Pervasive Not Perverse: Semi-Sovereigns as the Global Norm

Cornell International Law Journal

Volumn 30, Issue 3, 1997, Pages

  Krasner, Stephen D ^a  

^a STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0346677895     PISSN: 00108812     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (225)

1. For examples of this view of Westphalia, see Paul Krugman, What Should Trade Negotiators Negotiate About?, 35 J. ECON. LIT. 119 (1997); J.L. BRIERLY, THE LAW OF NATIONS: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE INTERNATIONAL LAW OF PEACE 5 (Sir Humphrey Waldock ed., 6th Ed., 1963); CHARLES TILLY, COERCION, CAPITAL, AND EUROPEAN STATES, AD 990-1990, at 167 (1990); GIDEON GOTTLIEB, NATIONS AGAINST STATE: A NEW APPROACH TO ETHNIC CONFLICTS AND THE DECLINE OF SOVEREIGNTY 24 (1993); T.J. LAWRENCE, THE PRINCIPLES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 116 (7th ed. 1923).
2. For examples of this view of Westphalia, see Paul Krugman, What Should Trade Negotiators Negotiate About?, 35 J. ECON. LIT. 119 (1997); J.L. BRIERLY, THE LAW OF NATIONS: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE INTERNATIONAL LAW OF PEACE 5 (Sir Humphrey Waldock ed., 6th Ed., 1963); CHARLES TILLY, COERCION, CAPITAL, AND EUROPEAN STATES, AD 990-1990, at 167 (1990); GIDEON GOTTLIEB, NATIONS AGAINST STATE: A NEW APPROACH TO ETHNIC CONFLICTS AND THE DECLINE OF SOVEREIGNTY 24 (1993); T.J. LAWRENCE, THE PRINCIPLES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 116 (7th ed. 1923).
3. For examples of this view of Westphalia, see Paul Krugman, What Should Trade Negotiators Negotiate About?, 35 J. ECON. LIT. 119 (1997); J.L. BRIERLY, THE LAW OF NATIONS: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE INTERNATIONAL LAW OF PEACE 5 (Sir Humphrey Waldock ed., 6th Ed., 1963); CHARLES TILLY, COERCION, CAPITAL, AND EUROPEAN STATES, AD 990-1990, at 167 (1990); GIDEON GOTTLIEB, NATIONS AGAINST STATE: A NEW APPROACH TO ETHNIC CONFLICTS AND THE DECLINE OF SOVEREIGNTY 24 (1993); T.J. LAWRENCE, THE PRINCIPLES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 116 (7th ed. 1923).
4. For examples of this view of Westphalia, see Paul Krugman, What Should Trade Negotiators Negotiate About?, 35 J. ECON. LIT. 119 (1997); J.L. BRIERLY, THE LAW OF NATIONS: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE INTERNATIONAL LAW OF PEACE 5 (Sir Humphrey Waldock ed., 6th Ed., 1963); CHARLES TILLY, COERCION, CAPITAL, AND EUROPEAN STATES, AD 990-1990, at 167 (1990); GIDEON GOTTLIEB, NATIONS AGAINST STATE: A NEW APPROACH TO ETHNIC CONFLICTS AND THE DECLINE OF SOVEREIGNTY 24 (1993); T.J. LAWRENCE, THE PRINCIPLES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 116 (7th ed. 1923).
5. For examples of this view of Westphalia, see Paul Krugman, What Should Trade Negotiators Negotiate About?, 35 J. ECON. LIT. 119 (1997); J.L. BRIERLY, THE LAW OF NATIONS: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE INTERNATIONAL LAW OF PEACE 5 (Sir Humphrey Waldock ed., 6th Ed., 1963); CHARLES TILLY, COERCION, CAPITAL, AND EUROPEAN STATES, AD 990-1990, at 167 (1990); GIDEON GOTTLIEB, NATIONS AGAINST STATE: A NEW APPROACH TO ETHNIC CONFLICTS AND THE DECLINE OF SOVEREIGNTY 24 (1993); T.J. LAWRENCE, THE PRINCIPLES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 116 (7th ed. 1923).
6. ZBIGNIEW K. BRZEZINSKI, THE SOVIET BLOC: UNITY AND CONFLICT 90-94, 119-21 (rev. ed. 1971).
7. JEAN BODIN, ON SOVEREIGNTY: FOUR CHAPTERS FROM THE SIX BOOKS OF THE COMMONWEALTH (Julian H. Franklin ed. & trans., 1992); THOMAS HOBBES, LEVIATHAN OR THE MATTER, FORME AND POWER OF A COMMONWEALTH (Michael Oakshoft ed., 1960).
8. JEAN BODIN, ON SOVEREIGNTY: FOUR CHAPTERS FROM THE SIX BOOKS OF THE COMMONWEALTH (Julian H. Franklin ed. & trans., 1992); THOMAS HOBBES, LEVIATHAN OR THE MATTER, FORME AND POWER OF A COMMONWEALTH (Michael Oakshoft ed., 1960).
9. F.H. HINSLEY, SOVEREIGNTY 144-45 (2d ed. 1986); BRIERLY, supra note 1, at 65.
10. GEORGE H. SABINE, A HISTORY OF POLITICAL THEORY (3d ed. 1961) (Chapter 20); HINSLEY, supra note 4, at 120; BODIN, supra note 3, at 120.
11. QUENTIN SKINNER, 2 THE FOUNDATIONS OF MODERN POLITICAL THOUGHT 284-87 (1978).
12. BODIN, supra note 3, at 8, 10, 13-14.
13. Id.; SKINNER, supra note 6, at 289.
14. Janice E. Thomson, State Sovereignty in International Relations: Bridging the Gap Between Theory and Empirical Research, 39 INT'L STUD. Q. 2 (June 1995), at 214.
15. JAMES ROSENAU, TURBULENCE IN WORLD POLITICS: A THEORY OF CHANGE AND CONTINUITY (1990); RICHARD N. COOPER, THE ECONOMICS OF INTERDEPENDENCE: ECONOMIC POLICY IN THE ATLANTIC COMMUNITY (1968).
16. JAMES ROSENAU, TURBULENCE IN WORLD POLITICS: A THEORY OF CHANGE AND CONTINUITY (1990); RICHARD N. COOPER, THE ECONOMICS OF INTERDEPENDENCE: ECONOMIC POLICY IN THE ATLANTIC COMMUNITY (1968).
17. For a critical view of this perspective, see Eric Helleiner, A Challenge to the Sovereign State: Financial Globalization and the Westphalian World Order (Paper prepared for the workshop "State and Sovereignty in the World Economy," Laguna Beach, Feb. 1997).
18. For a very well documented discussion that demonstrates that the level of state control is much higher than many discussions of globalization suggest, see Geoffrey Garrett, The Nation-State in the Global Economy: Obstinate or Obsolete, _ INT'L ORG. _ (forthcoming). For an important early analysis by economists on the surprising lack of international capital market integration, see Martin Feldstein & Charles Horioka, Domestic Savings and International Capital Flows, 90 ECON. J. 314 (1980).
19. For a very well documented discussion that demonstrates that the level of state control is much higher than many discussions of globalization suggest, see Geoffrey Garrett, The Nation-State in the Global Economy: Obstinate or Obsolete, _ INT'L ORG. _ (forthcoming). For an important early analysis by economists on the surprising lack of international capital market integration, see Martin Feldstein & Charles Horioka, Domestic Savings and International Capital Flows, 90 ECON. J. 314 (1980).
20. OPPENHEIM'S INTERNATIONAL LAW 14, 158 (Sir Robert Jennings & Sir Arthur Watts eds., 1992) [hereinafter OPPENHEIM]; MICHAEL ROSS FOWLER & JULIE MARIE BUNCK, LAW, POWER, AND THE SOVEREIGN STATE: THE EVOLUTION AND APPLICATION OF THE CONCEPT OF SOVEREIGNTY 12 (1995); Thomson, supra note 9, at 219.
21. OPPENHEIM'S INTERNATIONAL LAW 14, 158 (Sir Robert Jennings & Sir Arthur Watts eds., 1992) [hereinafter OPPENHEIM]; MICHAEL ROSS FOWLER & JULIE MARIE BUNCK, LAW, POWER, AND THE SOVEREIGN STATE: THE EVOLUTION AND APPLICATION OF THE CONCEPT OF SOVEREIGNTY 12 (1995); Thomson, supra note 9, at 219.
22. J.H.H. Weiler, The Transformation of Europe, 100 YALE L.J. 2403, 2479-80 (1991); BRIERLY, supra note 1, at 37-40.
23. FOWLER & BUNCK, supra note 13, at 12; OPPENHEIM, supra note 13, §§ 47, 107; Thomson, supra note 9, at 219.
24. Underhill v. Hernandez, 168 U.S. 250, 252 (1897).
25. OPPENHEIM, supra note 13, §§ 492-512, at 1072-97.
26. Samuel S. Kim, Taiwan and the International System: The Challenge of Legitimation, in TAIWAN IN WORLD AFFAIRS 145, 145-79 (Robert G. Sutter & William R. Johnson eds., 1994).
27. Elaine Sciolino, Angered Over Taiwan, China Recalls Its Ambassador in U.S., N.Y. TIMES, June 17, 1995, at 5.
28. Clinton Visits Dalai Lama Informally, N.Y. TIMES, Apr. 24, 1997, at A3.
29. Why Taiwan Scares China, N.Y. TIMES, Mar. 19, 1996, at A23.
30. FOWLER & BUNCK, supra note 13, at chap. 2; Thomson, supra note 9, at 228; OPPENHEIM, supra note 13, § 55; Beverly Crawford, Explaining Defection from International Cooperation: Germany's Unilateral Recognition of Croatia, 48 WORLD POL. 500 (1996).
31. OPPENHEIM, supra note 13, at 148-50, 158-73.
32. Id. at 145-46.
33. Thomson, supra note 9, at 219, 227; John Gerard Ruggie, Territoriality and Beyond: Problematizing Modernity in International Relations, 47 INT'L ORG. 152 (1993).
34. Stephen D. Krasner, Westphalian and All That, in IDEAS AND FOREIGN POLICY (Judith Goldstein & Robert O. Keohane eds., 1993).
35. CHRISTIAN WOLFF, Jus GENTIRUM METHODO SCIENTIFICA PETRACTATUM § 256 (Joseph H. Drake trans., 1934) (originally published 1764), quoted in ANN VAN WYREN THOMAS & A.J. THOMAS, NON INTERVENTION: THE LAW AND ITS IMPORT IN THE AMERICAS 5 (1956). Vattel reasoned from the logic of the state of nature: If men were equal in the state of nature, then states were also free and equal and living in a state of nature. For Vattel, a small republic was no less a sovereign state than a powerful kingdom. Vattel wrote that no state had the right to intervene in the internal affairs of other states. He applied this argument to non-European as well as European states claiming that: The Spaniards violated all rules when they set themselves up as judges of the Inca Athualpa. If that prince had violated the law of nations with respect to them, they would have had a right to punish him. But they accused him of having put some of his subjects to death, of having had several wives, &c.-things, for which he was not at all accountable to them; and, to fill up the measure of their extravagant injustice, they condemned him by the laws of Spain. EMMERICH DE VATTEL, THE LAW OF NATIONS, OR, PRINCIPLES OF THE LAW OF NATURE, APPLIED TO THE CONDUCT AND AFFAIRS OF NATIONS AND SOVEREIGNS 155 (Joseph Chitty trans., 1852). See also BRIERLY, supra note 1, at 37-40.
36. CHRISTIAN WOLFF, Jus GENTIRUM METHODO SCIENTIFICA PETRACTATUM § 256 (Joseph H. Drake trans., 1934) (originally published 1764), quoted in ANN VAN WYREN THOMAS & A.J. THOMAS, NON INTERVENTION: THE LAW AND ITS IMPORT IN THE AMERICAS 5 (1956). Vattel reasoned from the logic of the state of nature: If men were equal in the state of nature, then states were also free and equal and living in a state of nature. For Vattel, a small republic was no less a sovereign state than a powerful kingdom. Vattel wrote that no state had the right to intervene in the internal affairs of other states. He applied this argument to non-European as well as European states claiming that: The Spaniards violated all rules when they set themselves up as judges of the Inca Athualpa. If that prince had violated the law of nations with respect to them, they would have had a right to punish him. But they accused him of having put some of his subjects to death, of having had several wives, &c.-things, for which he was not at all accountable to them; and, to fill up the measure of their extravagant injustice, they condemned him by the laws of Spain. EMMERICH DE VATTEL, THE LAW OF NATIONS, OR, PRINCIPLES OF THE LAW OF NATURE, APPLIED TO THE CONDUCT AND AFFAIRS OF NATIONS AND SOVEREIGNS 155 (Joseph Chitty trans., 1852). See also BRIERLY, supra note 1, at 37-40.
37. CHRISTIAN WOLFF, Jus GENTIRUM METHODO SCIENTIFICA PETRACTATUM § 256 (Joseph H. Drake trans., 1934) (originally published 1764), quoted in ANN VAN WYREN THOMAS & A.J. THOMAS, NON INTERVENTION: THE LAW AND ITS IMPORT IN THE AMERICAS 5 (1956). Vattel reasoned from the logic of the state of nature: If men were equal in the state of nature, then states were also free and equal and living in a state of nature. For Vattel, a small republic was no less a sovereign state than a powerful kingdom. Vattel wrote that no state had the right to intervene in the internal affairs of other states. He applied this argument to non-European as well as European states claiming that: The Spaniards violated all rules when they set themselves up as judges of the Inca Athualpa. If that prince had violated the law of nations with respect to them, they would have had a right to punish him. But they accused him of having put some of his subjects to death, of having had several wives, &c.-things, for which he was not at all accountable to them; and, to fill up the measure of their extravagant injustice, they condemned him by the laws of Spain. EMMERICH DE VATTEL, THE LAW OF NATIONS, OR, PRINCIPLES OF THE LAW OF NATURE, APPLIED TO THE CONDUCT AND AFFAIRS OF NATIONS AND SOVEREIGNS 155 (Joseph Chitty trans., 1852). See also BRIERLY, supra note 1, at 37-40.
38. CHRISTIAN WOLFF, Jus GENTIRUM METHODO SCIENTIFICA PETRACTATUM § 256 (Joseph H. Drake trans., 1934) (originally published 1764), quoted in ANN VAN WYREN THOMAS & A.J. THOMAS, NON INTERVENTION: THE LAW AND ITS IMPORT IN THE AMERICAS 5 (1956). Vattel reasoned from the logic of the state of nature: If men were equal in the state of nature, then states were also free and equal and living in a state of nature. For Vattel, a small republic was no less a sovereign state than a powerful kingdom. Vattel wrote that no state had the right to intervene in the internal affairs of other states. He applied this argument to non-European as well as European states claiming that: The Spaniards violated all rules when they set themselves up as judges of the Inca Athualpa. If that prince had violated the law of nations with respect to them, they would have had a right to punish him. But they accused him of having put some of his subjects to death, of having had several wives, &c.-things, for which he was not at all accountable to them; and, to fill up the measure of their extravagant injustice, they condemned him by the laws of Spain. EMMERICH DE VATTEL, THE LAW OF NATIONS, OR, PRINCIPLES OF THE LAW OF NATURE, APPLIED TO THE CONDUCT AND AFFAIRS OF NATIONS AND SOVEREIGNS 155 (Joseph Chitty trans., 1852). See also BRIERLY, supra note 1, at 37-40.
39. THOMAS & THOMAS, supra note 27, at 56-62.
40. OPPENHEIM, supra note 13, at 431.
41. Id. at 430-34.
42. Charter of the OAS, quoted in Lori Damrosch, Changing Conceptions of Intervention in International Law, in EMERGING NORMS OF JUSTIFIED INTERVENTION: A COLLECTION OF ESSAYS FROM A PROJECT OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES 94 (Laura W. Reed & Carl Kayser eds., 1993).
43. SIDNEY DELL, ON BEING GRANDMOTHERLY: THE EVOLUTION OF IMF CONDITIONALITY (1981) (International Finance Section, Department of Economics, Princeton University, Essays in International Finance, No. 144).
44. J.A. LAPONCE, THE PROTECTION OF MINORITIES 39 (1960).
45. Stephen D. Krasner & Daniel Froats, The Westphalian Model and Minority-Rights Guarantees In Europe, in THE INTERNATIONAL SPREAD OF CIVIL CONFLICT (David Lake & Donald Rothschild eds., 1998).
46. INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS AND ETHNIC CONFLICT 35-36 (Milton J. Esman & Shibley Telhami eds., 1995).
47. NATO, PARTNERSHIP WITH THE COUNTRIES OF CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE, June 7, 1991, art. 9; NATO, STUDY ON NATO ENLARGEMENT, Sept. 1995, chap. 5B, para. 72
48. NATO, PARTNERSHIP WITH THE COUNTRIES OF CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE, June 7, 1991, art. 9; NATO, STUDY ON NATO ENLARGEMENT, Sept. 1995, chap. 5B, para. 72
49. Stanley Hoffmann, The Problem of Intervention, in INTERVENTION IN WORLD POLITICS 12 (Bull Hedley ed., 1984).
50. DANA GARDNER MUNRO, INTERVENTION AND DOLLAR DIPLOMACY IN THE CARIBBEAN, 1900-1921 (1964).
51. BRZEZINSKI, supra note 2; H. GORDON SKILLING, THE GOVERNMENTS OF COMMUNIST EAST EUROPE (1966).
52. For the most important exposition of neo-realism, see KENNETH WALTZ, THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL POLITICS (1979). For the most important exposition of neo-liberal institutionalism, see ROBERT O. KEOHANE, AFTER HEGEMONY: COOPERATION AND DISCORD IN THE WORLD POLITICAL ECONOMY (1984).
53. For the most important exposition of neo-realism, see KENNETH WALTZ, THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL POLITICS (1979). For the most important exposition of neo-liberal institutionalism, see ROBERT O. KEOHANE, AFTER HEGEMONY: COOPERATION AND DISCORD IN THE WORLD POLITICAL ECONOMY (1984).
54. See generally, e.g., NEOREALISM AND NEOLIBERALISM: THE CONTEMPORARY DEBATE (David Baldwin ed., 1993).
55. See generally WALTZ, supra note 40.
56. KEOHANE, supra note 40, at chap. 6; Arthur Stein, Coordination and Collaboration, in NEOREALISM AND NEOLIBERALISM: THE CONTEMPORARY DEBATE (David Baldwin ed. 1993).
57. See generally WALTZ, supra note 40.
58. For a discussion of the European Court of Justice, see Ann-Marie Burley & Walter Mattli, Europe Before the Court: A Political Theory of Legal Integration, 47 INT'L ORG. 41 (1993). For an explication of the four decision-making structures affecting different issues in the European Union, see
59. Geoffrey Garrett & George Tsebelis, An Institutional Critique of Intergovernmentalism, 50 INT'L ORG. 269 (1996).
60. November 4, 1950, 312 U.N.T.S. 221.
61. JACK DONNELLY, UNIVERSAL HUMAN RIGHTS IN THEORY AND PRACTICE 214 (1989).
62. Andrew Moravcsik, Lessons from the European Human Rights Regime, in INTERAMERICAN DIALOGUE, ADVANCING DEMOCRACY AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE AMERICAS: WHAT ROLE OF THE OAS? 45-46 (1994).
63. Id. at 35-58; DAVID P. FORSYTHE, HUMAN RIGHTS AND WORLD POLITICS 52, 57, 59 (1983); JACK DONNELLY, INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS 82-83 (1992); DAVID P. FORSYTHE, HUMAN RIGHTS AND WORLD POLITICS 19 (1989). The text of the Convention and protocols can be found in IAN BROWNLIE, BASIC DOCUMENTS ON HUMAN RIGHTS 326-62 (3d ed. 1992).
64. Id. at 35-58; DAVID P. FORSYTHE, HUMAN RIGHTS AND WORLD POLITICS 52, 57, 59 (1983); JACK DONNELLY, INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS 82-83 (1992); DAVID P. FORSYTHE, HUMAN RIGHTS AND WORLD POLITICS 19 (1989). The text of the Convention and protocols can be found in IAN BROWNLIE, BASIC DOCUMENTS ON HUMAN RIGHTS 326-62 (3d ed. 1992).
65. Id. at 35-58; DAVID P. FORSYTHE, HUMAN RIGHTS AND WORLD POLITICS 52, 57, 59 (1983); JACK DONNELLY, INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS 82-83 (1992); DAVID P. FORSYTHE, HUMAN RIGHTS AND WORLD POLITICS 19 (1989). The text of the Convention and protocols can be found in IAN BROWNLIE, BASIC DOCUMENTS ON HUMAN RIGHTS 326-62 (3d ed. 1992).
66. Id. at 35-58; DAVID P. FORSYTHE, HUMAN RIGHTS AND WORLD POLITICS 52, 57, 59 (1983); JACK DONNELLY, INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS 82-83 (1992); DAVID P. FORSYTHE, HUMAN RIGHTS AND WORLD POLITICS 19 (1989). The text of the Convention and protocols can be found in IAN BROWNLIE, BASIC DOCUMENTS ON HUMAN RIGHTS 326-62 (3d ed. 1992).
67. Kim, supra note 18, at 151.
68. Id. at 153, 155.
69. Id. at 160.
70. OPPENHEIM, supra note 13, at 148-50.
71. Id.
72. DAVID W. MCINTYRE, THE COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS: ORIGINS AND IMPACT, 1869-1971, at 184-87 (1977); NICOLAS MANSERGH, THE COMMONWEALTH EXPERIENCE 182-83 (1969); OPPENHEIM, supra note 13, at 249-50.
73. DAVID W. MCINTYRE, THE COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS: ORIGINS AND IMPACT, 1869-1971, at 184-87 (1977); NICOLAS MANSERGH, THE COMMONWEALTH EXPERIENCE 182-83 (1969); OPPENHEIM, supra note 13, at 249-50.
74. OPPENHEIM, supra note 13, at 249-50.
75. Id. at 145-46.
76. ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA on line, BOOK OF THE YEAR 1994-95 and 96, entry for Andorra; CONSTITUTION OF ANDORRA, 1993, arts. 66, 101; FOWLER & BUNCK, supra note 13, at 118-20.
77. H.J.A. SIRE, THE KNIGHTS OF MALTA 237-42, 249-50, 271 (1994); OPPENHEIM, supra note 13, at 329.
78. For the texts of the major human rights agreements, see generally IAN BROWNLIE, BASIC DOCUMENTS ON HUMAN RIGHTS (3d ed. 1992).
79. Daniel Thomas, Social Movements and International Institutions: A Preliminary Framework, Paper presented at the American Political Science Association Annual Convention, Washington, D.C. (1990) (on file with the Cornell International Law Journal).
80. Moravcsik, supra note 48, at 44.
81. Douglass C. North & Barry R. Weingast, Constitutions and Commitment: The Evolution of Institutions Governing Public Choice in Seventeenth-Century England, 49 J. ECON. HIST. 803 (1989); BENJAMIN J. COHEN, IN WHOSE INTEREST?: INTERNATIONAL BANKING AND AMERICAN FOREIGN POLICY 84-90 (1986).
82. Douglass C. North & Barry R. Weingast, Constitutions and Commitment: The Evolution of Institutions Governing Public Choice in Seventeenth-Century England, 49 J. ECON. HIST. 803 (1989); BENJAMIN J. COHEN, IN WHOSE INTEREST?: INTERNATIONAL BANKING AND AMERICAN FOREIGN POLICY 84-90 (1986).
83. DELL, supra note 32, at 4.
84. Paul Lewis, Two Global Lenders Use Leverage to Combat Corruption, N.Y. TIMES, Aug. 11, 1997, at A4.
85. Id.
86. Id.
87. Id.
88. WORLD BANK, WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT, 1997, THE STATE IN A CHANGING WORLD 2 (1997).
89. Id. at 14.
90. MANFRED JONAS, THE UNITED STATES AND GERMANY: A DIPLOMATIC HISTORY 286-87, 290-92 (1984).
91. David Lake, Anarchy, Hierarchy, and the Variety of International Relations, 50 INT'L ORG. 1 (1996) (noting the distinction between Soviet and American strategies).
92. BRZEZINSKI, supra note 2, at 1-41.
93. Id.
94. Christopher Jones, Soviet Hegemony in Eastern Europe, WORLD POL., Apr. 1976, at 28.
95. For an illuminating discussion of Marxism, see MICHAEL DOYLE, THE WAYS OF WAR AND PEACE 327-64 (1997).
96. BRZEZINSKI, supra note 2, at 71, 84-85.
97. Id. at 90-94.
98. Id. at 98-100.
99. Id.
100. Id. at 89.
101. Id. at 67-103; DAVID W. PAUL, CZECHOSLOVAKIA: PROFILE OF A SOCIALIST REPUBLIC AT THE CROSSROADS OF EUROPE 45-46 (1981); Rey Koslowski & Friedrich V. Kratochwil, Understanding Change in International Politics: The Soviet Empire's Demise and the International System, 48 INT'L ORG. 228 (1994).
102. Id. at 67-103; DAVID W. PAUL, CZECHOSLOVAKIA: PROFILE OF A SOCIALIST REPUBLIC AT THE CROSSROADS OF EUROPE 45-46 (1981); Rey Koslowski & Friedrich V. Kratochwil, Understanding Change in International Politics: The Soviet Empire's Demise and the International System, 48 INT'L ORG. 228 (1994).
103. Id. at 67-103; DAVID W. PAUL, CZECHOSLOVAKIA: PROFILE OF A SOCIALIST REPUBLIC AT THE CROSSROADS OF EUROPE 45-46 (1981); Rey Koslowski & Friedrich V. Kratochwil, Understanding Change in International Politics: The Soviet Empire's Demise and the International System, 48 INT'L ORG. 228 (1994).
104. BRZEZINSKI, supra note 2, at 117-20.
105. Id. at 121.
106. Id. at 120.
107. Id. at 119-20.
108. Id. at 90-94, 119-21.
109. Id. at 122.
110. Id.
111. Id.
112. Id.
113. Id. at 122; SKILLING, supra note 39, at 175-76.
114. BRZEZINSKI, supra note 2, at 173.
115. Christopher D. Jones, National Armies and National Sovereignty, in THE WARSAW PACT: ALLIANCE IN TRANSITION? 96-102 (David Holloway & Jane M.O. Sharp eds., 1984).
116. Id. at 91-96.
117. Malcolm Mackintosh, The Warsaw Treaty Organization: A History, in THE WARSAW PACT: ALLIANCE IN TRANSITION?, supra note 95, at 44-45.
118. Jones, supra note 94, at 91-102; Mackintosh, supra note 96, at 44-45, 51-52.
119. Mackintosh, supra note 96, at 50.
120. Id.
121. MUNRO, supra note 38.
122. LESTER D. LANGLEY, THE UNITED STATES AND THE CARIBBEAN IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 29 (1989).
123. MUNRO, supra note 38, at 25-30.
124. Id.
125. Id.; LANGLEY, supra note 101, at 21-22.
126. LANGLEY, supra note 101, at 21; MUNRO, supra note 38, at 25-30, 36.
127. MUNRO, supra note 38, at 128-40.
128. LANGLEY, supra note 101 at 27-29.
129. MUNRO, supra note 38, at 262-68.
130. LANGLEY, supra note 101, at 35-38, 77-85; MUNRO, supra note 38, at 262-68.
131. LANGLEY, supra note 101, at 69-77.
132. Id. at 69-77.
133. WALTER LAFEBER, INEVITABLE REVOLUTIONS: THE UNITED STATES IN CENTRAL AMERICA 45-50 (1983).
134. MUNRO, supra note 38, at 60-64.
135. LAFEBER, supra note 112, at 45-50.
136. Id.; MUNRO, supra note 38, at 184, 208.
137. H. WILLIAM BRANDS, 2 THE UNITED STATES IN THE WORLD: A HISTORY OF AMERICAN FOREIGN POLICY 259-60, 342 (1994).
138. Id. at 363-65.
139. Id. at 401.
140. For a skeptical view of U.S. policy in Haiti, see Richard K. Betts, The Delusion of Impartial Intervention, 73 FOREIGN AFF. 20, 27-28 (1994).
141. H. TEMPERLEY, THE FOREIGN POLICY OF CANNING, 1822-27, at 406-08 (1966).
142. CHARLES JELAVICH & BARBARA JELAVICH, THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE BALKAN NATIONAL STATES 48-50 (1977); WILLIAM MILLER, THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE AND ITS SUCCESSORS, 1801-1927 102-03 (1936); TEMPERLEY, supra note 120, at 406-08; L.S. STAVRIANOS, THE BALKANS SINCE 1453, at 286-87 (1958); Steven Schwartzberg, The Lion and the Phoenix, 24 J. MIDDLE EASTERN STUD. 287, 294 (1988).
143. CHARLES JELAVICH & BARBARA JELAVICH, THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE BALKAN NATIONAL STATES 48-50 (1977); WILLIAM MILLER, THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE AND ITS SUCCESSORS, 1801-1927 102-03 (1936); TEMPERLEY, supra note 120, at 406-08; L.S. STAVRIANOS, THE BALKANS SINCE 1453, at 286-87 (1958); Steven Schwartzberg, The Lion and the Phoenix, 24 J. MIDDLE EASTERN STUD. 287, 294 (1988).
144. CHARLES JELAVICH & BARBARA JELAVICH, THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE BALKAN NATIONAL STATES 48-50 (1977); WILLIAM MILLER, THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE AND ITS SUCCESSORS, 1801-1927 102-03 (1936); TEMPERLEY, supra note 120, at 406-08; L.S. STAVRIANOS, THE BALKANS SINCE 1453, at 286-87 (1958); Steven Schwartzberg, The Lion and the Phoenix, 24 J. MIDDLE EASTERN STUD. 287, 294 (1988).
145. CHARLES JELAVICH & BARBARA JELAVICH, THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE BALKAN NATIONAL STATES 48-50 (1977); WILLIAM MILLER, THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE AND ITS SUCCESSORS, 1801-1927 102-03 (1936); TEMPERLEY, supra note 120, at 406-08; L.S. STAVRIANOS, THE BALKANS SINCE 1453, at 286-87 (1958); Steven Schwartzberg, The Lion and the Phoenix, 24 J. MIDDLE EASTERN STUD. 287, 294 (1988).
146. CHARLES JELAVICH & BARBARA JELAVICH, THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE BALKAN NATIONAL STATES 48-50 (1977); WILLIAM MILLER, THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE AND ITS SUCCESSORS, 1801-1927 102-03 (1936); TEMPERLEY, supra note 120, at 406-08; L.S. STAVRIANOS, THE BALKANS SINCE 1453, at 286-87 (1958); Steven Schwartzberg, The Lion and the Phoenix, 24 J. MIDDLE EASTERN STUD. 287, 294 (1988).
147. JELAVICH & JELAVICH, supra note 121, at 50-52; M.S. ANDERSON, THE EASTERN QUESTION, 1774-1923, at 74-75 (1966).
148. JELAVICH & JELAVICH, supra note 121, at 50-52; M.S. ANDERSON, THE EASTERN QUESTION, 1774-1923, at 74-75 (1966).
149. DOUGLAS DAKIN, THE GREEK STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE, 1821-33, at 281 (1973); STAVRIANOS, supra note 121, at 292-93.
150. DOUGLAS DAKIN, THE GREEK STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE, 1821-33, at 281 (1973); STAVRIANOS, supra note 121, at 292-93.
151. CARLILE AYLMER MACARTNEY, NATIONAL STATES AND NATIONAL MINORITIES 161-63 (1934).
152. Id. at 164-65 (quoting the Protocol of 1830).
153. ANDERSON, supra note 122, at 60-75.
154. JACQUES FOUQUES DUPARC, LA PROTECTION DES MINORITES DE RACE, DE LANGUE, ET DE RELIGION: ETUDE DE DROIT DES GENS 98-112 (1922) (translated by author).
155. Id. at 98-112.
156. Id. at 98-106.
157. Treaty of Berlin, July 13, 1878, reprinted in MAJOR PEACE TREATIES OF MODERN HISTORY, 1648-1967, at 985-86 (Fred L. Israel ed., 1967).
158. Id.
159. ANDERSON, supra note 122, at 211.
160. ERICH EYCK, BISMARCK AND THE GERMAN EMPIRE 187-94 (1968).
161. A.J.P. TAYLOR, THE STRUGGLE FOR MASTERY IN EUROPE 1848-1918, at 268 (1954).
162. MACARTNEY, supra note 124, at 281.
163. FOUQUES DUPARC, supra note 127, at 112; Macartney, supra note 124, at 169, 281; RAYMOND PEARSON, NATIONAL MINORITIES IN EASTERN EUROPE, 1848-1945, at 98 (1983).
164. FOUQUES DUPARC, supra note 127, at 112; Macartney, supra note 124, at 169, 281; RAYMOND PEARSON, NATIONAL MINORITIES IN EASTERN EUROPE, 1848-1945, at 98 (1983).
165. FOUQUES DUPARC, supra note 127, at 112; Macartney, supra note 124, at 169, 281; RAYMOND PEARSON, NATIONAL MINORITIES IN EASTERN EUROPE, 1848-1945, at 98 (1983).
166. FOUQUES-DUPARC, supra note 127, at 98-112.
167. Id.
168. Id.
169. Id.
170. Id. at 98-112; JELAVICH & JELAVICH, supra note 122, at 178.
171. DOROTHY V. JONES, CODE OF PEACE: ETHICS AND SECURITY IN THE WORLD OF THE WARLORD STATES 45 (1991).
172. SEBASTIAN BARTSCH, MINDERHEITENSCHUTZ IN DER INTERNATIONALEN POLITIK: VOLKERBUND UND KSZE/OSZE IN NEUER PERSPEKTIVE 81-85 (1995).
173. INIS L. CLAUDE, JR., NATIONAL MINORITIES: AN INTERNATIONAL PROBLEM 20-28 (1955).
174. N. Lerner, The Evolution of Minority Rights in International Law, in PEOPLES AND MINORITIES IN INTERNATIONAL LAW 83 (Catherine Brolman et al. eds., 1993).
175. Id.
176. Id.
177. Id.
178. Id.
179. Id.
180. Id.
181. Id.
182. Id.
183. Id.
184. Id.
185. MACARTNEY, supra note 124, at 502-06 (reprinting the Polish Minorities Treaty, art. VIII).
186. CLAUDE, supra note 144, at 16.
187. Lerner, supra note 145, at 85; CLAUDE, supra note 144, at 16; JONES, supra note 142, at 45; Richard Bilder, Can Minorities Treaties Work?, in THE PROTECTION OF MINORITIES AND HUMAN RIGHTS 64 (Yoram Dinstein & Mala Tabory eds., 1992); J.A. LAPONCE, THE PROTECTION OF MINORITIES 40 (1960).
188. Lerner, supra note 145, at 85; CLAUDE, supra note 144, at 16; JONES, supra note 142, at 45; Richard Bilder, Can Minorities Treaties Work?, in THE PROTECTION OF MINORITIES AND HUMAN RIGHTS 64 (Yoram Dinstein & Mala Tabory eds., 1992); J.A. LAPONCE, THE PROTECTION OF MINORITIES 40 (1960).
189. Lerner, supra note 145, at 85; CLAUDE, supra note 144, at 16; JONES, supra note 142, at 45; Richard Bilder, Can Minorities Treaties Work?, in THE PROTECTION OF MINORITIES AND HUMAN RIGHTS 64 (Yoram Dinstein & Mala Tabory eds., 1992); J.A. LAPONCE, THE PROTECTION OF MINORITIES 40 (1960).
190. Lerner, supra note 145, at 85; CLAUDE, supra note 144, at 16; JONES, supra note 142, at 45; Richard Bilder, Can Minorities Treaties Work?, in THE PROTECTION OF MINORITIES AND HUMAN RIGHTS 64 (Yoram Dinstein & Mala Tabory eds., 1992); J.A. LAPONCE, THE PROTECTION OF MINORITIES 40 (1960).
191. Lerner, supra note 145, at 85; CLAUDE, supra note 144, at 16; JONES, supra note 142, at 45; Richard Bilder, Can Minorities Treaties Work?, in THE PROTECTION OF MINORITIES AND HUMAN RIGHTS 64 (Yoram Dinstein & Mala Tabory eds., 1992); J.A. LAPONCE, THE PROTECTION OF MINORITIES 40 (1960).
192. MACARTNEY, supra note 124, at 239.
193. Id. at 180.
194. Id.
195. PEARSON, supra note 136, at 148.
196. MACARTNEY, supra note 124, at 275, 278, 297.
197. Alan Sharp, Britain and the Protection of Minorities at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919, in MINORITIES IN HISTORY 175 (A.C. Hepburn ed., 1979).
198. CLAUDE, supra note 144, at 17, 32-34.
199. PEARSON, supra note 136, at 162-64, 188-89; Yisrael Gutman, Polish Anti-Semitism Between the Wars: An Overview, in THE JEWS OF POLAND BETWEEN TWO WORLD WARS 103-05 (Yisrael Gutman et al. ed., 1989); BARTSCH, supra note 143, at 75-76.
200. PEARSON, supra note 136, at 162-64, 188-89; Yisrael Gutman, Polish Anti-Semitism Between the Wars: An Overview, in THE JEWS OF POLAND BETWEEN TWO WORLD WARS 103-05 (Yisrael Gutman et al. ed., 1989); BARTSCH, supra note 143, at 75-76.
201. PEARSON, supra note 136, at 162-64, 188-89; Yisrael Gutman, Polish Anti-Semitism Between the Wars: An Overview, in THE JEWS OF POLAND BETWEEN TWO WORLD WARS 103-05 (Yisrael Gutman et al. ed., 1989); BARTSCH, supra note 143, at 75-76.
202. JAY A. SIGLER, MINORITY RIGHTS: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS 67, 77 (1983).
203. SUSAN L. WOODWARD, BALKAN TRAGEDY: CHAOS AND DISSOLUTION AFTER THE COLD WAR 190-91 (1995).
204. Human Rights, Annex 6 to the General Framework for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Dec. 14, 1995, 35 I.L.M. 13 (1996) [hereinafter Bosnia Agreement].
205. European Community, Treaty Provisions for the Convention, (Carrington Report) 4 Nov. 1991 [hereinafter Carrington Report].
206. Id. chap. 2.
207. Id. chap. 2.4.
208. Id. chap. 2.5.c.
209. Id. chap. 2.
210. Crawford, supra note 22, at 497.
211. Carrington Report, supra note 170, chap. 4.
212. WOODWARD, supra note 168, at 190-91.
213. Id. at 190-92.
214. Republic of Croatia, Constitutional Law of Human Rights and Freedoms and the Rights of National and Ethnic Communities or Minorities in the Republic of Croatia, Article 49.
215. Id. art. 18.
216. Id.
217. Id. art. 60.
218. Id. art. 60; CRAWFORD, supra note 22, at 497.
219. Bosnia Agreement, supra note 169, Annex 6.
220. Id.
221. Id.
222. Id.
223. Id.
224. Id.
225. CORNELL INT'L L.J. 681 (1997)