Position of 11 October 1999 Concerning the Extension of Common Position 96/635/CFSP on Burma/ Myanmar, 1999 O.J. (L 267) 1.
247. Common Position of 28 October 1996 Defined by the Council on the Basis of Article J.2 of the Treaty on European Union, on Burma/Myanmar, 1996 O.J. (L 287) 1-2 [hereinafter Common Position on Burma/Myanmar]; Council Common Position of 11 October 1999 Concerning the Extension of Common Position 96/635/CFSP on Burma/ Myanmar, 1999 O.J. (L 267) 1.
248. Common Position on Burma/Myanmar, supra note 233, ¶ 7.
249. 1999 EU Annual Report on Human Rights, supra note 100, § 5.1.
250. Smith, supra note 103, at 272.
251. Report on the Communication from the Commission on the Inclusion of Respect, supra note 107, at 16.