Dysfunctional domesticity: Female insanity and family relationships among the West riding poor in the mid-nineteenth century

Journal of Family History

Volumn 25, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 341-361

  Levine Clark, Marjorie ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0346675309     PISSN: 03631990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/036319900002500305     Document Type: Article

References (180)

1. West Yorkshire Record Office, Wakefield Headquarters (WYRO), West Riding Pauper Lunatic Asylum (WRPLA), C85/848, Female Case Book F8, 10-11.
2. Ibid., 335.
3. These dates correspond to six casebooks, whose time frame interests me in light of a larger project in which I am engaged concerning women's health and work in the early Victorian years. I examined 1,489 cases: all the new admissions to the West Riding Pauper Lunatic Asylum during these years. In most entries, notes on patients readmitted to the asylum were included under the heading of the original case. In this article, readmissions are not counted separately unless they were recorded as a new case.
4. This is the main thrust of Elaine Showalter's The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York: Penguin, 1985). Anne Digby, in her study of the York Retreat, argues that "the possibility that the rigid limitations imposed on the Victorian woman's role themselves produced either depression or rebellious nonconformity among female patients does not seem to have occurred to Victorian therapists." Madness, Morality, and Medicine: A Study of the York Retreat, 1796-1914 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 191. For more literary interpretations, see Martha Evans Noel, Fits and Starts: A Genealogy of Hysteria in Modern France (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University, 1991); Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1979); Helen Small, Love's Madness: Medicine, the Novel, and Female Insanity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Claire Kahane, Passions of the Voice: Hysteria, Narrative, and the Speaking Woman (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); and Peter Logan, Nerves and Narratives: A Cultural History of Hysteria in Nineteenth-Century British Prose (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
5. This is the main thrust of Elaine Showalter's The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York: Penguin, 1985). Anne Digby, in her study of the York Retreat, argues that "the possibility that the rigid limitations imposed on the Victorian woman's role themselves produced either depression or rebellious nonconformity among female patients does not seem to have occurred to Victorian therapists." Madness, Morality, and Medicine: A Study of the York Retreat, 1796-1914 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 191. For more literary interpretations, see Martha Evans Noel, Fits and Starts: A Genealogy of Hysteria in Modern France (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University, 1991); Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1979); Helen Small, Love's Madness: Medicine, the Novel, and Female Insanity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Claire Kahane, Passions of the Voice: Hysteria, Narrative, and the Speaking Woman (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); and Peter Logan, Nerves and Narratives: A Cultural History of Hysteria in Nineteenth-Century British Prose (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
6. This is the main thrust of Elaine Showalter's The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York: Penguin, 1985). Anne Digby, in her study of the York Retreat, argues that "the possibility that the rigid limitations imposed on the Victorian woman's role themselves produced either depression or rebellious nonconformity among female patients does not seem to have occurred to Victorian therapists." Madness, Morality, and Medicine: A Study of the York Retreat, 1796-1914 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 191. For more literary interpretations, see Martha Evans Noel, Fits and Starts: A Genealogy of Hysteria in Modern France (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University, 1991); Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1979); Helen Small, Love's Madness: Medicine, the Novel, and Female Insanity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Claire Kahane, Passions of the Voice: Hysteria, Narrative, and the Speaking Woman (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); and Peter Logan, Nerves and Narratives: A Cultural History of Hysteria in Nineteenth-Century British Prose (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
7. This is the main thrust of Elaine Showalter's The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York: Penguin, 1985). Anne Digby, in her study of the York Retreat, argues that "the possibility that the rigid limitations imposed on the Victorian woman's role themselves produced either depression or rebellious nonconformity among female patients does not seem to have occurred to Victorian therapists." Madness, Morality, and Medicine: A Study of the York Retreat, 1796-1914 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 191. For more literary interpretations, see Martha Evans Noel, Fits and Starts: A Genealogy of Hysteria in Modern France (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University, 1991); Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1979); Helen Small, Love's Madness: Medicine, the Novel, and Female Insanity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Claire Kahane, Passions of the Voice: Hysteria, Narrative, and the Speaking Woman (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); and Peter Logan, Nerves and Narratives: A Cultural History of Hysteria in Nineteenth-Century British Prose (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
8. This is the main thrust of Elaine Showalter's The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York: Penguin, 1985). Anne Digby, in her study of the York Retreat, argues that "the possibility that the rigid limitations imposed on the Victorian woman's role themselves produced either depression or rebellious nonconformity among female patients does not seem to have occurred to Victorian therapists." Madness, Morality, and Medicine: A Study of the York Retreat, 1796-1914 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 191. For more literary interpretations, see Martha Evans Noel, Fits and Starts: A Genealogy of Hysteria in Modern France (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University, 1991); Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1979); Helen Small, Love's Madness: Medicine, the Novel, and Female Insanity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Claire Kahane, Passions of the Voice: Hysteria, Narrative, and the Speaking Woman (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); and Peter Logan, Nerves and Narratives: A Cultural History of Hysteria in Nineteenth-Century British Prose (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
9. This is the main thrust of Elaine Showalter's The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York: Penguin, 1985). Anne Digby, in her study of the York Retreat, argues that "the possibility that the rigid limitations imposed on the Victorian woman's role themselves produced either depression or rebellious nonconformity among female patients does not seem to have occurred to Victorian therapists." Madness, Morality, and Medicine: A Study of the York Retreat, 1796-1914 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 191. For more literary interpretations, see Martha Evans Noel, Fits and Starts: A Genealogy of Hysteria in Modern France (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University, 1991); Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1979); Helen Small, Love's Madness: Medicine, the Novel, and Female Insanity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Claire Kahane, Passions of the Voice: Hysteria, Narrative, and the Speaking Woman (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); and Peter Logan, Nerves and Narratives: A Cultural History of Hysteria in Nineteenth-Century British Prose (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
10. This is the main thrust of Elaine Showalter's The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York: Penguin, 1985). Anne Digby, in her study of the York Retreat, argues that "the possibility that the rigid limitations imposed on the Victorian woman's role themselves produced either depression or rebellious nonconformity among female patients does not seem to have occurred to Victorian therapists." Madness, Morality, and Medicine: A Study of the York Retreat, 1796-1914 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 191. For more literary interpretations, see Martha Evans Noel, Fits and Starts: A Genealogy of Hysteria in Modern France (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University, 1991); Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1979); Helen Small, Love's Madness: Medicine, the Novel, and Female Insanity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Claire Kahane, Passions of the Voice: Hysteria, Narrative, and the Speaking Woman (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); and Peter Logan, Nerves and Narratives: A Cultural History of Hysteria in Nineteenth-Century British Prose (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
11. For an introduction to these issues, see Roy Porter, Mind-Forg'd Manacles: A History of Madness in England from the Restoration to the Regency (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987), 155.
12. Edward Shorter, A History of Psychiatry from the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac (New York: John Wiley, 1997), 18. This pleasant vision of asylum life would never be realized, as the numbers of inmates increased dramatically and rapidly, not allowing the kind of individual attention envisioned by moral managers.
13. There is a growing literature on nineteenth-century British asylums and insanity and particularly pauper lunacy. For the most recent, see Leonard D. Smith, "Cure, Comfort and Safe Custody": Public Lunatic Asylums in Early Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Cassell Academic, 1999). Richard Adair, Bill Forsythe, and Joseph Melling have undertaken a detailed study of Devon in a series of articles: "The New Poor Law and the County Pauper Lunatic Asylum - The Devon Experience, 1834-1884," Social History of Medicine 9, no. 3 (December 1996): 335-55; "'A Proper Lunatic for Two Years': Pauper Lunatic Children in Victorian and Edwardian England. Child Admissions to the Devon County Asylum," Journal of Social History (winter 1997): 371-405; "Migration, Family Structure and Pauper Lunacy in Victorian England: Admissions to the Devon Country Pauper Lunatic Asylum, 1845-1900," Continuity and Change 12, no. 3 (1997): 373-401; and "A Danger to the Public? Disposing of Pauper Lunatics in late-Victorian and Edwardian England: Plympton St. Mary Union and the Devon County Asylum, 1867-1914," Medical History 42, no. 1 (1998): 1-25. In addition, see John Walton, "The Treatment of Pauper Lunatics in Victorian England: The Case of Lancaster Asylum, 1816-1870," in Madhouses, Mad-Doctors, and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era, ed. Andrew Scull (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 166-97; John Walton, "Lunacy in the Industrial Revolution: A Study of Asylum Admissions in Lancashire, 1848-1850," Journal of Social History 13 (fall 1979): 2-22; John Walton, "Casting Out and Bringing Back in Victorian England: Pauper Lunatics, 1840-1970," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume II: Institutions and Society, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 132-46; Richard Hunter and Ida Macalpine, Psychiatry for the Poor: 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum - Friem Hospital 1973. A Medical and Social History (London: William Dawsons, 1974); D. J. Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural, and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Garland, 1982), esp. chap. 7, "Commissioners, Workhouses, and Pauper Lunatics, 1845-90," 134-58; Ann Digby, "Moral Treatment at the Retreat, 1796-1846," in Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, The Anatomy of Madness, 2:52-72; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine; Andrew Scull, "A Victorian Alienist: John Conolly, FRCP, DCL (1794-1866)," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume I: People and Ideas, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 103-50; Andrew Scull, "The Domestication of Madness," Medical History 27 (1983): 233-48; Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organization of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: St. Martin's, 1979); Andrew Scull, Masters of Bedlam: The Transformation of the Mad-Doctoring Trade (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Showalter, The Female Malady; Kathleen Jones, Lunacy, Law, and Conscience 1744-1845: The Social History of the Care of the Insane (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955); Michael Donnelly, Managing the Mind: A Study of Medical Psychology in Early Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Tavistock, 1983); and Marlene A. Arieno, Victorian Lunatics: A Social Epidemiology of Mental Illness in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (London: Associated University Presses, 1989).
14. There is a growing literature on nineteenth-century British asylums and insanity and particularly pauper lunacy. For the most recent, see Leonard D. Smith, "Cure, Comfort and Safe Custody": Public Lunatic Asylums in Early Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Cassell Academic, 1999). Richard Adair, Bill Forsythe, and Joseph Melling have undertaken a detailed study of Devon in a series of articles: "The New Poor Law and the County Pauper Lunatic Asylum - The Devon Experience, 1834-1884," Social History of Medicine 9, no. 3 (December 1996): 335-55; "'A Proper Lunatic for Two Years': Pauper Lunatic Children in Victorian and Edwardian England. Child Admissions to the Devon County Asylum," Journal of Social History (winter 1997): 371-405; "Migration, Family Structure and Pauper Lunacy in Victorian England: Admissions to the Devon Country Pauper Lunatic Asylum, 1845-1900," Continuity and Change 12, no. 3 (1997): 373-401; and "A Danger to the Public? Disposing of Pauper Lunatics in late-Victorian and Edwardian England: Plympton St. Mary Union and the Devon County Asylum, 1867-1914," Medical History 42, no. 1 (1998): 1-25. In addition, see John Walton, "The Treatment of Pauper Lunatics in Victorian England: The Case of Lancaster Asylum, 1816-1870," in Madhouses, Mad-Doctors, and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era, ed. Andrew Scull (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 166-97; John Walton, "Lunacy in the Industrial Revolution: A Study of Asylum Admissions in Lancashire, 1848-1850," Journal of Social History 13 (fall 1979): 2-22; John Walton, "Casting Out and Bringing Back in Victorian England: Pauper Lunatics, 1840-1970," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume II: Institutions and Society, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 132-46; Richard Hunter and Ida Macalpine, Psychiatry for the Poor: 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum - Friem Hospital 1973. A Medical and Social History (London: William Dawsons, 1974); D. J. Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural, and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Garland, 1982), esp. chap. 7, "Commissioners, Workhouses, and Pauper Lunatics, 1845-90," 134-58; Ann Digby, "Moral Treatment at the Retreat, 1796-1846," in Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, The Anatomy of Madness, 2:52-72; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine; Andrew Scull, "A Victorian Alienist: John Conolly, FRCP, DCL (1794-1866)," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume I: People and Ideas, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 103-50; Andrew Scull, "The Domestication of Madness," Medical History 27 (1983): 233-48; Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organization of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: St. Martin's, 1979); Andrew Scull, Masters of Bedlam: The Transformation of the Mad-Doctoring Trade (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Showalter, The Female Malady; Kathleen Jones, Lunacy, Law, and Conscience 1744-1845: The Social History of the Care of the Insane (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955); Michael Donnelly, Managing the Mind: A Study of Medical Psychology in Early Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Tavistock, 1983); and Marlene A. Arieno, Victorian Lunatics: A Social Epidemiology of Mental Illness in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (London: Associated University Presses, 1989).
15. There is a growing literature on nineteenth-century British asylums and insanity and particularly pauper lunacy. For the most recent, see Leonard D. Smith, "Cure, Comfort and Safe Custody": Public Lunatic Asylums in Early Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Cassell Academic, 1999). Richard Adair, Bill Forsythe, and Joseph Melling have undertaken a detailed study of Devon in a series of articles: "The New Poor Law and the County Pauper Lunatic Asylum - The Devon Experience, 1834-1884," Social History of Medicine 9, no. 3 (December 1996): 335-55; "'A Proper Lunatic for Two Years': Pauper Lunatic Children in Victorian and Edwardian England. Child Admissions to the Devon County Asylum," Journal of Social History (winter 1997): 371-405; "Migration, Family Structure and Pauper Lunacy in Victorian England: Admissions to the Devon Country Pauper Lunatic Asylum, 1845-1900," Continuity and Change 12, no. 3 (1997): 373-401; and "A Danger to the Public? Disposing of Pauper Lunatics in late-Victorian and Edwardian England: Plympton St. Mary Union and the Devon County Asylum, 1867-1914," Medical History 42, no. 1 (1998): 1-25. In addition, see John Walton, "The Treatment of Pauper Lunatics in Victorian England: The Case of Lancaster Asylum, 1816-1870," in Madhouses, Mad-Doctors, and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era, ed. Andrew Scull (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 166-97; John Walton, "Lunacy in the Industrial Revolution: A Study of Asylum Admissions in Lancashire, 1848-1850," Journal of Social History 13 (fall 1979): 2-22; John Walton, "Casting Out and Bringing Back in Victorian England: Pauper Lunatics, 1840-1970," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume II: Institutions and Society, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 132-46; Richard Hunter and Ida Macalpine, Psychiatry for the Poor: 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum - Friem Hospital 1973. A Medical and Social History (London: William Dawsons, 1974); D. J. Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural, and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Garland, 1982), esp. chap. 7, "Commissioners, Workhouses, and Pauper Lunatics, 1845-90," 134-58; Ann Digby, "Moral Treatment at the Retreat, 1796-1846," in Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, The Anatomy of Madness, 2:52-72; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine; Andrew Scull, "A Victorian Alienist: John Conolly, FRCP, DCL (1794-1866)," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume I: People and Ideas, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 103-50; Andrew Scull, "The Domestication of Madness," Medical History 27 (1983): 233-48; Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organization of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: St. Martin's, 1979); Andrew Scull, Masters of Bedlam: The Transformation of the Mad-Doctoring Trade (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Showalter, The Female Malady; Kathleen Jones, Lunacy, Law, and Conscience 1744-1845: The Social History of the Care of the Insane (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955); Michael Donnelly, Managing the Mind: A Study of Medical Psychology in Early Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Tavistock, 1983); and Marlene A. Arieno, Victorian Lunatics: A Social Epidemiology of Mental Illness in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (London: Associated University Presses, 1989).
16. There is a growing literature on nineteenth-century British asylums and insanity and particularly pauper lunacy. For the most recent, see Leonard D. Smith, "Cure, Comfort and Safe Custody": Public Lunatic Asylums in Early Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Cassell Academic, 1999). Richard Adair, Bill Forsythe, and Joseph Melling have undertaken a detailed study of Devon in a series of articles: "The New Poor Law and the County Pauper Lunatic Asylum - The Devon Experience, 1834-1884," Social History of Medicine 9, no. 3 (December 1996): 335-55; "'A Proper Lunatic for Two Years': Pauper Lunatic Children in Victorian and Edwardian England. Child Admissions to the Devon County Asylum," Journal of Social History (winter 1997): 371-405; "Migration, Family Structure and Pauper Lunacy in Victorian England: Admissions to the Devon Country Pauper Lunatic Asylum, 1845-1900," Continuity and Change 12, no. 3 (1997): 373-401; and "A Danger to the Public? Disposing of Pauper Lunatics in late-Victorian and Edwardian England: Plympton St. Mary Union and the Devon County Asylum, 1867-1914," Medical History 42, no. 1 (1998): 1-25. In addition, see John Walton, "The Treatment of Pauper Lunatics in Victorian England: The Case of Lancaster Asylum, 1816-1870," in Madhouses, Mad-Doctors, and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era, ed. Andrew Scull (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 166-97; John Walton, "Lunacy in the Industrial Revolution: A Study of Asylum Admissions in Lancashire, 1848-1850," Journal of Social History 13 (fall 1979): 2-22; John Walton, "Casting Out and Bringing Back in Victorian England: Pauper Lunatics, 1840-1970," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume II: Institutions and Society, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 132-46; Richard Hunter and Ida Macalpine, Psychiatry for the Poor: 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum - Friem Hospital 1973. A Medical and Social History (London: William Dawsons, 1974); D. J. Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural, and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Garland, 1982), esp. chap. 7, "Commissioners, Workhouses, and Pauper Lunatics, 1845-90," 134-58; Ann Digby, "Moral Treatment at the Retreat, 1796-1846," in Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, The Anatomy of Madness, 2:52-72; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine; Andrew Scull, "A Victorian Alienist: John Conolly, FRCP, DCL (1794-1866)," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume I: People and Ideas, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 103-50; Andrew Scull, "The Domestication of Madness," Medical History 27 (1983): 233-48; Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organization of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: St. Martin's, 1979); Andrew Scull, Masters of Bedlam: The Transformation of the Mad-Doctoring Trade (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Showalter, The Female Malady; Kathleen Jones, Lunacy, Law, and Conscience 1744-1845: The Social History of the Care of the Insane (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955); Michael Donnelly, Managing the Mind: A Study of Medical Psychology in Early Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Tavistock, 1983); and Marlene A. Arieno, Victorian Lunatics: A Social Epidemiology of Mental Illness in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (London: Associated University Presses, 1989).
17. There is a growing literature on nineteenth-century British asylums and insanity and particularly pauper lunacy. For the most recent, see Leonard D. Smith, "Cure, Comfort and Safe Custody": Public Lunatic Asylums in Early Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Cassell Academic, 1999). Richard Adair, Bill Forsythe, and Joseph Melling have undertaken a detailed study of Devon in a series of articles: "The New Poor Law and the County Pauper Lunatic Asylum - The Devon Experience, 1834-1884," Social History of Medicine 9, no. 3 (December 1996): 335-55; "'A Proper Lunatic for Two Years': Pauper Lunatic Children in Victorian and Edwardian England. Child Admissions to the Devon County Asylum," Journal of Social History (winter 1997): 371-405; "Migration, Family Structure and Pauper Lunacy in Victorian England: Admissions to the Devon Country Pauper Lunatic Asylum, 1845-1900," Continuity and Change 12, no. 3 (1997): 373-401; and "A Danger to the Public? Disposing of Pauper Lunatics in late-Victorian and Edwardian England: Plympton St. Mary Union and the Devon County Asylum, 1867-1914," Medical History 42, no. 1 (1998): 1-25. In addition, see John Walton, "The Treatment of Pauper Lunatics in Victorian England: The Case of Lancaster Asylum, 1816-1870," in Madhouses, Mad-Doctors, and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era, ed. Andrew Scull (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 166-97; John Walton, "Lunacy in the Industrial Revolution: A Study of Asylum Admissions in Lancashire, 1848-1850," Journal of Social History 13 (fall 1979): 2-22; John Walton, "Casting Out and Bringing Back in Victorian England: Pauper Lunatics, 1840-1970," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume II: Institutions and Society, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 132-46; Richard Hunter and Ida Macalpine, Psychiatry for the Poor: 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum - Friem Hospital 1973. A Medical and Social History (London: William Dawsons, 1974); D. J. Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural, and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Garland, 1982), esp. chap. 7, "Commissioners, Workhouses, and Pauper Lunatics, 1845-90," 134-58; Ann Digby, "Moral Treatment at the Retreat, 1796-1846," in Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, The Anatomy of Madness, 2:52-72; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine; Andrew Scull, "A Victorian Alienist: John Conolly, FRCP, DCL (1794-1866)," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume I: People and Ideas, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 103-50; Andrew Scull, "The Domestication of Madness," Medical History 27 (1983): 233-48; Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organization of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: St. Martin's, 1979); Andrew Scull, Masters of Bedlam: The Transformation of the Mad-Doctoring Trade (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Showalter, The Female Malady; Kathleen Jones, Lunacy, Law, and Conscience 1744-1845: The Social History of the Care of the Insane (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955); Michael Donnelly, Managing the Mind: A Study of Medical Psychology in Early Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Tavistock, 1983); and Marlene A. Arieno, Victorian Lunatics: A Social Epidemiology of Mental Illness in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (London: Associated University Presses, 1989).
18. There is a growing literature on nineteenth-century British asylums and insanity and particularly pauper lunacy. For the most recent, see Leonard D. Smith, "Cure, Comfort and Safe Custody": Public Lunatic Asylums in Early Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Cassell Academic, 1999). Richard Adair, Bill Forsythe, and Joseph Melling have undertaken a detailed study of Devon in a series of articles: "The New Poor Law and the County Pauper Lunatic Asylum - The Devon Experience, 1834-1884," Social History of Medicine 9, no. 3 (December 1996): 335-55; "'A Proper Lunatic for Two Years': Pauper Lunatic Children in Victorian and Edwardian England. Child Admissions to the Devon County Asylum," Journal of Social History (winter 1997): 371-405; "Migration, Family Structure and Pauper Lunacy in Victorian England: Admissions to the Devon Country Pauper Lunatic Asylum, 1845-1900," Continuity and Change 12, no. 3 (1997): 373-401; and "A Danger to the Public? Disposing of Pauper Lunatics in late-Victorian and Edwardian England: Plympton St. Mary Union and the Devon County Asylum, 1867-1914," Medical History 42, no. 1 (1998): 1-25. In addition, see John Walton, "The Treatment of Pauper Lunatics in Victorian England: The Case of Lancaster Asylum, 1816-1870," in Madhouses, Mad-Doctors, and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era, ed. Andrew Scull (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 166-97; John Walton, "Lunacy in the Industrial Revolution: A Study of Asylum Admissions in Lancashire, 1848-1850," Journal of Social History 13 (fall 1979): 2-22; John Walton, "Casting Out and Bringing Back in Victorian England: Pauper Lunatics, 1840-1970," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume II: Institutions and Society, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 132-46; Richard Hunter and Ida Macalpine, Psychiatry for the Poor: 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum - Friem Hospital 1973. A Medical and Social History (London: William Dawsons, 1974); D. J. Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural, and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Garland, 1982), esp. chap. 7, "Commissioners, Workhouses, and Pauper Lunatics, 1845-90," 134-58; Ann Digby, "Moral Treatment at the Retreat, 1796-1846," in Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, The Anatomy of Madness, 2:52-72; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine; Andrew Scull, "A Victorian Alienist: John Conolly, FRCP, DCL (1794-1866)," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume I: People and Ideas, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 103-50; Andrew Scull, "The Domestication of Madness," Medical History 27 (1983): 233-48; Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organization of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: St. Martin's, 1979); Andrew Scull, Masters of Bedlam: The Transformation of the Mad-Doctoring Trade (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Showalter, The Female Malady; Kathleen Jones, Lunacy, Law, and Conscience 1744-1845: The Social History of the Care of the Insane (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955); Michael Donnelly, Managing the Mind: A Study of Medical Psychology in Early Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Tavistock, 1983); and Marlene A. Arieno, Victorian Lunatics: A Social Epidemiology of Mental Illness in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (London: Associated University Presses, 1989).
19. There is a growing literature on nineteenth-century British asylums and insanity and particularly pauper lunacy. For the most recent, see Leonard D. Smith, "Cure, Comfort and Safe Custody": Public Lunatic Asylums in Early Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Cassell Academic, 1999). Richard Adair, Bill Forsythe, and Joseph Melling have undertaken a detailed study of Devon in a series of articles: "The New Poor Law and the County Pauper Lunatic Asylum - The Devon Experience, 1834-1884," Social History of Medicine 9, no. 3 (December 1996): 335-55; "'A Proper Lunatic for Two Years': Pauper Lunatic Children in Victorian and Edwardian England. Child Admissions to the Devon County Asylum," Journal of Social History (winter 1997): 371-405; "Migration, Family Structure and Pauper Lunacy in Victorian England: Admissions to the Devon Country Pauper Lunatic Asylum, 1845-1900," Continuity and Change 12, no. 3 (1997): 373-401; and "A Danger to the Public? Disposing of Pauper Lunatics in late-Victorian and Edwardian England: Plympton St. Mary Union and the Devon County Asylum, 1867-1914," Medical History 42, no. 1 (1998): 1-25. In addition, see John Walton, "The Treatment of Pauper Lunatics in Victorian England: The Case of Lancaster Asylum, 1816-1870," in Madhouses, Mad-Doctors, and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era, ed. Andrew Scull (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 166-97; John Walton, "Lunacy in the Industrial Revolution: A Study of Asylum Admissions in Lancashire, 1848-1850," Journal of Social History 13 (fall 1979): 2-22; John Walton, "Casting Out and Bringing Back in Victorian England: Pauper Lunatics, 1840-1970," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume II: Institutions and Society, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 132-46; Richard Hunter and Ida Macalpine, Psychiatry for the Poor: 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum - Friem Hospital 1973. A Medical and Social History (London: William Dawsons, 1974); D. J. Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural, and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Garland, 1982), esp. chap. 7, "Commissioners, Workhouses, and Pauper Lunatics, 1845-90," 134-58; Ann Digby, "Moral Treatment at the Retreat, 1796-1846," in Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, The Anatomy of Madness, 2:52-72; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine; Andrew Scull, "A Victorian Alienist: John Conolly, FRCP, DCL (1794-1866)," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume I: People and Ideas, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 103-50; Andrew Scull, "The Domestication of Madness," Medical History 27 (1983): 233-48; Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organization of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: St. Martin's, 1979); Andrew Scull, Masters of Bedlam: The Transformation of the Mad-Doctoring Trade (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Showalter, The Female Malady; Kathleen Jones, Lunacy, Law, and Conscience 1744-1845: The Social History of the Care of the Insane (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955); Michael Donnelly, Managing the Mind: A Study of Medical Psychology in Early Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Tavistock, 1983); and Marlene A. Arieno, Victorian Lunatics: A Social Epidemiology of Mental Illness in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (London: Associated University Presses, 1989).
20. There is a growing literature on nineteenth-century British asylums and insanity and particularly pauper lunacy. For the most recent, see Leonard D. Smith, "Cure, Comfort and Safe Custody": Public Lunatic Asylums in Early Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Cassell Academic, 1999). Richard Adair, Bill Forsythe, and Joseph Melling have undertaken a detailed study of Devon in a series of articles: "The New Poor Law and the County Pauper Lunatic Asylum - The Devon Experience, 1834-1884," Social History of Medicine 9, no. 3 (December 1996): 335-55; "'A Proper Lunatic for Two Years': Pauper Lunatic Children in Victorian and Edwardian England. Child Admissions to the Devon County Asylum," Journal of Social History (winter 1997): 371-405; "Migration, Family Structure and Pauper Lunacy in Victorian England: Admissions to the Devon Country Pauper Lunatic Asylum, 1845-1900," Continuity and Change 12, no. 3 (1997): 373-401; and "A Danger to the Public? Disposing of Pauper Lunatics in late-Victorian and Edwardian England: Plympton St. Mary Union and the Devon County Asylum, 1867-1914," Medical History 42, no. 1 (1998): 1-25. In addition, see John Walton, "The Treatment of Pauper Lunatics in Victorian England: The Case of Lancaster Asylum, 1816-1870," in Madhouses, Mad-Doctors, and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era, ed. Andrew Scull (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 166-97; John Walton, "Lunacy in the Industrial Revolution: A Study of Asylum Admissions in Lancashire, 1848-1850," Journal of Social History 13 (fall 1979): 2-22; John Walton, "Casting Out and Bringing Back in Victorian England: Pauper Lunatics, 1840-1970," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume II: Institutions and Society, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 132-46; Richard Hunter and Ida Macalpine, Psychiatry for the Poor: 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum - Friem Hospital 1973. A Medical and Social History (London: William Dawsons, 1974); D. J. Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural, and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Garland, 1982), esp. chap. 7, "Commissioners, Workhouses, and Pauper Lunatics, 1845-90," 134-58; Ann Digby, "Moral Treatment at the Retreat, 1796-1846," in Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, The Anatomy of Madness, 2:52-72; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine; Andrew Scull, "A Victorian Alienist: John Conolly, FRCP, DCL (1794-1866)," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume I: People and Ideas, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 103-50; Andrew Scull, "The Domestication of Madness," Medical History 27 (1983): 233-48; Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organization of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: St. Martin's, 1979); Andrew Scull, Masters of Bedlam: The Transformation of the Mad-Doctoring Trade (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Showalter, The Female Malady; Kathleen Jones, Lunacy, Law, and Conscience 1744-1845: The Social History of the Care of the Insane (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955); Michael Donnelly, Managing the Mind: A Study of Medical Psychology in Early Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Tavistock, 1983); and Marlene A. Arieno, Victorian Lunatics: A Social Epidemiology of Mental Illness in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (London: Associated University Presses, 1989).
21. There is a growing literature on nineteenth-century British asylums and insanity and particularly pauper lunacy. For the most recent, see Leonard D. Smith, "Cure, Comfort and Safe Custody": Public Lunatic Asylums in Early Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Cassell Academic, 1999). Richard Adair, Bill Forsythe, and Joseph Melling have undertaken a detailed study of Devon in a series of articles: "The New Poor Law and the County Pauper Lunatic Asylum - The Devon Experience, 1834-1884," Social History of Medicine 9, no. 3 (December 1996): 335-55; "'A Proper Lunatic for Two Years': Pauper Lunatic Children in Victorian and Edwardian England. Child Admissions to the Devon County Asylum," Journal of Social History (winter 1997): 371-405; "Migration, Family Structure and Pauper Lunacy in Victorian England: Admissions to the Devon Country Pauper Lunatic Asylum, 1845-1900," Continuity and Change 12, no. 3 (1997): 373-401; and "A Danger to the Public? Disposing of Pauper Lunatics in late-Victorian and Edwardian England: Plympton St. Mary Union and the Devon County Asylum, 1867-1914," Medical History 42, no. 1 (1998): 1-25. In addition, see John Walton, "The Treatment of Pauper Lunatics in Victorian England: The Case of Lancaster Asylum, 1816-1870," in Madhouses, Mad-Doctors, and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era, ed. Andrew Scull (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 166-97; John Walton, "Lunacy in the Industrial Revolution: A Study of Asylum Admissions in Lancashire, 1848-1850," Journal of Social History 13 (fall 1979): 2-22; John Walton, "Casting Out and Bringing Back in Victorian England: Pauper Lunatics, 1840-1970," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume II: Institutions and Society, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 132-46; Richard Hunter and Ida Macalpine, Psychiatry for the Poor: 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum - Friem Hospital 1973. A Medical and Social History (London: William Dawsons, 1974); D. J. Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural, and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Garland, 1982), esp. chap. 7, "Commissioners, Workhouses, and Pauper Lunatics, 1845-90," 134-58; Ann Digby, "Moral Treatment at the Retreat, 1796-1846," in Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, The Anatomy of Madness, 2:52-72; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine; Andrew Scull, "A Victorian Alienist: John Conolly, FRCP, DCL (1794-1866)," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume I: People and Ideas, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 103-50; Andrew Scull, "The Domestication of Madness," Medical History 27 (1983): 233-48; Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organization of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: St. Martin's, 1979); Andrew Scull, Masters of Bedlam: The Transformation of the Mad-Doctoring Trade (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Showalter, The Female Malady; Kathleen Jones, Lunacy, Law, and Conscience 1744-1845: The Social History of the Care of the Insane (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955); Michael Donnelly, Managing the Mind: A Study of Medical Psychology in Early Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Tavistock, 1983); and Marlene A. Arieno, Victorian Lunatics: A Social Epidemiology of Mental Illness in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (London: Associated University Presses, 1989).
22. There is a growing literature on nineteenth-century British asylums and insanity and particularly pauper lunacy. For the most recent, see Leonard D. Smith, "Cure, Comfort and Safe Custody": Public Lunatic Asylums in Early Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Cassell Academic, 1999). Richard Adair, Bill Forsythe, and Joseph Melling have undertaken a detailed study of Devon in a series of articles: "The New Poor Law and the County Pauper Lunatic Asylum - The Devon Experience, 1834-1884," Social History of Medicine 9, no. 3 (December 1996): 335-55; "'A Proper Lunatic for Two Years': Pauper Lunatic Children in Victorian and Edwardian England. Child Admissions to the Devon County Asylum," Journal of Social History (winter 1997): 371-405; "Migration, Family Structure and Pauper Lunacy in Victorian England: Admissions to the Devon Country Pauper Lunatic Asylum, 1845-1900," Continuity and Change 12, no. 3 (1997): 373-401; and "A Danger to the Public? Disposing of Pauper Lunatics in late-Victorian and Edwardian England: Plympton St. Mary Union and the Devon County Asylum, 1867-1914," Medical History 42, no. 1 (1998): 1-25. In addition, see John Walton, "The Treatment of Pauper Lunatics in Victorian England: The Case of Lancaster Asylum, 1816-1870," in Madhouses, Mad-Doctors, and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era, ed. Andrew Scull (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 166-97; John Walton, "Lunacy in the Industrial Revolution: A Study of Asylum Admissions in Lancashire, 1848-1850," Journal of Social History 13 (fall 1979): 2-22; John Walton, "Casting Out and Bringing Back in Victorian England: Pauper Lunatics, 1840-1970," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume II: Institutions and Society, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 132-46; Richard Hunter and Ida Macalpine, Psychiatry for the Poor: 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum - Friem Hospital 1973. A Medical and Social History (London: William Dawsons, 1974); D. J. Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural, and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Garland, 1982), esp. chap. 7, "Commissioners, Workhouses, and Pauper Lunatics, 1845-90," 134-58; Ann Digby, "Moral Treatment at the Retreat, 1796-1846," in Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, The Anatomy of Madness, 2:52-72; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine; Andrew Scull, "A Victorian Alienist: John Conolly, FRCP, DCL (1794-1866)," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume I: People and Ideas, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 103-50; Andrew Scull, "The Domestication of Madness," Medical History 27 (1983): 233-48; Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organization of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: St. Martin's, 1979); Andrew Scull, Masters of Bedlam: The Transformation of the Mad-Doctoring Trade (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Showalter, The Female Malady; Kathleen Jones, Lunacy, Law, and Conscience 1744-1845: The Social History of the Care of the Insane (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955); Michael Donnelly, Managing the Mind: A Study of Medical Psychology in Early Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Tavistock, 1983); and Marlene A. Arieno, Victorian Lunatics: A Social Epidemiology of Mental Illness in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (London: Associated University Presses, 1989).
23. There is a growing literature on nineteenth-century British asylums and insanity and particularly pauper lunacy. For the most recent, see Leonard D. Smith, "Cure, Comfort and Safe Custody": Public Lunatic Asylums in Early Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Cassell Academic, 1999). Richard Adair, Bill Forsythe, and Joseph Melling have undertaken a detailed study of Devon in a series of articles: "The New Poor Law and the County Pauper Lunatic Asylum - The Devon Experience, 1834-1884," Social History of Medicine 9, no. 3 (December 1996): 335-55; "'A Proper Lunatic for Two Years': Pauper Lunatic Children in Victorian and Edwardian England. Child Admissions to the Devon County Asylum," Journal of Social History (winter 1997): 371-405; "Migration, Family Structure and Pauper Lunacy in Victorian England: Admissions to the Devon Country Pauper Lunatic Asylum, 1845-1900," Continuity and Change 12, no. 3 (1997): 373-401; and "A Danger to the Public? Disposing of Pauper Lunatics in late-Victorian and Edwardian England: Plympton St. Mary Union and the Devon County Asylum, 1867-1914," Medical History 42, no. 1 (1998): 1-25. In addition, see John Walton, "The Treatment of Pauper Lunatics in Victorian England: The Case of Lancaster Asylum, 1816-1870," in Madhouses, Mad-Doctors, and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era, ed. Andrew Scull (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 166-97; John Walton, "Lunacy in the Industrial Revolution: A Study of Asylum Admissions in Lancashire, 1848-1850," Journal of Social History 13 (fall 1979): 2-22; John Walton, "Casting Out and Bringing Back in Victorian England: Pauper Lunatics, 1840-1970," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume II: Institutions and Society, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 132-46; Richard Hunter and Ida Macalpine, Psychiatry for the Poor: 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum - Friem Hospital 1973. A Medical and Social History (London: William Dawsons, 1974); D. J. Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural, and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Garland, 1982), esp. chap. 7, "Commissioners, Workhouses, and Pauper Lunatics, 1845-90," 134-58; Ann Digby, "Moral Treatment at the Retreat, 1796-1846," in Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, The Anatomy of Madness, 2:52-72; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine; Andrew Scull, "A Victorian Alienist: John Conolly, FRCP, DCL (1794-1866)," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume I: People and Ideas, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 103-50; Andrew Scull, "The Domestication of Madness," Medical History 27 (1983): 233-48; Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organization of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: St. Martin's, 1979); Andrew Scull, Masters of Bedlam: The Transformation of the Mad-Doctoring Trade (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Showalter, The Female Malady; Kathleen Jones, Lunacy, Law, and Conscience 1744-1845: The Social History of the Care of the Insane (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955); Michael Donnelly, Managing the Mind: A Study of Medical Psychology in Early Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Tavistock, 1983); and Marlene A. Arieno, Victorian Lunatics: A Social Epidemiology of Mental Illness in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (London: Associated University Presses, 1989).
24. There is a growing literature on nineteenth-century British asylums and insanity and particularly pauper lunacy. For the most recent, see Leonard D. Smith, "Cure, Comfort and Safe Custody": Public Lunatic Asylums in Early Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Cassell Academic, 1999). Richard Adair, Bill Forsythe, and Joseph Melling have undertaken a detailed study of Devon in a series of articles: "The New Poor Law and the County Pauper Lunatic Asylum - The Devon Experience, 1834-1884," Social History of Medicine 9, no. 3 (December 1996): 335-55; "'A Proper Lunatic for Two Years': Pauper Lunatic Children in Victorian and Edwardian England. Child Admissions to the Devon County Asylum," Journal of Social History (winter 1997): 371-405; "Migration, Family Structure and Pauper Lunacy in Victorian England: Admissions to the Devon Country Pauper Lunatic Asylum, 1845-1900," Continuity and Change 12, no. 3 (1997): 373-401; and "A Danger to the Public? Disposing of Pauper Lunatics in late-Victorian and Edwardian England: Plympton St. Mary Union and the Devon County Asylum, 1867-1914," Medical History 42, no. 1 (1998): 1-25. In addition, see John Walton, "The Treatment of Pauper Lunatics in Victorian England: The Case of Lancaster Asylum, 1816-1870," in Madhouses, Mad-Doctors, and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era, ed. Andrew Scull (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 166-97; John Walton, "Lunacy in the Industrial Revolution: A Study of Asylum Admissions in Lancashire, 1848-1850," Journal of Social History 13 (fall 1979): 2-22; John Walton, "Casting Out and Bringing Back in Victorian England: Pauper Lunatics, 1840-1970," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume II: Institutions and Society, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 132-46; Richard Hunter and Ida Macalpine, Psychiatry for the Poor: 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum - Friem Hospital 1973. A Medical and Social History (London: William Dawsons, 1974); D. J. Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural, and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Garland, 1982), esp. chap. 7, "Commissioners, Workhouses, and Pauper Lunatics, 1845-90," 134-58; Ann Digby, "Moral Treatment at the Retreat, 1796-1846," in Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, The Anatomy of Madness, 2:52-72; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine; Andrew Scull, "A Victorian Alienist: John Conolly, FRCP, DCL (1794-1866)," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume I: People and Ideas, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 103-50; Andrew Scull, "The Domestication of Madness," Medical History 27 (1983): 233-48; Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organization of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: St. Martin's, 1979); Andrew Scull, Masters of Bedlam: The Transformation of the Mad-Doctoring Trade (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Showalter, The Female Malady; Kathleen Jones, Lunacy, Law, and Conscience 1744-1845: The Social History of the Care of the Insane (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955); Michael Donnelly, Managing the Mind: A Study of Medical Psychology in Early Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Tavistock, 1983); and Marlene A. Arieno, Victorian Lunatics: A Social Epidemiology of Mental Illness in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (London: Associated University Presses, 1989).
25. There is a growing literature on nineteenth-century British asylums and insanity and particularly pauper lunacy. For the most recent, see Leonard D. Smith, "Cure, Comfort and Safe Custody": Public Lunatic Asylums in Early Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Cassell Academic, 1999). Richard Adair, Bill Forsythe, and Joseph Melling have undertaken a detailed study of Devon in a series of articles: "The New Poor Law and the County Pauper Lunatic Asylum - The Devon Experience, 1834-1884," Social History of Medicine 9, no. 3 (December 1996): 335-55; "'A Proper Lunatic for Two Years': Pauper Lunatic Children in Victorian and Edwardian England. Child Admissions to the Devon County Asylum," Journal of Social History (winter 1997): 371-405; "Migration, Family Structure and Pauper Lunacy in Victorian England: Admissions to the Devon Country Pauper Lunatic Asylum, 1845-1900," Continuity and Change 12, no. 3 (1997): 373-401; and "A Danger to the Public? Disposing of Pauper Lunatics in late-Victorian and Edwardian England: Plympton St. Mary Union and the Devon County Asylum, 1867-1914," Medical History 42, no. 1 (1998): 1-25. In addition, see John Walton, "The Treatment of Pauper Lunatics in Victorian England: The Case of Lancaster Asylum, 1816-1870," in Madhouses, Mad-Doctors, and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era, ed. Andrew Scull (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 166-97; John Walton, "Lunacy in the Industrial Revolution: A Study of Asylum Admissions in Lancashire, 1848-1850," Journal of Social History 13 (fall 1979): 2-22; John Walton, "Casting Out and Bringing Back in Victorian England: Pauper Lunatics, 1840-1970," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume II: Institutions and Society, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 132-46; Richard Hunter and Ida Macalpine, Psychiatry for the Poor: 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum - Friem Hospital 1973. A Medical and Social History (London: William Dawsons, 1974); D. J. Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural, and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Garland, 1982), esp. chap. 7, "Commissioners, Workhouses, and Pauper Lunatics, 1845-90," 134-58; Ann Digby, "Moral Treatment at the Retreat, 1796-1846," in Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, The Anatomy of Madness, 2:52-72; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine; Andrew Scull, "A Victorian Alienist: John Conolly, FRCP, DCL (1794-1866)," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume I: People and Ideas, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 103-50; Andrew Scull, "The Domestication of Madness," Medical History 27 (1983): 233-48; Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organization of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: St. Martin's, 1979); Andrew Scull, Masters of Bedlam: The Transformation of the Mad-Doctoring Trade (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Showalter, The Female Malady; Kathleen Jones, Lunacy, Law, and Conscience 1744-1845: The Social History of the Care of the Insane (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955); Michael Donnelly, Managing the Mind: A Study of Medical Psychology in Early Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Tavistock, 1983); and Marlene A. Arieno, Victorian Lunatics: A Social Epidemiology of Mental Illness in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (London: Associated University Presses, 1989).
26. There is a growing literature on nineteenth-century British asylums and insanity and particularly pauper lunacy. For the most recent, see Leonard D. Smith, "Cure, Comfort and Safe Custody": Public Lunatic Asylums in Early Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Cassell Academic, 1999). Richard Adair, Bill Forsythe, and Joseph Melling have undertaken a detailed study of Devon in a series of articles: "The New Poor Law and the County Pauper Lunatic Asylum - The Devon Experience, 1834-1884," Social History of Medicine 9, no. 3 (December 1996): 335-55; "'A Proper Lunatic for Two Years': Pauper Lunatic Children in Victorian and Edwardian England. Child Admissions to the Devon County Asylum," Journal of Social History (winter 1997): 371-405; "Migration, Family Structure and Pauper Lunacy in Victorian England: Admissions to the Devon Country Pauper Lunatic Asylum, 1845-1900," Continuity and Change 12, no. 3 (1997): 373-401; and "A Danger to the Public? Disposing of Pauper Lunatics in late-Victorian and Edwardian England: Plympton St. Mary Union and the Devon County Asylum, 1867-1914," Medical History 42, no. 1 (1998): 1-25. In addition, see John Walton, "The Treatment of Pauper Lunatics in Victorian England: The Case of Lancaster Asylum, 1816-1870," in Madhouses, Mad-Doctors, and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era, ed. Andrew Scull (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 166-97; John Walton, "Lunacy in the Industrial Revolution: A Study of Asylum Admissions in Lancashire, 1848-1850," Journal of Social History 13 (fall 1979): 2-22; John Walton, "Casting Out and Bringing Back in Victorian England: Pauper Lunatics, 1840-1970," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume II: Institutions and Society, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 132-46; Richard Hunter and Ida Macalpine, Psychiatry for the Poor: 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum - Friem Hospital 1973. A Medical and Social History (London: William Dawsons, 1974); D. J. Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural, and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Garland, 1982), esp. chap. 7, "Commissioners, Workhouses, and Pauper Lunatics, 1845-90," 134-58; Ann Digby, "Moral Treatment at the Retreat, 1796-1846," in Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, The Anatomy of Madness, 2:52-72; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine; Andrew Scull, "A Victorian
27. There is a growing literature on nineteenth-century British asylums and insanity and particularly pauper lunacy. For the most recent, see Leonard D. Smith, "Cure, Comfort and Safe Custody": Public Lunatic Asylums in Early Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Cassell Academic, 1999). Richard Adair, Bill Forsythe, and Joseph Melling have undertaken a detailed study of Devon in a series of articles: "The New Poor Law and the County Pauper Lunatic Asylum - The Devon Experience, 1834-1884," Social History of Medicine 9, no. 3 (December 1996): 335-55; "'A Proper Lunatic for Two Years': Pauper Lunatic Children in Victorian and Edwardian England. Child Admissions to the Devon County Asylum," Journal of Social History (winter 1997): 371-405; "Migration, Family Structure and Pauper Lunacy in Victorian England: Admissions to the Devon Country Pauper Lunatic Asylum, 1845-1900," Continuity and Change 12, no. 3 (1997): 373-401; and "A Danger to the Public? Disposing of Pauper Lunatics in late-Victorian and Edwardian England: Plympton St. Mary Union and the Devon County Asylum, 1867-1914," Medical History 42, no. 1 (1998): 1-25. In addition, see John Walton, "The Treatment of Pauper Lunatics in Victorian England: The Case of Lancaster Asylum, 1816-1870," in Madhouses, Mad-Doctors, and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era, ed. Andrew Scull (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 166-97; John Walton, "Lunacy in the Industrial Revolution: A Study of Asylum Admissions in Lancashire, 1848-1850," Journal of Social History 13 (fall 1979): 2-22; John Walton, "Casting Out and Bringing Back in Victorian England: Pauper Lunatics, 1840-1970," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume II: Institutions and Society, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 132-46; Richard Hunter and Ida Macalpine, Psychiatry for the Poor: 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum - Friem Hospital 1973. A Medical and Social History (London: William Dawsons, 1974); D. J. Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural, and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Garland, 1982), esp. chap. 7, "Commissioners, Workhouses, and Pauper Lunatics, 1845-90," 134-58; Ann Digby, "Moral Treatment at the Retreat, 1796-1846," in Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, The Anatomy of Madness, 2:52-72; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine; Andrew Scull, "A Victorian Alienist: John Conolly, FRCP, DCL (1794-1866)," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume I: People and Ideas, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 103-50; Andrew Scull, "The Domestication of Madness," Medical History 27 (1983): 233-48; Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organization of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: St. Martin's, 1979); Andrew Scull, Masters of Bedlam: The Transformation of the Mad-Doctoring Trade (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Showalter, The Female Malady; Kathleen Jones, Lunacy, Law, and Conscience 1744-1845: The Social History of the Care of the Insane (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955); Michael Donnelly, Managing the Mind: A Study of Medical Psychology in Early Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Tavistock, 1983); and Marlene A. Arieno, Victorian Lunatics: A Social Epidemiology of Mental Illness in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (London: Associated University Presses, 1989).
28. There is a growing literature on nineteenth-century British asylums and insanity and particularly pauper lunacy. For the most recent, see Leonard D. Smith, "Cure, Comfort and Safe Custody": Public Lunatic Asylums in Early Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Cassell Academic, 1999). Richard Adair, Bill Forsythe, and Joseph Melling have undertaken a detailed study of Devon in a series of articles: "The New Poor Law and the County Pauper Lunatic Asylum - The Devon Experience, 1834-1884," Social History of Medicine 9, no. 3 (December 1996): 335-55; "'A Proper Lunatic for Two Years': Pauper Lunatic Children in Victorian and Edwardian England. Child Admissions to the Devon County Asylum," Journal of Social History (winter 1997): 371-405; "Migration, Family Structure and Pauper Lunacy in Victorian England: Admissions to the Devon Country Pauper Lunatic Asylum, 1845-1900," Continuity and Change 12, no. 3 (1997): 373-401; and "A Danger to the Public? Disposing of Pauper Lunatics in late-Victorian and Edwardian England: Plympton St. Mary Union and the Devon County Asylum, 1867-1914," Medical History 42, no. 1 (1998): 1-25. In addition, see John Walton, "The Treatment of Pauper Lunatics in Victorian England: The Case of Lancaster Asylum, 1816-1870," in Madhouses, Mad-Doctors, and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era, ed. Andrew Scull (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 166-97; John Walton, "Lunacy in the Industrial Revolution: A Study of Asylum Admissions in Lancashire, 1848-1850," Journal of Social History 13 (fall 1979): 2-22; John Walton, "Casting Out and Bringing Back in Victorian England: Pauper Lunatics, 1840-1970," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume II: Institutions and Society, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 132-46; Richard Hunter and Ida Macalpine, Psychiatry for the Poor: 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum - Friem Hospital 1973. A Medical and Social History (London: William Dawsons, 1974); D. J. Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural, and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Garland, 1982), esp. chap. 7, "Commissioners, Workhouses, and Pauper Lunatics, 1845-90," 134-58; Ann Digby, "Moral Treatment at the Retreat, 1796-1846," in Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, The Anatomy of Madness, 2:52-72; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine; Andrew Scull, "A Victorian Alienist: John Conolly, FRCP, DCL (1794-1866)," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume I: People and Ideas, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 103-50; Andrew Scull, "The Domestication of Madness," Medical History 27 (1983): 233-48; Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organization of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: St. Martin's, 1979); Andrew Scull, Masters of Bedlam: The Transformation of the Mad-Doctoring Trade (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Showalter, The Female Malady; Kathleen Jones, Lunacy, Law, and Conscience 1744-1845: The Social History of the Care of the Insane (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955); Michael Donnelly, Managing the Mind: A Study of Medical Psychology in Early Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Tavistock, 1983); and Marlene A. Arieno, Victorian Lunatics: A Social Epidemiology of Mental Illness in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (London: Associated University Presses, 1989).
29. There is a growing literature on nineteenth-century British asylums and insanity and particularly pauper lunacy. For the most recent, see Leonard D. Smith, "Cure, Comfort and Safe Custody": Public Lunatic Asylums in Early Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Cassell Academic, 1999). Richard Adair, Bill Forsythe, and Joseph Melling have undertaken a detailed study of Devon in a series of articles: "The New Poor Law and the County Pauper Lunatic Asylum - The Devon Experience, 1834-1884," Social History of Medicine 9, no. 3 (December 1996): 335-55; "'A Proper Lunatic for Two Years': Pauper Lunatic Children in Victorian and Edwardian England. Child Admissions to the Devon County Asylum," Journal of Social History (winter 1997): 371-405; "Migration, Family Structure and Pauper Lunacy in Victorian England: Admissions to the Devon Country Pauper Lunatic Asylum, 1845-1900," Continuity and Change 12, no. 3 (1997): 373-401; and "A Danger to the Public? Disposing of Pauper Lunatics in late-Victorian and Edwardian England: Plympton St. Mary Union and the Devon County Asylum, 1867-1914," Medical History 42, no. 1 (1998): 1-25. In addition, see John Walton, "The Treatment of Pauper Lunatics in Victorian England: The Case of Lancaster Asylum, 1816-1870," in Madhouses, Mad-Doctors, and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era, ed. Andrew Scull (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 166-97; John Walton, "Lunacy in the Industrial Revolution: A Study of Asylum Admissions in Lancashire, 1848-1850," Journal of Social History 13 (fall 1979): 2-22; John Walton, "Casting Out and Bringing Back in Victorian England: Pauper Lunatics, 1840-1970," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume II: Institutions and Society, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 132-46; Richard Hunter and Ida Macalpine, Psychiatry for the Poor: 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum - Friem Hospital 1973. A Medical and Social History (London: William Dawsons, 1974); D. J. Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural, and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Garland, 1982), esp. chap. 7, "Commissioners, Workhouses, and Pauper Lunatics, 1845-90," 134-58; Ann Digby, "Moral Treatment at the Retreat, 1796-1846," in Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, The Anatomy of Madness, 2:52-72; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine; Andrew Scull, "A Victorian Alienist: John Conolly, FRCP, DCL (1794-1866)," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume I: People and Ideas, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 103-50; Andrew Scull, "The Domestication of Madness," Medical History 27 (1983): 233-48; Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organization of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: St. Martin's, 1979); Andrew Scull, Masters of Bedlam: The Transformation of the Mad-Doctoring Trade (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Showalter, The Female Malady; Kathleen Jones, Lunacy, Law, and Conscience 1744-1845: The Social History of the Care of the Insane (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955); Michael Donnelly, Managing the Mind: A Study of Medical Psychology in Early Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Tavistock, 1983); and Marlene A. Arieno, Victorian Lunatics: A Social Epidemiology of Mental Illness in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (London: Associated University Presses, 1989).
30. There is a growing literature on nineteenth-century British asylums and insanity and particularly pauper lunacy. For the most recent, see Leonard D. Smith, "Cure, Comfort and Safe Custody": Public Lunatic Asylums in Early Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Cassell Academic, 1999). Richard Adair, Bill Forsythe, and Joseph Melling have undertaken a detailed study of Devon in a series of articles: "The New Poor Law and the County Pauper Lunatic Asylum - The Devon Experience, 1834-1884," Social History of Medicine 9, no. 3 (December 1996): 335-55; "'A Proper Lunatic for Two Years': Pauper Lunatic Children in Victorian and Edwardian England. Child Admissions to the Devon County Asylum," Journal of Social History (winter 1997): 371-405; "Migration, Family Structure and Pauper Lunacy in Victorian England: Admissions to the Devon Country Pauper Lunatic Asylum, 1845-1900," Continuity and Change 12, no. 3 (1997): 373-401; and "A Danger to the Public? Disposing of Pauper Lunatics in late-Victorian and Edwardian England: Plympton St. Mary Union and the Devon County Asylum, 1867-1914," Medical History 42, no. 1 (1998): 1-25. In addition, see John Walton, "The Treatment of Pauper Lunatics in Victorian England: The Case of Lancaster Asylum, 1816-1870," in Madhouses, Mad-Doctors, and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era, ed. Andrew Scull (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 166-97; John Walton, "Lunacy in the Industrial Revolution: A Study of Asylum Admissions in Lancashire, 1848-1850," Journal of Social History 13 (fall 1979): 2-22; John Walton, "Casting Out and Bringing Back in Victorian England: Pauper Lunatics, 1840-1970," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume II: Institutions and Society, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 132-46; Richard Hunter and Ida Macalpine, Psychiatry for the Poor: 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum - Friem Hospital 1973. A Medical and Social History (London: William Dawsons, 1974); D. J. Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural, and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Garland, 1982), esp. chap. 7, "Commissioners, Workhouses, and Pauper Lunatics, 1845-90," 134-58; Ann Digby, "Moral Treatment at the Retreat, 1796-1846," in Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, The Anatomy of Madness, 2:52-72; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine; Andrew Scull, "A Victorian Alienist: John Conolly, FRCP, DCL (1794-1866)," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume I: People and Ideas, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 103-50; Andrew Scull, "The Domestication of Madness," Medical History 27 (1983): 233-48; Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organization of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: St. Martin's, 1979); Andrew Scull, Masters of Bedlam: The Transformation of the Mad-Doctoring Trade (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Showalter, The Female Malady; Kathleen Jones, Lunacy, Law, and Conscience 1744-1845: The Social History of the Care of the Insane (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955); Michael Donnelly, Managing the Mind: A Study of Medical Psychology in Early Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Tavistock, 1983); and Marlene A. Arieno, Victorian Lunatics: A Social Epidemiology of Mental Illness in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (London: Associated University Presses, 1989).
31. There is a growing literature on nineteenth-century British asylums and insanity and particularly pauper lunacy. For the most recent, see Leonard D. Smith, "Cure, Comfort and Safe Custody": Public Lunatic Asylums in Early Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Cassell Academic, 1999). Richard Adair, Bill Forsythe, and Joseph Melling have undertaken a detailed study of Devon in a series of articles: "The New Poor Law and the County Pauper Lunatic Asylum - The Devon Experience, 1834-1884," Social History of Medicine 9, no. 3 (December 1996): 335-55; "'A Proper Lunatic for Two Years': Pauper Lunatic Children in Victorian and Edwardian England. Child Admissions to the Devon County Asylum," Journal of Social History (winter 1997): 371-405; "Migration, Family Structure and Pauper Lunacy in Victorian England: Admissions to the Devon Country Pauper Lunatic Asylum, 1845-1900," Continuity and Change 12, no. 3 (1997): 373-401; and "A Danger to the Public? Disposing of Pauper Lunatics in late-Victorian and Edwardian England: Plympton St. Mary Union and the Devon County Asylum, 1867-1914," Medical History 42, no. 1 (1998): 1-25. In addition, see John Walton, "The Treatment of Pauper Lunatics in Victorian England: The Case of Lancaster Asylum, 1816-1870," in Madhouses, Mad-Doctors, and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era, ed. Andrew Scull (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 166-97; John Walton, "Lunacy in the Industrial Revolution: A Study of Asylum Admissions in Lancashire, 1848-1850," Journal of Social History 13 (fall 1979): 2-22; John Walton, "Casting Out and Bringing Back in Victorian England: Pauper Lunatics, 1840-1970," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume II: Institutions and Society, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 132-46; Richard Hunter and Ida Macalpine, Psychiatry for the Poor: 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum - Friem Hospital 1973. A Medical and Social History (London: William Dawsons, 1974); D. J. Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural, and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Garland, 1982), esp. chap. 7, "Commissioners, Workhouses, and Pauper Lunatics, 1845-90," 134-58; Ann Digby, "Moral Treatment at the Retreat, 1796-1846," in Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, The Anatomy of Madness, 2:52-72; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine; Andrew Scull, "A Victorian Alienist: John Conolly, FRCP, DCL (1794-1866)," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume I: People and Ideas, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 103-50; Andrew Scull, "The Domestication of Madness," Medical History 27 (1983): 233-48; Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organization of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: St. Martin's, 1979); Andrew Scull, Masters of Bedlam: The Transformation of the Mad-Doctoring Trade (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Showalter, The Female Malady; Kathleen Jones, Lunacy, Law, and Conscience 1744-1845: The Social History of the Care of the Insane (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955); Michael Donnelly, Managing the Mind: A Study of Medical Psychology in Early Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Tavistock, 1983); and Marlene A. Arieno, Victorian Lunatics: A Social Epidemiology of Mental Illness in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (London: Associated University Presses, 1989).
32. There is a growing literature on nineteenth-century British asylums and insanity and particularly pauper lunacy. For the most recent, see Leonard D. Smith, "Cure, Comfort and Safe Custody": Public Lunatic Asylums in Early Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Cassell Academic, 1999). Richard Adair, Bill Forsythe, and Joseph Melling have undertaken a detailed study of Devon in a series of articles: "The New Poor Law and the County Pauper Lunatic Asylum - The Devon Experience, 1834-1884," Social History of Medicine 9, no. 3 (December 1996): 335-55; "'A Proper Lunatic for Two Years': Pauper Lunatic Children in Victorian and Edwardian England. Child Admissions to the Devon County Asylum," Journal of Social History (winter 1997): 371-405; "Migration, Family Structure and Pauper Lunacy in Victorian England: Admissions to the Devon Country Pauper Lunatic Asylum, 1845-1900," Continuity and Change 12, no. 3 (1997): 373-401; and "A Danger to the Public? Disposing of Pauper Lunatics in late-Victorian and Edwardian England: Plympton St. Mary Union and the Devon County Asylum, 1867-1914," Medical History 42, no. 1 (1998): 1-25. In addition, see John Walton, "The Treatment of Pauper Lunatics in Victorian England: The Case of Lancaster Asylum, 1816-1870," in Madhouses, Mad-Doctors, and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era, ed. Andrew Scull (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 166-97; John Walton, "Lunacy in the Industrial Revolution: A Study of Asylum Admissions in Lancashire, 1848-1850," Journal of Social History 13 (fall 1979): 2-22; John Walton, "Casting Out and Bringing Back in Victorian England: Pauper Lunatics, 1840-1970," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume II: Institutions and Society, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 132-46; Richard Hunter and Ida Macalpine, Psychiatry for the Poor: 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum - Friem Hospital 1973. A Medical and Social History (London: William Dawsons, 1974); D. J. Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural, and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Garland, 1982), esp. chap. 7, "Commissioners, Workhouses, and Pauper Lunatics, 1845-90," 134-58; Ann Digby, "Moral Treatment at the Retreat, 1796-1846," in Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, The Anatomy of Madness, 2:52-72; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine; Andrew Scull, "A Victorian Alienist: John Conolly, FRCP, DCL (1794-1866)," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume I: People and Ideas, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 103-50; Andrew Scull, "The Domestication of Madness," Medical History 27 (1983): 233-48; Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organization of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: St. Martin's, 1979); Andrew Scull, Masters of Bedlam: The Transformation of the Mad-Doctoring Trade (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Showalter, The Female Malady; Kathleen Jones, Lunacy, Law, and Conscience 1744-1845: The Social History of the Care of the Insane (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955); Michael Donnelly, Managing the Mind: A Study of Medical Psychology in Early Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Tavistock, 1983); and Marlene A. Arieno, Victorian Lunatics: A Social Epidemiology of Mental Illness in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (London: Associated University Presses, 1989).
33. There is a growing literature on nineteenth-century British asylums and insanity and particularly pauper lunacy. For the most recent, see Leonard D. Smith, "Cure, Comfort and Safe Custody": Public Lunatic Asylums in Early Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Cassell Academic, 1999). Richard Adair, Bill Forsythe, and Joseph Melling have undertaken a detailed study of Devon in a series of articles: "The New Poor Law and the County Pauper Lunatic Asylum - The Devon Experience, 1834-1884," Social History of Medicine 9, no. 3 (December 1996): 335-55; "'A Proper Lunatic for Two Years': Pauper Lunatic Children in Victorian and Edwardian England. Child Admissions to the Devon County Asylum," Journal of Social History (winter 1997): 371-405; "Migration, Family Structure and Pauper Lunacy in Victorian England: Admissions to the Devon Country Pauper Lunatic Asylum, 1845-1900," Continuity and Change 12, no. 3 (1997): 373-401; and "A Danger to the Public? Disposing of Pauper Lunatics in late-Victorian and Edwardian England: Plympton St. Mary Union and the Devon County Asylum, 1867-1914," Medical History 42, no. 1 (1998): 1-25. In addition, see John Walton, "The Treatment of Pauper Lunatics in Victorian England: The Case of Lancaster Asylum, 1816-1870," in Madhouses, Mad-Doctors, and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era, ed. Andrew Scull (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 166-97; John Walton, "Lunacy in the Industrial Revolution: A Study of Asylum Admissions in Lancashire, 1848-1850," Journal of Social History 13 (fall 1979): 2-22; John Walton, "Casting Out and Bringing Back in Victorian England: Pauper Lunatics, 1840-1970," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume II: Institutions and Society, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 132-46; Richard Hunter and Ida Macalpine, Psychiatry for the Poor: 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum - Friem Hospital 1973. A Medical and Social History (London: William Dawsons, 1974); D. J. Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural, and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Garland, 1982), esp. chap. 7, "Commissioners, Workhouses, and Pauper Lunatics, 1845-90," 134-58; Ann Digby, "Moral Treatment at the Retreat, 1796-1846," in Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, The Anatomy of Madness, 2:52-72; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine; Andrew Scull, "A Victorian Alienist: John Conolly, FRCP, DCL (1794-1866)," in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. Volume I: People and Ideas, eds. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 103-50; Andrew Scull, "The Domestication of Madness," Medical History 27 (1983): 233-48; Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organization of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: St. Martin's, 1979); Andrew Scull, Masters of Bedlam: The Transformation of the Mad-Doctoring Trade (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Showalter, The Female Malady; Kathleen Jones, Lunacy, Law, and Conscience 1744-1845: The Social History of the Care of the Insane (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955); Michael Donnelly, Managing the Mind: A Study of Medical Psychology in Early Nineteenth-Century Britain (New York: Tavistock, 1983); and Marlene A. Arieno, Victorian Lunatics: A Social Epidemiology of Mental Illness in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (London: Associated University Presses, 1989).
34. Michel Foucault, Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in an Age of Reason (New York: Vintage, 1965); see the work of the historian Andrew Scull as an introduction to this approach.
35. David Wright, "Getting Out of the Asylum: Understanding the Confinement of the Insane in the Nineteenth Century," Social History of Medicine 10, no. 1 (1997): 154.
36. Wright, "Getting Out of the Asylum," 139. See also the work of John Walton, especially "Casting Out and Bringing Back in Victorian England."
37. Wright, "Getting Out of the Asylum," 139. See also the work of John Walton, especially "Casting Out and Bringing Back in Victorian England."
38. Charlotte MacKenzie, Psychiatry for the Rich: A History of Ticehurst Private Asylum, 1792-1917 (New York: Routledge, 1992), 102-06, quote on 102.
39. The impact of psychiatry on the confinement of the pauper insane has come under question from other fronts as well. Forsythe, Melling, and Adair, for example, argue that "institutional factors were often as important as medical discourses in determining the disposal of the pauper lunatic. Our evidence indicates that the micro-politics of Poor Law administration was of much more significance and much more complex than historians of medicine have usually acknowledged." "The New Poor Law," 354.
40. For histories of the asylum, see Joseph Shaw Bolton, "The Evolution of a Mental Hospital - Wakefield, 1818-1928," Journal of Mental Science 74, no. 307 (1928): 587-633; A. L. Ashworth, Stanley Royd Hospital Wakefield, One Hundred and Fifty Years: A History (London: Berrico, 1975); and John Todd and Lawrence Ashworth, "The West Riding Asylum and James Crichton-Browne, 1818-76," in 150 Years of British Psychiatry, 1841-1991, eds. German E. Berrios and Hugh Freeman (London: Gaskell, 1991), 389-418.
41. For histories of the asylum, see Joseph Shaw Bolton, "The Evolution of a Mental Hospital - Wakefield, 1818-1928," Journal of Mental Science 74, no. 307 (1928): 587-633; A. L. Ashworth, Stanley Royd Hospital Wakefield, One Hundred and Fifty Years: A History (London: Berrico, 1975); and John Todd and Lawrence Ashworth, "The West Riding Asylum and James Crichton-Browne, 1818-76," in 150 Years of British Psychiatry, 1841-1991, eds. German E. Berrios and Hugh Freeman (London: Gaskell, 1991), 389-418.
42. For histories of the asylum, see Joseph Shaw Bolton, "The Evolution of a Mental Hospital - Wakefield, 1818-1928," Journal of Mental Science 74, no. 307 (1928): 587-633; A. L. Ashworth, Stanley Royd Hospital Wakefield, One Hundred and Fifty Years: A History (London: Berrico, 1975); and John Todd and Lawrence Ashworth, "The West Riding Asylum and James Crichton-Browne, 1818-76," in 150 Years of British Psychiatry, 1841-1991, eds. German E. Berrios and Hugh Freeman (London: Gaskell, 1991), 389-418.
43. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/108, Annual Report for 1844. For specific discussions of the issues surrounding moral treatment, see, for example, Scull, "The Domestication of Madness"; Porter, Mind-Forg'd Manacles, 222-28; and Showalter, The Female Malady, chap. 1, "Domesticating Insanity: John Conolly and Moral Management," 23-50.
44. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/108, Annual Report for 1844. For specific discussions of the issues surrounding moral treatment, see, for example, Scull, "The Domestication of Madness"; Porter, Mind-Forg'd Manacles, 222-28; and Showalter, The Female Malady, chap. 1, "Domesticating Insanity: John Conolly and Moral Management," 23-50.
45. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/108, Annual Report for 1844. For specific discussions of the issues surrounding moral treatment, see, for example, Scull, "The Domestication of Madness"; Porter, Mind-Forg'd Manacles, 222-28; and Showalter, The Female Malady, chap. 1, "Domesticating Insanity: John Conolly and Moral Management," 23-50.
46. Todd and Ashworth, "The West Riding Asylum," 390.
47. Pliny Earle, A Visit to 13 Asylums for the Insane (Philadelphia: J. Dobson, 1841), 11.
48. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/108, "The Twentieth Report of the Director of the West-Riding of York Pauper Lunatic Asylum," 1839.
49. Hunter and Macalpine, Psychiatry for the Poor, 125-27.
50. For a close study of the connections between pauper insanity and the Poor Law, see Forsythe, Melling, and Adair, "The New Poor Law," and "A Danger to the Public?" The New Poor Law has occupied historians for many years. For overviews of historical debates surrounding the Poor Law, see Anne Digby, The Poor Law in Nineteenth-Century England and Wales (London: The Historical Association, 1982); and Michael Rose, The Relief of Poverty, 1834-1914, 2d ed. (London: Macmillan, 1986). Some important work of the past quarter century on the New Poor Law and its effect on the poor includes Anne Digby, Pauper Palaces (Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1978); Derek Fraser, ed., The New Poor Law in the Nineteenth Century (New York: St. Martin's, 1976); Michael Rose, ed., The Poor and the City: The English Poor Law in its Urban Context, 1834-1914 (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1985); Anthony Brundage, The Making of the New Poor Law: The Politics of Inquiry, Enactment, and Implementation, 1832-1839 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1978); Peter Wood, Poverty and the Workhouse in Victorian Britain (Wolfeboro Falls, NH: Sutton, 1991); Felix Driver, Power and Pauperism: The Workhouse System, 1834-1884 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993); and Lynn Hollen Lees, The Solidarities of Strangers: The English Poor Laws and the People, 1700-1948 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
51. For a close study of the connections between pauper insanity and the Poor Law, see Forsythe, Melling, and Adair, "The New Poor Law," and "A Danger to the Public?" The New Poor Law has occupied historians for many years. For overviews of historical debates surrounding the Poor Law, see Anne Digby, The Poor Law in Nineteenth-Century England and Wales (London: The Historical Association, 1982); and Michael Rose, The Relief of Poverty, 1834-1914, 2d ed. (London: Macmillan, 1986). Some important work of the past quarter century on the New Poor Law and its effect on the poor includes Anne Digby, Pauper Palaces (Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1978); Derek Fraser, ed., The New Poor Law in the Nineteenth Century (New York: St. Martin's, 1976); Michael Rose, ed., The Poor and the City: The English Poor Law in its Urban Context, 1834-1914 (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1985); Anthony Brundage, The Making of the New Poor Law: The Politics of Inquiry, Enactment, and Implementation, 1832-1839 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1978); Peter Wood, Poverty and the Workhouse in Victorian Britain (Wolfeboro Falls, NH: Sutton, 1991); Felix Driver, Power and Pauperism: The Workhouse System, 1834-1884 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993); and Lynn Hollen Lees, The Solidarities of Strangers: The English Poor Laws and the People, 1700-1948 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
52. For a close study of the connections between pauper insanity and the Poor Law, see Forsythe, Melling, and Adair, "The New Poor Law," and "A Danger to the Public?" The New Poor Law has occupied historians for many years. For overviews of historical debates surrounding the Poor Law, see Anne Digby, The Poor Law in Nineteenth-Century England and Wales (London: The Historical Association, 1982); and Michael Rose, The Relief of Poverty, 1834-1914, 2d ed. (London: Macmillan, 1986). Some important work of the past quarter century on the New Poor Law and its effect on the poor includes Anne Digby, Pauper Palaces (Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1978); Derek Fraser, ed., The New Poor Law in the Nineteenth Century (New York: St. Martin's, 1976); Michael Rose, ed., The Poor and the City: The English Poor Law in its Urban Context, 1834-1914 (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1985); Anthony Brundage, The Making of the New Poor Law: The Politics of Inquiry, Enactment, and Implementation, 1832-1839 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1978); Peter Wood, Poverty and the Workhouse in Victorian Britain (Wolfeboro Falls, NH: Sutton, 1991); Felix Driver, Power and Pauperism: The Workhouse System, 1834-1884 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993); and Lynn Hollen Lees, The Solidarities of Strangers: The English Poor Laws and the People, 1700-1948 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
53. For a close study of the connections between pauper insanity and the Poor Law, see Forsythe, Melling, and Adair, "The New Poor Law," and "A Danger to the Public?" The New Poor Law has occupied historians for many years. For overviews of historical debates surrounding the Poor Law, see Anne Digby, The Poor Law in Nineteenth-Century England and Wales (London: The Historical Association, 1982); and Michael Rose, The Relief of Poverty, 1834-1914, 2d ed. (London: Macmillan, 1986). Some important work of the past quarter century on the New Poor Law and its effect on the poor includes Anne Digby, Pauper Palaces (Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1978); Derek Fraser, ed., The New Poor Law in the Nineteenth Century (New York: St. Martin's, 1976); Michael Rose, ed., The Poor and the City: The English Poor Law in its Urban Context, 1834-1914 (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1985); Anthony Brundage, The Making of the New Poor Law: The Politics of Inquiry, Enactment, and Implementation, 1832-1839 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1978); Peter Wood, Poverty and the Workhouse in Victorian Britain (Wolfeboro Falls, NH: Sutton, 1991); Felix Driver, Power and Pauperism: The Workhouse System, 1834-1884 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993); and Lynn Hollen Lees, The Solidarities of Strangers: The English Poor Laws and the People, 1700-1948 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
54. For a close study of the connections between pauper insanity and the Poor Law, see Forsythe, Melling, and Adair, "The New Poor Law," and "A Danger to the Public?" The New Poor Law has occupied historians for many years. For overviews of historical debates surrounding the Poor Law, see Anne Digby, The Poor Law in Nineteenth-Century England and Wales (London: The Historical Association, 1982); and Michael Rose, The Relief of Poverty, 1834-1914, 2d ed. (London: Macmillan, 1986). Some important work of the past quarter century on the New Poor Law and its effect on the poor includes Anne Digby, Pauper Palaces (Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1978); Derek Fraser, ed., The New Poor Law in the Nineteenth Century (New York: St. Martin's, 1976); Michael Rose, ed., The Poor and the City: The English Poor Law in its Urban Context, 1834-1914 (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1985); Anthony Brundage, The Making of the New Poor Law: The Politics of Inquiry, Enactment, and Implementation, 1832-1839 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1978); Peter Wood, Poverty and the Workhouse in Victorian Britain (Wolfeboro Falls, NH: Sutton, 1991); Felix Driver, Power and Pauperism: The Workhouse System, 1834-1884 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993); and Lynn Hollen Lees, The Solidarities of Strangers: The English Poor Laws and the People, 1700-1948 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
55. For a close study of the connections between pauper insanity and the Poor Law, see Forsythe, Melling, and Adair, "The New Poor Law," and "A Danger to the Public?" The New Poor Law has occupied historians for many years. For overviews of historical debates surrounding the Poor Law, see Anne Digby, The Poor Law in Nineteenth-Century England and Wales (London: The Historical Association, 1982); and Michael Rose, The Relief of Poverty, 1834-1914, 2d ed. (London: Macmillan, 1986). Some important work of the past quarter century on the New Poor Law and its effect on the poor includes Anne Digby, Pauper Palaces (Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1978); Derek Fraser, ed., The New Poor Law in the Nineteenth Century (New York: St. Martin's, 1976); Michael Rose, ed., The Poor and the City: The English Poor Law in its Urban Context, 1834-1914 (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1985); Anthony Brundage, The Making of the New Poor Law: The Politics of Inquiry, Enactment, and Implementation, 1832-1839 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1978); Peter Wood, Poverty and the Workhouse in Victorian Britain (Wolfeboro Falls, NH: Sutton, 1991); Felix Driver, Power and Pauperism: The Workhouse System, 1834-1884 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993); and Lynn Hollen Lees, The Solidarities of Strangers: The English Poor Laws and the People, 1700-1948 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
56. For a close study of the connections between pauper insanity and the Poor Law, see Forsythe, Melling, and Adair, "The New Poor Law," and "A Danger to the Public?" The New Poor Law has occupied historians for many years. For overviews of historical debates surrounding the Poor Law, see Anne Digby, The Poor Law in Nineteenth-Century England and Wales (London: The Historical Association, 1982); and Michael Rose, The Relief of Poverty, 1834-1914, 2d ed. (London: Macmillan, 1986). Some important work of the past quarter century on the New Poor Law and its effect on the poor includes Anne Digby, Pauper Palaces (Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1978); Derek Fraser, ed., The New Poor Law in the Nineteenth Century (New York: St. Martin's, 1976); Michael Rose, ed., The Poor and the City: The English Poor Law in its Urban Context, 1834-1914 (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1985); Anthony Brundage, The Making of the New Poor Law: The Politics of Inquiry, Enactment, and Implementation, 1832-1839 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1978); Peter Wood, Poverty and the Workhouse in Victorian Britain (Wolfeboro Falls, NH: Sutton, 1991); Felix Driver, Power and Pauperism: The Workhouse System, 1834-1884 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993); and Lynn Hollen Lees, The Solidarities of Strangers: The English Poor Laws and the People, 1700-1948 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
57. For a close study of the connections between pauper insanity and the Poor Law, see Forsythe, Melling, and Adair, "The New Poor Law," and "A Danger to the Public?" The New Poor Law has occupied historians for many years. For overviews of historical debates surrounding the Poor Law, see Anne Digby, The Poor Law in Nineteenth-Century England and Wales (London: The Historical Association, 1982); and Michael Rose, The Relief of Poverty, 1834-1914, 2d ed. (London: Macmillan, 1986). Some important work of the past quarter century on the New Poor Law and its effect on the poor includes Anne Digby, Pauper Palaces (Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1978); Derek Fraser, ed., The New Poor Law in the Nineteenth Century (New York: St. Martin's, 1976); Michael Rose, ed., The Poor and the City: The English Poor Law in its Urban Context, 1834-1914 (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1985); Anthony Brundage, The Making of the New Poor Law: The Politics of Inquiry, Enactment, and Implementation, 1832-1839 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1978); Peter Wood, Poverty and the Workhouse in Victorian Britain (Wolfeboro Falls, NH: Sutton, 1991); Felix Driver, Power and Pauperism: The Workhouse System, 1834-1884 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993); and Lynn Hollen Lees, The Solidarities of Strangers: The English Poor Laws and the People, 1700-1948 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
58. For a close study of the connections between pauper insanity and the Poor Law, see Forsythe, Melling, and Adair, "The New Poor Law," and "A Danger to the Public?" The New Poor Law has occupied historians for many years. For overviews of historical debates surrounding the Poor Law, see Anne Digby, The Poor Law in Nineteenth-Century England and Wales (London: The Historical Association, 1982); and Michael Rose, The Relief of Poverty, 1834-1914, 2d ed. (London: Macmillan, 1986). Some important work of the past quarter century on the New Poor Law and its effect on the poor includes Anne Digby, Pauper Palaces (Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1978); Derek Fraser, ed., The New Poor Law in the Nineteenth Century (New York: St. Martin's, 1976); Michael Rose, ed., The Poor and the City: The English Poor Law in its Urban Context, 1834-1914 (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1985); Anthony Brundage, The Making of the New Poor Law: The Politics of Inquiry, Enactment, and Implementation, 1832-1839 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1978); Peter Wood, Poverty and the Workhouse in Victorian Britain (Wolfeboro Falls, NH: Sutton, 1991); Felix Driver, Power and Pauperism: The Workhouse System, 1834-1884 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993); and Lynn Hollen Lees, The Solidarities of Strangers: The English Poor Laws and the People, 1700-1948 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
59. For a close study of the connections between pauper insanity and the Poor Law, see Forsythe, Melling, and Adair, "The New Poor Law," and "A Danger to the Public?" The New Poor Law has occupied historians for many years. For overviews of historical debates surrounding the Poor Law, see Anne Digby, The Poor Law in Nineteenth-Century England and Wales (London: The Historical Association, 1982); and Michael Rose, The Relief of Poverty, 1834-1914, 2d ed. (London: Macmillan, 1986). Some important work of the past quarter century on the New Poor Law and its effect on the poor includes Anne Digby, Pauper Palaces (Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1978); Derek Fraser, ed., The New Poor Law in the Nineteenth Century (New York: St. Martin's, 1976); Michael Rose, ed., The Poor and the City: The English Poor Law in its Urban Context, 1834-1914 (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1985); Anthony Brundage, The Making of the New Poor Law: The Politics of Inquiry, Enactment, and Implementation, 1832-1839 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1978); Peter Wood, Poverty and the Workhouse in Victorian Britain (Wolfeboro Falls, NH: Sutton, 1991); Felix Driver, Power and Pauperism: The Workhouse System, 1834-1884 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993); and Lynn Hollen Lees, The Solidarities of Strangers: The English Poor Laws and the People, 1700-1948 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
60. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/108, Annual Reports, 1844, 10.
61. Hunter and Macalpine, Psychiatry for the Poor, 131-32.
62. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/850, Female Case Book F10, 18.
63. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/846, Female Case Book F6, 204.
64. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/848, Female Case Book F8, 278.
65. Showalter analyzes photographs of asylum patients in The Female Malady, 84-98; 150-55.
66. Showalter analyzes photographs of asylum patients in The Female Malady, 84-98; 150-55.
67. For discussions of women's work in the early Victorian years, see Louise Tilly and Joan Scott, "Industrialization and the Family Wage Economy," pt. 2 of Women, Work and Family (New York: Routledge, 1987, rev. 1978); Sally Alexander, "Women's Work in Nineteenth-Century London: A Study of the Years 1820-60s," in Becoming a Woman and Other Essays in 19th and 20th Century Feminist History (New York: New York University Press, 1995; originally published 1976); Angela John, ed., Unequal Opportunities: Women 's Employment in England 1800-1918 (New York: Basil Blackwell, 1986); Sonya Rose, Limited Livelihoods: Gender and Class in Nineteenth-Century England (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Ivy Pinchbeck, Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution 1750-1850, new ed. (London: Frank Cass, 1977); Judy Lown, Women and Industrialization: Gender at Work in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Oxford, 1990); Pamela Sharpe, Adapting to Capitalism: Working Women in the English Economy, 1700-1850 (New York: St. Martin's, 1996); and Maxine Berg, "Women's Work, Mechanisation and the Early Phases of Industrialisation in England," in The Historical Meanings of Work, ed. Patrick Joyce (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 64-98.
68. For discussions of women's work in the early Victorian years, see Louise Tilly and Joan Scott, "Industrialization and the Family Wage Economy," pt. 2 of Women, Work and Family (New York: Routledge, 1987, rev. 1978); Sally Alexander, "Women's Work in Nineteenth-Century London: A Study of the Years 1820-60s," in Becoming a Woman and Other Essays in 19th and 20th Century Feminist History (New York: New York University Press, 1995; originally published 1976); Angela John, ed., Unequal Opportunities: Women 's Employment in England 1800-1918 (New York: Basil Blackwell, 1986); Sonya Rose, Limited Livelihoods: Gender and Class in Nineteenth-Century England (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Ivy Pinchbeck, Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution 1750-1850, new ed. (London: Frank Cass, 1977); Judy Lown, Women and Industrialization: Gender at Work in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Oxford, 1990); Pamela Sharpe, Adapting to Capitalism: Working Women in the English Economy, 1700-1850 (New York: St. Martin's, 1996); and Maxine Berg, "Women's Work, Mechanisation and the Early Phases of Industrialisation in England," in The Historical Meanings of Work, ed. Patrick Joyce (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 64-98.
69. For discussions of women's work in the early Victorian years, see Louise Tilly and Joan Scott, "Industrialization and the Family Wage Economy," pt. 2 of Women, Work and Family (New York: Routledge, 1987, rev. 1978); Sally Alexander, "Women's Work in Nineteenth-Century London: A Study of the Years 1820-60s," in Becoming a Woman and Other Essays in 19th and 20th Century Feminist History (New York: New York University Press, 1995; originally published 1976); Angela John, ed., Unequal Opportunities: Women 's Employment in England 1800-1918 (New York: Basil Blackwell, 1986); Sonya Rose, Limited Livelihoods: Gender and Class in Nineteenth-Century England (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Ivy Pinchbeck, Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution 1750-1850, new ed. (London: Frank Cass, 1977); Judy Lown, Women and Industrialization: Gender at Work in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Oxford, 1990); Pamela Sharpe, Adapting to Capitalism: Working Women in the English Economy, 1700-1850 (New York: St. Martin's, 1996); and Maxine Berg, "Women's Work, Mechanisation and the Early Phases of Industrialisation in England," in The Historical Meanings of Work, ed. Patrick Joyce (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 64-98.
70. For discussions of women's work in the early Victorian years, see Louise Tilly and Joan Scott, "Industrialization and the Family Wage Economy," pt. 2 of Women, Work and Family (New York: Routledge, 1987, rev. 1978); Sally Alexander, "Women's Work in Nineteenth-Century London: A Study of the Years 1820-60s," in Becoming a Woman and Other Essays in 19th and 20th Century Feminist History (New York: New York University Press, 1995; originally published 1976); Angela John, ed., Unequal Opportunities: Women 's Employment in England 1800-1918 (New York: Basil Blackwell, 1986); Sonya Rose, Limited Livelihoods: Gender and Class in Nineteenth-Century England (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Ivy Pinchbeck, Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution 1750-1850, new ed. (London: Frank Cass, 1977); Judy Lown, Women and Industrialization: Gender at Work in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Oxford, 1990); Pamela Sharpe, Adapting to Capitalism: Working Women in the English Economy, 1700-1850 (New York: St. Martin's, 1996); and Maxine Berg, "Women's Work, Mechanisation and the Early Phases of Industrialisation in England," in The Historical Meanings of Work, ed. Patrick Joyce (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 64-98.
71. For discussions of women's work in the early Victorian years, see Louise Tilly and Joan Scott, "Industrialization and the Family Wage Economy," pt. 2 of Women, Work and Family (New York: Routledge, 1987, rev. 1978); Sally Alexander, "Women's Work in Nineteenth-Century London: A Study of the Years 1820-60s," in Becoming a Woman and Other Essays in 19th and 20th Century Feminist History (New York: New York University Press, 1995; originally published 1976); Angela John, ed., Unequal Opportunities: Women 's Employment in England 1800-1918 (New York: Basil Blackwell, 1986); Sonya Rose, Limited Livelihoods: Gender and Class in Nineteenth-Century England (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Ivy Pinchbeck, Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution 1750-1850, new ed. (London: Frank Cass, 1977); Judy Lown, Women and Industrialization: Gender at Work in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Oxford, 1990); Pamela Sharpe, Adapting to Capitalism: Working Women in the English Economy, 1700-1850 (New York: St. Martin's, 1996); and Maxine Berg, "Women's Work, Mechanisation and the Early Phases of Industrialisation in England," in The Historical Meanings of Work, ed. Patrick Joyce (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 64-98.
72. For discussions of women's work in the early Victorian years, see Louise Tilly and Joan Scott, "Industrialization and the Family Wage Economy," pt. 2 of Women, Work and Family (New York: Routledge, 1987, rev. 1978); Sally Alexander, "Women's Work in Nineteenth-Century London: A Study of the Years 1820-60s," in Becoming a Woman and Other Essays in 19th and 20th Century Feminist History (New York: New York University Press, 1995; originally published 1976); Angela John, ed., Unequal Opportunities: Women 's Employment in England 1800-1918 (New York: Basil Blackwell, 1986); Sonya Rose, Limited Livelihoods: Gender and Class in Nineteenth-Century England (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Ivy Pinchbeck, Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution 1750-1850, new ed. (London: Frank Cass, 1977); Judy Lown, Women and Industrialization: Gender at Work in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Oxford, 1990); Pamela Sharpe, Adapting to Capitalism: Working Women in the English Economy, 1700-1850 (New York: St. Martin's, 1996); and Maxine Berg, "Women's Work, Mechanisation and the Early Phases of Industrialisation in England," in The Historical Meanings of Work, ed. Patrick Joyce (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 64-98.
73. For discussions of women's work in the early Victorian years, see Louise Tilly and Joan Scott, "Industrialization and the Family Wage Economy," pt. 2 of Women, Work and Family (New York: Routledge, 1987, rev. 1978); Sally Alexander, "Women's Work in Nineteenth-Century London: A Study of the Years 1820-60s," in Becoming a Woman and Other Essays in 19th and 20th Century Feminist History (New York: New York University Press, 1995; originally published 1976); Angela John, ed., Unequal Opportunities: Women 's Employment in England 1800-1918 (New York: Basil Blackwell, 1986); Sonya Rose, Limited Livelihoods: Gender and Class in Nineteenth-Century England (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Ivy Pinchbeck, Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution 1750-1850, new ed. (London: Frank Cass, 1977); Judy Lown, Women and Industrialization: Gender at Work in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Oxford, 1990); Pamela Sharpe, Adapting to Capitalism: Working Women in the English Economy, 1700-1850 (New York: St. Martin's, 1996); and Maxine Berg, "Women's Work, Mechanisation and the Early Phases of Industrialisation in England," in The Historical Meanings of Work, ed. Patrick Joyce (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 64-98.
74. For discussions of women's work in the early Victorian years, see Louise Tilly and Joan Scott, "Industrialization and the Family Wage Economy," pt. 2 of Women, Work and Family (New York: Routledge, 1987, rev. 1978); Sally Alexander, "Women's Work in Nineteenth-Century London: A Study of the Years 1820-60s," in Becoming a Woman and Other Essays in 19th and 20th Century Feminist History (New York: New York University Press, 1995; originally published 1976); Angela John, ed., Unequal Opportunities: Women 's Employment in England 1800-1918 (New York: Basil Blackwell, 1986); Sonya Rose, Limited Livelihoods: Gender and Class in Nineteenth-Century England (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Ivy Pinchbeck, Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution 1750-1850, new ed. (London: Frank Cass, 1977); Judy Lown, Women and Industrialization: Gender at Work in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Oxford, 1990); Pamela Sharpe, Adapting to Capitalism: Working Women in the English Economy, 1700-1850 (New York: St. Martin's, 1996); and Maxine Berg, "Women's Work, Mechanisation and the Early Phases of Industrialisation in England," in The Historical Meanings of Work, ed. Patrick Joyce (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 64-98.
75. There is the vague category "domestic," which could mean either domestic service or domestic duties. Eighteen patient occupations were listed as domestic. I have figured this number into neither the service nor the household categories of labor.
76. This provides an interesting contrast to Anne Digby's study of the York Retreat, an institution whose inmates' class status varied much more widely than the West Riding Asylum. Digby's evidence shows that "single patients always predominated over the married or widowed." Madness, Morality, and Medicine, 175.
77. This provides an interesting contrast to Anne Digby's study of the York Retreat, an institution whose inmates' class status varied much more widely than the West Riding Asylum. Digby's evidence shows that "single patients always predominated over the married or widowed." Madness, Morality, and Medicine, 175.
78. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/108, Annual Reports, 1845.
79. Michael McDonald, "Madness, Suicide, and the Computer," in Problems and Methods in the History of Medicine, eds. Roy Porter and Andrew Wear (New York: Croom Helm, 1987), 210. I want to thank the anonymous reviewer of this article for reference to this essay.
80. McDonald, "Madness, Suicide, and the Computer," 211.
81. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/108, Annual Reports, 1849.
82. Digby, Madness, Morality, and Medicine, 210. Interestingly, MacKenzie
83. Digby, Madness, Morality, and Medicine, 210. Interestingly, MacKenzie notes that family relationships were rarely noted in the Ticehurst records as a supposed cause of mental illness. Psychiatry for the Rich, 116.
84. Tilly and Scott give a nice introduction to family economies in Women, Work, and Family.
85. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/850, Female Case Book F10, 12.
86. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/848, Female Case Book F8, 100.
87. Included in this number is insanity attributed to business failure, scarcity of work, distressed circumstances, and misfortune, as well as poverty.
88. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/848, Female Case Book F8, 156.
89. Ibid., 158.
90. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/846, Female Case Book F6, 108.
91. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/850, Female Case Book F10, 330.
92. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/847, Female Case Book F7, 103.
93. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/846, Female Case Book F6, 6.
94. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/848, Female Case Book F8, 362.
95. Ibid., 426.
96. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/849, Female Case Book F9, 330.
97. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/846, Female Case Book F6, 88.
98. Ibid., 136.
99. Ibid., 380, 392.
100. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/850, Female Case Book F10, 32. Although many of the case histories noted how many children a patient had had, statistics based on this information are unreliable, as some patients counted their stillborn or dead children among their children.
101. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/851, Female Case Book F11, 80.
102. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/848, Female Case Book F8, 366.
103. Ibid., 119.
104. Ibid., 216. Anna Clark discusses the value plebeian husbands placed on industrious wives in The Struggle for the Breeches: Gender and the Making of the British Working Class (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 64-66.
105. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/849, Female Case Book F9, 34.
106. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/846, Female Case Book F6, 397.
107. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/847, Female Case Book F7, 247.
108. Ibid., 314.
109. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/849, Female Case Book F9, 158. See also 174.
110. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/850, Female Case Book F10, 206.
111. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/851, Female Case Book F11, 162.
112. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/847, Female Case Book F7, 3.
113. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/848, Female Case Book F8, 426.
114. Ibid.
115. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/850, Female Case Book F10, 226.
116. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/848, Female Case Book F8, 170.
117. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/846, Female Case Book F6, 504.
118. Ibid., 484.
119. For a good overview of religion in working-class communities, see Hugh McLeod, Religion and the Working Class in Nineteenth-Century Britain (London: Macmillan 1984).
120. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/847, Female Case Book F7, 57.
121. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/851, Female Case Book F11, 258.
122. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/851, Female Case Book F11, 76.
123. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/850, Female Case Book F10, 402.
124. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/851, Female Case Book F11, 382.
125. On working-class sexuality, see Francoise Barret-Ducrocq, Love in the Time of Victoria: Sexuality and Desire among Working-Class Men and Women in Nineteenth-Century London (New York: Penguin, 1991).
126. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/846, Female Case Book F6, 230.
127. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/849, Female Case Book F9, 388.
128. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/851, Female Case Book F11, 242.
129. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/848, Female Case Book F8, 174.
130. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/846, Female Case Book F6, 276.
131. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/848, Female Case Book F8, 160.
132. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/850, Female Case Book F10, 448.
133. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/847, Female Case Book F7, 398.
134. On wife selling, see Lawrence Stone, Road to Divorce: England 1530-1987 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 141-48; and E. P. Thompson, "The Sale of Wives," in Customs in Common: Studies in Traditional Popular Culture (New York: New Press, 1993), 404-62.
135. On wife selling, see Lawrence Stone, Road to Divorce: England 1530-1987 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 141-48; and E. P. Thompson, "The Sale of Wives," in Customs in Common: Studies in Traditional Popular Culture (New York: New Press, 1993), 404-62.
136. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/848, Female Case Book F8, 300.
137. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/849, Female Case Book F9, 244.
138. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/850, Female Case Book F10, 174.
139. WYRO WRPLA, C85/849, Female Case Book F9, 228.
140. See Barret-Ducrocq, Love in the Time of Victoria; and Clark, Struggle for the Breeches.
141. See Barret-Ducrocq, Love in the Time of Victoria; and Clark, Struggle for the Breeches.
142. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/846, Female Case Book F6, 142.
143. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/850, Female Case Book F10, 34.
144. Ibid., 306.
145. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/847, Female Case Book F7, 519.
146. Clark, Struggle for the Breeches, 83.
147. Ibid.
148. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/848, Female Case Book F8, 160.
149. Clark, Struggle for the Breeches, 83.
150. Anna Clark argues that "adultery and desertion sometimes incited community action, such as a skimmington or rough music," but there is no evidence of this in the case histories. Clark, Struggle for the Breeches, 84.
151. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/848, Female Case Book F8, 296.
152. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/849, Female Case Book F9, 444.
153. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/847, Female Case Book F7, 173.
154. Ibid., 197.
155. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/850, Female Case Book F10, 400.
156. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/851, Female Case Book F11, 40.
157. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/848, Female Case Book F8, 404.
158. WYRO WRPLA, C85/850, Female Case Book F10, 284.
159. See, for example, Nancy Tomes, "A 'Torrent of Abuse': Crimes of Violence between Working-Class Men and Women in London, 1840-1875," Journal of Social History (1978): 327-45; A James Hammerton, Cruelty and Companionship: Conflict in Nineteenth-Century Married Life (New York: Routledge, 1992); and Clark, The Struggle for the Breeches.
160. See, for example, Nancy Tomes, "A 'Torrent of Abuse': Crimes of Violence between Working-Class Men and Women in London, 1840-1875," Journal of Social History (1978): 327-45; A James Hammerton, Cruelty and Companionship: Conflict in Nineteenth-Century Married Life (New York: Routledge, 1992); and Clark, The Struggle for the Breeches.
161. See, for example, Nancy Tomes, "A 'Torrent of Abuse': Crimes of Violence between Working-Class Men and Women in London, 1840-1875," Journal of Social History (1978): 327-45; A James Hammerton, Cruelty and Companionship: Conflict in Nineteenth-Century Married Life (New York: Routledge, 1992); and Clark, The Struggle for the Breeches.
162. Tomes, "A 'Torrent of Abuse,'" 330.
163. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/848, Female Case Book F8, 416.
164. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/847, Female Case Book F7, 459.
165. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/851, Female Case Book F11, 290; WYRO, WRPLA, C85/847, Female Case Book F7, 515.
166. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/848, Female Case Book F8, 98.
167. Ibid., 99.
168. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/850, Female Case Book F10, 144.
169. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/849, Female Case Book F9, 78.
170. The annual report for 1848, for example, shows eighteen male cases of insanity attributed to intemperance, compared with only three female cases. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/108, Annual Reports, 1849.
171. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/848, Female Case Book F8, 459.
172. Ibid.
173. Clark, Struggle for the Breeches, 262. Similarly, women were blamed for rape. There is only one case of sexual violence noted explicitly in the casebooks. Mary Knowles, a seventeen-year-old spindle maker from Nether Hallam in the West Riding, had tried to commit suicide - "the cause assigned is an attempted rape upon her," WYRO, WRPLA, C85/848, Female Case Book F8, 498.
174. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/848, Female Case Book F8, 394.
175. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/850, Female Case Book F10, 304.
176. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/848, Female Case Book F8, 355.
177. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/846, Female Case Book F6, 150.
178. WYRO, WRPLA, C85/847, Female Case Book F7, 529.
179. Showalter, The Female Malady, esp. "Nervous Women: Sex Roles and Sick Roles," 121-44, and "Feminism and Hysteria: The Daughter's Disease," 145-64.
180. Showalter, The Female Malady, esp. "Nervous Women: Sex Roles and Sick Roles," 121-44, and "Feminism and Hysteria: The Daughter's Disease," 145-64.