Getting out of the Asylum: Understanding the Confinement of the Insane in the Nineteenth Century

Social History of Medicine

Volumn 10, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 137-155

  Wright, David ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Asylums; Confinement; Family; Insane; Nineteenth century; Psychiatry

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; FAMILY HEALTH; HISTORY; HOSPITAL ADMISSION; HUMAN RELATION; INSTITUTIONALIZATION; MENTAL HOSPITAL; PATIENT;

FAMILY HEALTH; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HOSPITALS, PSYCHIATRIC; INSTITUTIONALIZATION; PATIENT ADMISSION; PATIENTS; PROFESSIONAL-FAMILY RELATIONS;

EID: 0031111813     PISSN: 0951631X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/shm/10.1.137     Document Type: Article

References (132)

1. This figure was derived from the Fifty-fourth Annual Report of the Commissioners in Lunacy to the Lord Chancellor, PP (1900) vol. 37, Appendix A; Gerald Grob, The Mad Among Us: A History of the Care of America's Mentally Ill (Cambridge, Mass., 1994), p. 166.
2. This figure was derived from the Fifty-fourth Annual Report of the Commissioners in Lunacy to the Lord Chancellor, PP (1900) vol. 37, Appendix A; Gerald Grob, The Mad Among Us: A History of the Care of America's Mentally Ill (Cambridge, Mass., 1994), p. 166.
3. Mark Finnane, Insanity and the Insane in Post-Famine Ireland (London, 1981), Table F, pp. 232-3; Stephen Garton, Medicine and Madness: A Social History of Insanity in New South Wales, 1880-1940 (Kensington, Aus., 1988), p. 37.
4. Mark Finnane, Insanity and the Insane in Post-Famine Ireland (London, 1981), Table F, pp. 232-3; Stephen Garton, Medicine and Madness: A Social History of Insanity in New South Wales, 1880-1940 (Kensington, Aus., 1988), p. 37.
5. Waltraud Ernst, Mad Tales from the Raj: The European Insane in British India 1800-1858 (London, 1991), p. 60; Harriet Deacon, 'A History of the Medical Institutions on Robben Island, Cape Colony, 1846-1910', unpublished Ph.D. Thesis (Cambridge, 1994), chapter 6. This paper will not explore issues surrounding race and confinement, and will limit itself to western industrialized countries.
6. Waltraud Ernst, Mad Tales from the Raj: The European Insane in British India 1800-1858 (London, 1991), p. 60; Harriet Deacon, 'A History of the Medical Institutions on Robben Island, Cape Colony, 1846-1910', unpublished Ph.D. Thesis (Cambridge, 1994), chapter 6. This paper will not explore issues surrounding race and confinement, and will limit itself to western industrialized countries.
7. Michel Foucault, Madness and Civilisation: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason [translated from the French by Richard Howard] (New York, 1973), chapter 2.
8. For 'national' or regional studies on the history of asylums, excluding case studies of individual institutions, see David Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic (Boston, 1971); Gerald Grob, Mental Institutions in America: Social Policy to 1875 (New York, 1973) and Grob, The Mad Among Us; Richard Fox, So Far Disordered in Mind: Insanity in California, 1870-1930 (Berkeley, 1978); Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organisation of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (London, 1979) reprinted and revised as The Most Solitary of Afflictions: Madness and Society in Britain, 1700-1900 (London, 1993); Finnane, Insanity and the Insane; David Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth Century Britain (London, 1982); Harvey Simmons, From Asylum to Welfare (Downsview, Ont., 1982); Garton, Medicine and Madness; Robert Castel, The Regulation of Madness: The Origins of Incarceration in France (Oxford, 1988); Peter Keating, La Science du Mal: L'institution de la psychiatrie au Québec, 1800-1914 (Québec, 1993).
9. For 'national' or regional studies on the history of asylums, excluding case studies of individual institutions, see David Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic (Boston, 1971); Gerald Grob, Mental Institutions in America: Social Policy to 1875 (New York, 1973) and Grob, The Mad Among Us; Richard Fox, So Far Disordered in Mind: Insanity in California, 1870-1930 (Berkeley, 1978); Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organisation of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (London, 1979) reprinted and revised as The Most Solitary of Afflictions: Madness and Society in Britain, 1700-1900 (London, 1993); Finnane, Insanity and the Insane; David Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth Century Britain (London, 1982); Harvey Simmons, From Asylum to Welfare (Downsview, Ont., 1982); Garton, Medicine and Madness; Robert Castel, The Regulation of Madness: The Origins of Incarceration in France (Oxford, 1988); Peter Keating, La Science du Mal: L'institution de la psychiatrie au Québec, 1800-1914 (Québec, 1993).
10. For 'national' or regional studies on the history of asylums, excluding case studies of individual institutions, see David Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic (Boston, 1971); Gerald Grob, Mental Institutions in America: Social Policy to 1875 (New York, 1973) and Grob, The Mad Among Us; Richard Fox, So Far Disordered in Mind: Insanity in California, 1870-1930 (Berkeley, 1978); Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organisation of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (London, 1979) reprinted and revised as The Most Solitary of Afflictions: Madness and Society in Britain, 1700-1900 (London, 1993); Finnane, Insanity and the Insane; David Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth Century Britain (London, 1982); Harvey Simmons, From Asylum to Welfare (Downsview, Ont., 1982); Garton, Medicine and Madness; Robert Castel, The Regulation of Madness: The Origins of Incarceration in France (Oxford, 1988); Peter Keating, La Science du Mal: L'institution de la psychiatrie au Québec, 1800-1914 (Québec, 1993).
11. For 'national' or regional studies on the history of asylums, excluding case studies of individual institutions, see David Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic (Boston, 1971); Gerald Grob, Mental Institutions in America: Social Policy to 1875 (New York, 1973) and Grob, The Mad Among Us; Richard Fox, So Far Disordered in Mind: Insanity in California, 1870-1930 (Berkeley, 1978); Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organisation of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (London, 1979) reprinted and revised as The Most Solitary of Afflictions: Madness and Society in Britain, 1700-1900 (London, 1993); Finnane, Insanity and the Insane; David Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth Century Britain (London, 1982); Harvey Simmons, From Asylum to Welfare (Downsview, Ont., 1982); Garton, Medicine and Madness; Robert Castel, The Regulation of Madness: The Origins of Incarceration in France (Oxford, 1988); Peter Keating, La Science du Mal: L'institution de la psychiatrie au Québec, 1800-1914 (Québec, 1993).
12. For 'national' or regional studies on the history of asylums, excluding case studies of individual institutions, see David Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic (Boston, 1971); Gerald Grob, Mental Institutions in America: Social Policy to 1875 (New York, 1973) and Grob, The Mad Among Us; Richard Fox, So Far Disordered in Mind: Insanity in California, 1870-1930 (Berkeley, 1978); Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organisation of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (London, 1979) reprinted and revised as The Most Solitary of Afflictions: Madness and Society in Britain, 1700-1900 (London, 1993); Finnane, Insanity and the Insane; David Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth Century Britain (London, 1982); Harvey Simmons, From Asylum to Welfare (Downsview, Ont., 1982); Garton, Medicine and Madness; Robert Castel, The Regulation of Madness: The Origins of Incarceration in France (Oxford, 1988); Peter Keating, La Science du Mal: L'institution de la psychiatrie au Québec, 1800-1914 (Québec, 1993).
13. For 'national' or regional studies on the history of asylums, excluding case studies of individual institutions, see David Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic (Boston, 1971); Gerald Grob, Mental Institutions in America: Social Policy to 1875 (New York, 1973) and Grob, The Mad Among Us; Richard Fox, So Far Disordered in Mind: Insanity in California, 1870-1930 (Berkeley, 1978); Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organisation of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (London, 1979) reprinted and revised as The Most Solitary of Afflictions: Madness and Society in Britain, 1700-1900 (London, 1993); Finnane, Insanity and the Insane; David Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth Century Britain (London, 1982); Harvey Simmons, From Asylum to Welfare (Downsview, Ont., 1982); Garton, Medicine and Madness; Robert Castel, The Regulation of Madness: The Origins of Incarceration in France (Oxford, 1988); Peter Keating, La Science du Mal: L'institution de la psychiatrie au Québec, 1800-1914 (Québec, 1993).
14. For 'national' or regional studies on the history of asylums, excluding case studies of individual institutions, see David Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic (Boston, 1971); Gerald Grob, Mental Institutions in America: Social Policy to 1875 (New York, 1973) and Grob, The Mad Among Us; Richard Fox, So Far Disordered in Mind: Insanity in California, 1870-1930 (Berkeley, 1978); Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organisation of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (London, 1979) reprinted and revised as The Most Solitary of Afflictions: Madness and Society in Britain, 1700-1900 (London, 1993); Finnane, Insanity and the Insane; David Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth Century Britain (London, 1982); Harvey Simmons, From Asylum to Welfare (Downsview, Ont., 1982); Garton, Medicine and Madness; Robert Castel, The Regulation of Madness: The Origins of Incarceration in France (Oxford, 1988); Peter Keating, La Science du Mal: L'institution de la psychiatrie au Québec, 1800-1914 (Québec, 1993).
15. For 'national' or regional studies on the history of asylums, excluding case studies of individual institutions, see David Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic (Boston, 1971); Gerald Grob, Mental Institutions in America: Social Policy to 1875 (New York, 1973) and Grob, The Mad Among Us; Richard Fox, So Far Disordered in Mind: Insanity in California, 1870-1930 (Berkeley, 1978); Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organisation of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (London, 1979) reprinted and revised as The Most Solitary of Afflictions: Madness and Society in Britain, 1700-1900 (London, 1993); Finnane, Insanity and the Insane; David Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth Century Britain (London, 1982); Harvey Simmons, From Asylum to Welfare (Downsview, Ont., 1982); Garton, Medicine and Madness; Robert Castel, The Regulation of Madness: The Origins of Incarceration in France (Oxford, 1988); Peter Keating, La Science du Mal: L'institution de la psychiatrie au Québec, 1800-1914 (Québec, 1993).
16. For 'national' or regional studies on the history of asylums, excluding case studies of individual institutions, see David Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic (Boston, 1971); Gerald Grob, Mental Institutions in America: Social Policy to 1875 (New York, 1973) and Grob, The Mad Among Us; Richard Fox, So Far Disordered in Mind: Insanity in California, 1870-1930 (Berkeley, 1978); Andrew Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organisation of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (London, 1979) reprinted and revised as The Most Solitary of Afflictions: Madness and Society in Britain, 1700-1900 (London, 1993); Finnane, Insanity and the Insane; David Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom: Social, Cultural and Administrative Aspects of the Institutional Treatment of the Insane in Nineteenth Century Britain (London, 1982); Harvey Simmons, From Asylum to Welfare (Downsview, Ont., 1982); Garton, Medicine and Madness; Robert Castel, The Regulation of Madness: The Origins of Incarceration in France (Oxford, 1988); Peter Keating, La Science du Mal: L'institution de la psychiatrie au Québec, 1800-1914 (Québec, 1993).
17. Monographs on individual institutions are too numerous to mention. Six significant works are Richard Hunter, Psychiatry for the Poor. 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum. Friem Hospital 1973: A Medical and Social History (London, 1974); Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of Asylum-Keeping, 1840-1883 (Cambridge, 1985); Anne Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine: A Study of the York Retreat, 1796-1914 (Cambridge, 1985); Ellen Dwyer, Homes For the Mad: Life Inside Two Nineteenth Century Asylums (New Brunswick, 1987); Elizabeth Malcolm, Swift's Hospital: A Story of St. Patrick's Hospital, Dublin, 1746-1989 (Dublin, 1989); Charlotte MacKenzie, Psychiatry for the Rich: A History of the Private Ticehurst Asylum, 1792-1917 (London, 1992). For edited volumes, see Andrew Scull (ed.) Madhouses, Mad-Doctors and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era (London, 1981); Scull, Social Order/Mental Disorder: Anglo-American Psychiatry in Historical Perspective (London, 1989); W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (eds.) The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry (3 vols.) (London, 1985-87); Mark Micale and Roy Porter (eds.) Discovering the History of Psychiatry (Oxford, 1994). See also ff. 1-5.
18. Monographs on individual institutions are too numerous to mention. Six significant works are Richard Hunter, Psychiatry for the Poor. 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum. Friem Hospital 1973: A Medical and Social History (London, 1974); Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of Asylum-Keeping, 1840-1883 (Cambridge, 1985); Anne Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine: A Study of the York Retreat, 1796-1914 (Cambridge, 1985); Ellen Dwyer, Homes For the Mad: Life Inside Two Nineteenth Century Asylums (New Brunswick, 1987); Elizabeth Malcolm, Swift's Hospital: A Story of St. Patrick's Hospital, Dublin, 1746-1989 (Dublin, 1989); Charlotte MacKenzie, Psychiatry for the Rich: A History of the Private Ticehurst Asylum, 1792-1917 (London, 1992). For edited volumes, see Andrew Scull (ed.) Madhouses, Mad-Doctors and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era (London, 1981); Scull, Social Order/Mental Disorder: Anglo-American Psychiatry in Historical Perspective (London, 1989); W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (eds.) The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry (3 vols.) (London, 1985-87); Mark Micale and Roy Porter (eds.) Discovering the History of Psychiatry (Oxford, 1994). See also ff. 1-5.
19. Monographs on individual institutions are too numerous to mention. Six significant works are Richard Hunter, Psychiatry for the Poor. 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum. Friem Hospital 1973: A Medical and Social History (London, 1974); Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of Asylum-Keeping, 1840-1883 (Cambridge, 1985); Anne Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine: A Study of the York Retreat, 1796-1914 (Cambridge, 1985); Ellen Dwyer, Homes For the Mad: Life Inside Two Nineteenth Century Asylums (New Brunswick, 1987); Elizabeth Malcolm, Swift's Hospital: A Story of St. Patrick's Hospital, Dublin, 1746-1989 (Dublin, 1989); Charlotte MacKenzie, Psychiatry for the Rich: A History of the Private Ticehurst Asylum, 1792-1917 (London, 1992). For edited volumes, see Andrew Scull (ed.) Madhouses, Mad-Doctors and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era (London, 1981); Scull, Social Order/Mental Disorder: Anglo-American Psychiatry in Historical Perspective (London, 1989); W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (eds.) The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry (3 vols.) (London, 1985-87); Mark Micale and Roy Porter (eds.) Discovering the History of Psychiatry (Oxford, 1994). See also ff. 1-5.
20. Monographs on individual institutions are too numerous to mention. Six significant works are Richard Hunter, Psychiatry for the Poor. 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum. Friem Hospital 1973: A Medical and Social History (London, 1974); Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of Asylum-Keeping, 1840-1883 (Cambridge, 1985); Anne Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine: A Study of the York Retreat, 1796-1914 (Cambridge, 1985); Ellen Dwyer, Homes For the Mad: Life Inside Two Nineteenth Century Asylums (New Brunswick, 1987); Elizabeth Malcolm, Swift's Hospital: A Story of St. Patrick's Hospital, Dublin, 1746-1989 (Dublin, 1989); Charlotte MacKenzie, Psychiatry for the Rich: A History of the Private Ticehurst Asylum, 1792-1917 (London, 1992). For edited volumes, see Andrew Scull (ed.) Madhouses, Mad-Doctors and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era (London, 1981); Scull, Social Order/Mental Disorder: Anglo-American Psychiatry in Historical Perspective (London, 1989); W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (eds.) The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry (3 vols.) (London, 1985-87); Mark Micale and Roy Porter (eds.) Discovering the History of Psychiatry (Oxford, 1994). See also ff. 1-5.
21. Monographs on individual institutions are too numerous to mention. Six significant works are Richard Hunter, Psychiatry for the Poor. 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum. Friem Hospital 1973: A Medical and Social History (London, 1974); Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of Asylum-Keeping, 1840-1883 (Cambridge, 1985); Anne Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine: A Study of the York Retreat, 1796-1914 (Cambridge, 1985); Ellen Dwyer, Homes For the Mad: Life Inside Two Nineteenth Century Asylums (New Brunswick, 1987); Elizabeth Malcolm, Swift's Hospital: A Story of St. Patrick's Hospital, Dublin, 1746-1989 (Dublin, 1989); Charlotte MacKenzie, Psychiatry for the Rich: A History of the Private Ticehurst Asylum, 1792-1917 (London, 1992). For edited volumes, see Andrew Scull (ed.) Madhouses, Mad-Doctors and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era (London, 1981); Scull, Social Order/Mental Disorder: Anglo-American Psychiatry in Historical Perspective (London, 1989); W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (eds.) The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry (3 vols.) (London, 1985-87); Mark Micale and Roy Porter (eds.) Discovering the History of Psychiatry (Oxford, 1994). See also ff. 1-5.
22. Monographs on individual institutions are too numerous to mention. Six significant works are Richard Hunter, Psychiatry for the Poor. 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum. Friem Hospital 1973: A Medical and Social History (London, 1974); Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of Asylum-Keeping, 1840-1883 (Cambridge, 1985); Anne Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine: A Study of the York Retreat, 1796-1914 (Cambridge, 1985); Ellen Dwyer, Homes For the Mad: Life Inside Two Nineteenth Century Asylums (New Brunswick, 1987); Elizabeth Malcolm, Swift's Hospital: A Story of St. Patrick's Hospital, Dublin, 1746-1989 (Dublin, 1989); Charlotte MacKenzie, Psychiatry for the Rich: A History of the Private Ticehurst Asylum, 1792-1917 (London, 1992). For edited volumes, see Andrew Scull (ed.) Madhouses, Mad-Doctors and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era (London, 1981); Scull, Social Order/Mental Disorder: Anglo-American Psychiatry in Historical Perspective (London, 1989); W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (eds.) The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry (3 vols.) (London, 1985-87); Mark Micale and Roy Porter (eds.) Discovering the History of Psychiatry (Oxford, 1994). See also ff. 1-5.
23. Monographs on individual institutions are too numerous to mention. Six significant works are Richard Hunter, Psychiatry for the Poor. 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum. Friem Hospital 1973: A Medical and Social History (London, 1974); Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of Asylum-Keeping, 1840-1883 (Cambridge, 1985); Anne Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine: A Study of the York Retreat, 1796-1914 (Cambridge, 1985); Ellen Dwyer, Homes For the Mad: Life Inside Two Nineteenth Century Asylums (New Brunswick, 1987); Elizabeth Malcolm, Swift's Hospital: A Story of St. Patrick's Hospital, Dublin, 1746-1989 (Dublin, 1989); Charlotte MacKenzie, Psychiatry for the Rich: A History of the Private Ticehurst Asylum, 1792-1917 (London, 1992). For edited volumes, see Andrew Scull (ed.) Madhouses, Mad-Doctors and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era (London, 1981); Scull, Social Order/Mental Disorder: Anglo-American Psychiatry in Historical Perspective (London, 1989); W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (eds.) The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry (3 vols.) (London, 1985-87); Mark Micale and Roy Porter (eds.) Discovering the History of Psychiatry (Oxford, 1994). See also ff. 1-5.
24. Monographs on individual institutions are too numerous to mention. Six significant works are Richard Hunter, Psychiatry for the Poor. 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum. Friem Hospital 1973: A Medical and Social History (London, 1974); Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of Asylum-Keeping, 1840-1883 (Cambridge, 1985); Anne Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine: A Study of the York Retreat, 1796-1914 (Cambridge, 1985); Ellen Dwyer, Homes For the Mad: Life Inside Two Nineteenth Century Asylums (New Brunswick, 1987); Elizabeth Malcolm, Swift's Hospital: A Story of St. Patrick's Hospital, Dublin, 1746-1989 (Dublin, 1989); Charlotte MacKenzie, Psychiatry for the Rich: A History of the Private Ticehurst Asylum, 1792-1917 (London, 1992). For edited volumes, see Andrew Scull (ed.) Madhouses, Mad-Doctors and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era (London, 1981); Scull, Social Order/Mental Disorder: Anglo-American Psychiatry in Historical Perspective (London, 1989); W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (eds.) The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry (3 vols.) (London, 1985-87); Mark Micale and Roy Porter (eds.) Discovering the History of Psychiatry (Oxford, 1994). See also ff. 1-5.
25. Monographs on individual institutions are too numerous to mention. Six significant works are Richard Hunter, Psychiatry for the Poor. 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum. Friem Hospital 1973: A Medical and Social History (London, 1974); Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of Asylum-Keeping, 1840-1883 (Cambridge, 1985); Anne Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine: A Study of the York Retreat, 1796-1914 (Cambridge, 1985); Ellen Dwyer, Homes For the Mad: Life Inside Two Nineteenth Century Asylums (New Brunswick, 1987); Elizabeth Malcolm, Swift's Hospital: A Story of St. Patrick's Hospital, Dublin, 1746-1989 (Dublin, 1989); Charlotte MacKenzie, Psychiatry for the Rich: A History of the Private Ticehurst Asylum, 1792-1917 (London, 1992). For edited volumes, see Andrew Scull (ed.) Madhouses, Mad-Doctors and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era (London, 1981); Scull, Social Order/Mental Disorder: Anglo-American Psychiatry in Historical Perspective (London, 1989); W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (eds.) The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry (3 vols.) (London, 1985-87); Mark Micale and Roy Porter (eds.) Discovering the History of Psychiatry (Oxford, 1994). See also ff. 1-5.
26. Monographs on individual institutions are too numerous to mention. Six significant works are Richard Hunter, Psychiatry for the Poor. 1851 Colney Hatch Asylum. Friem Hospital 1973: A Medical and Social History (London, 1974); Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of Asylum-Keeping, 1840-1883 (Cambridge, 1985); Anne Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine: A Study of the York Retreat, 1796-1914 (Cambridge, 1985); Ellen Dwyer, Homes For the Mad: Life Inside Two Nineteenth Century Asylums (New Brunswick, 1987); Elizabeth Malcolm, Swift's Hospital: A Story of St. Patrick's Hospital, Dublin, 1746-1989 (Dublin, 1989); Charlotte MacKenzie, Psychiatry for the Rich: A History of the Private Ticehurst Asylum, 1792-1917 (London, 1992). For edited volumes, see Andrew Scull (ed.) Madhouses, Mad-Doctors and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era (London, 1981); Scull, Social Order/Mental Disorder: Anglo-American Psychiatry in Historical Perspective (London, 1989); W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (eds.) The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry (3 vols.) (London, 1985-87); Mark Micale and Roy Porter (eds.) Discovering the History of Psychiatry (Oxford, 1994). See also ff. 1-5.
27. Peter McCandless, 'A House of Cure: The Antebellum South Carolina Lunatic Asylum,' Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 64 (1990), 223-5; Len Smith, 'The "Great Experiment": The Place of Lincoln in the History of Psychiatry', Lincolnshire History and Archaeology, 30 (1995), 55; Cheryce Kramer, 'Asylum Culture in Nineteenth Century Germany: The Case of Illenau', unpublished paper. The Morningside Asylum began as a philanthropic asylum, but later accepted pauper patients: Allan Beveridge, 'Madness in Victorian Edinburgh: A Study of Patients Admitted to the Royal Edinburgh Asylum under Thomas Clouston, 1873-1908: Part I', History of Psychiatry, 6 (1995), 26.
28. Peter McCandless, 'A House of Cure: The Antebellum South Carolina Lunatic Asylum,' Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 64 (1990), 223-5; Len Smith, 'The "Great Experiment": The Place of Lincoln in the History of Psychiatry', Lincolnshire History and Archaeology, 30 (1995), 55; Cheryce Kramer, 'Asylum Culture in Nineteenth Century Germany: The Case of Illenau', unpublished paper. The Morningside Asylum began as a philanthropic asylum, but later accepted pauper patients: Allan Beveridge, 'Madness in Victorian Edinburgh: A Study of Patients Admitted to the Royal Edinburgh Asylum under Thomas Clouston, 1873-1908: Part I', History of Psychiatry, 6 (1995), 26.
29. Peter McCandless, 'A House of Cure: The Antebellum South Carolina Lunatic Asylum,' Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 64 (1990), 223-5; Len Smith, 'The "Great Experiment": The Place of Lincoln in the History of Psychiatry', Lincolnshire History and Archaeology, 30 (1995), 55; Cheryce Kramer, 'Asylum Culture in Nineteenth Century Germany: The Case of Illenau', unpublished paper. The Morningside Asylum began as a philanthropic asylum, but later accepted pauper patients: Allan Beveridge, 'Madness in Victorian Edinburgh: A Study of Patients Admitted to the Royal Edinburgh Asylum under Thomas Clouston, 1873-1908: Part I', History of Psychiatry, 6 (1995), 26.
30. Peter McCandless, 'A House of Cure: The Antebellum South Carolina Lunatic Asylum,' Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 64 (1990), 223-5; Len Smith, 'The "Great Experiment": The Place of Lincoln in the History of Psychiatry', Lincolnshire History and Archaeology, 30 (1995), 55; Cheryce Kramer, 'Asylum Culture in Nineteenth Century Germany: The Case of Illenau', unpublished paper. The Morningside Asylum began as a philanthropic asylum, but later accepted pauper patients: Allan Beveridge, 'Madness in Victorian Edinburgh: A Study of Patients Admitted to the Royal Edinburgh Asylum under Thomas Clouston, 1873-1908: Part I', History of Psychiatry, 6 (1995), 26.
31. Wendy Mitchinson, 'The Toronto and Gladesville Asylums: Humane Alternatives for the Insane in Canada and Australia?', Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 43 (1989), 52-72; McCandless, 'A House of Cure', pp. 233-5; Grob, Mental Institutions, pp. 69-74.
32. Wendy Mitchinson, 'The Toronto and Gladesville Asylums: Humane Alternatives for the Insane in Canada and Australia?', Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 43 (1989), 52-72; McCandless, 'A House of Cure', pp. 233-5; Grob, Mental Institutions, pp. 69-74.
33. Wendy Mitchinson, 'The Toronto and Gladesville Asylums: Humane Alternatives for the Insane in Canada and Australia?', Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 43 (1989), 52-72; McCandless, 'A House of Cure', pp. 233-5; Grob, Mental Institutions, pp. 69-74.
34. I shall use the term local authority, to describe the sub-national units responsible for administering the asylums - (American and Australian) states, (Canadian) provinces, (French) departments, (English, Welsh, and Irish) counties and (Scottish) districts - although its employment does not mean to imply that these administrative units had identical powers vis-à-vis their national governments.
35. Magistrates even retained control over the licensing of private establishments in their own counties. The most detailed analysis of the role of county magistrates in the formation of lunacy policy in England can be found in Peter Bartlett's 'The Poor Law of Lunacy: The Administration of Pauper Lunatics in Mid-Nineteenth Century England, with special emphasis on Leicestershire and Rutland' unpublished Ph.D. Thesis (University College, London, 1993).
36. Hunter, Psychiatry for the Poor, p. 17.
37. For an excellent paper on the limited powers of resident medical officers, see André Paradis, 'L'asile québécois et les obstacles à la médicalisation de la folie (1845-1890)', Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, 11 (1994), 297-334.
38. Doerner, Madmen and the Bourgeoisie, p. 164.
39. Nicholas Hervey, 'A Slavish Bowing Down: the Lunacy Commission and the Psychiatric Profession, 1845-1860' in W. F. Bynum et al. (eds.) The Anatomy of Madness, vol. 2, pp. 98-131.
40. Scull, The Most Solitary of Afflictions, p. 263.
41. Charlotte MacKenzie, 'Social Factors in the Admission, Discharge, and Continuing Stay of Patients at Ticehurst Asylum, 1845-1917' in W. F. Bynum et al. (eds.) The Anatomy of Madness, vol. 2, p. 169.
42. Tomes, A Generous Confidence, chapter 3.
43. Patricia Prestwich, 'Family Strategies and Medical Power: 'Voluntary' Committal in a Parisian Asylum, 1876-1914', Journal of Social History, 27 (1994), 799-818.
44. Jamil Zainoldin and Peter Tyor, 'Asylum and Society: An Approach to Institutional Change', Journal of Social History, 13 (1979), 23-48; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine, pp. 205, 229.
45. Jamil Zainoldin and Peter Tyor, 'Asylum and Society: An Approach to Institutional Change', Journal of Social History, 13 (1979), 23-48; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine, pp. 205, 229.
46. John Walton, 'The Treatment of Pauper Lunatics in Victorian England: The case of Lancaster Asylum, 1816-1870' in Scull (ed.) Madhouses, pp. 166-97; Walton, 'Casting Out and Bringing Back in Victorian England: Pauper Lunatics, 1840-70' in W. F. Bynum et al. (eds.) The Anatomy of Madness, vol. 2, pp. 132-46.
47. John Walton, 'The Treatment of Pauper Lunatics in Victorian England: The case of Lancaster Asylum, 1816-1870' in Scull (ed.) Madhouses, pp. 166-97; Walton, 'Casting Out and Bringing Back in Victorian England: Pauper Lunatics, 1840-70' in W. F. Bynum et al. (eds.) The Anatomy of Madness, vol. 2, pp. 132-46.
48. Bartlett, 'The Poor Law of Lunacy', p. 195.
49. Finnane, Insanity and the Insane, p. 132.
50. Estimates of the number of vagrants admitted to the asylum vary. Recent research on English county asylums after 1845 suggest a figure of no more than 10 per cent of total admissions, where many vagrants were merely kept in the workhouse.
51. Mark Finnane, 'Asylums, Families and the State', History Workshop Journal, 20 (1985), 135.
52. Parry-Jones, Trade in Lunacy, p. 207; Hunter, Psychiatry for the Poor, p. 53; Laurence Ray, 'Models and Madness in Victorian Asylum Practice', European Journal of Sociology, 22 (1981), 231; MacKenzie, 'Social Factors in the Admission, Discharge, and Continuing Stay of Patients at Ticehurst Asylum, 1845-1917', pp. 147-57; Table 8.3 & 8.4. Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine, p. 219; Table 9.2; Beveridge, 'Madness in Victorian Edinburgh', pp. 22-54.
53. Parry-Jones, Trade in Lunacy, p. 207; Hunter, Psychiatry for the Poor, p. 53; Laurence Ray, 'Models and Madness in Victorian Asylum Practice', European Journal of Sociology, 22 (1981), 231; MacKenzie, 'Social Factors in the Admission, Discharge, and Continuing Stay of Patients at Ticehurst Asylum, 1845-1917', pp. 147-57; Table 8.3 & 8.4. Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine, p. 219; Table 9.2; Beveridge, 'Madness in Victorian Edinburgh', pp. 22-54.
54. Parry-Jones, Trade in Lunacy, p. 207; Hunter, Psychiatry for the Poor, p. 53; Laurence Ray, 'Models and Madness in Victorian Asylum Practice', European Journal of Sociology, 22 (1981), 231; MacKenzie, 'Social Factors in the Admission, Discharge, and Continuing Stay of Patients at Ticehurst Asylum, 1845-1917', pp. 147-57; Table 8.3 & 8.4. Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine, p. 219; Table 9.2; Beveridge, 'Madness in Victorian Edinburgh', pp. 22-54.
55. Parry-Jones, Trade in Lunacy, p. 207; Hunter, Psychiatry for the Poor, p. 53; Laurence Ray, 'Models and Madness in Victorian Asylum Practice', European Journal of Sociology, 22 (1981), 231; MacKenzie, 'Social Factors in the Admission, Discharge, and Continuing Stay of Patients at Ticehurst Asylum, 1845-1917', pp. 147-57; Table 8.3 & 8.4. Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine, p. 219; Table 9.2; Beveridge, 'Madness in Victorian Edinburgh', pp. 22-54.
56. Parry-Jones, Trade in Lunacy, p. 207; Hunter, Psychiatry for the Poor, p. 53; Laurence Ray, 'Models and Madness in Victorian Asylum Practice', European Journal of Sociology, 22 (1981), 231; MacKenzie, 'Social Factors in the Admission, Discharge, and Continuing Stay of Patients at Ticehurst Asylum, 1845-1917', pp. 147-57; Table 8.3 & 8.4. Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine, p. 219; Table 9.2; Beveridge, 'Madness in Victorian Edinburgh', pp. 22-54.
57. Parry-Jones, Trade in Lunacy, p. 207; Hunter, Psychiatry for the Poor, p. 53; Laurence Ray, 'Models and Madness in Victorian Asylum Practice', European Journal of Sociology, 22 (1981), 231; MacKenzie, 'Social Factors in the Admission, Discharge, and Continuing Stay of Patients at Ticehurst Asylum, 1845-1917', pp. 147-57; Table 8.3 & 8.4. Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine, p. 219; Table 9.2; Beveridge, 'Madness in Victorian Edinburgh', pp. 22-54.
58. Grob, Mental Institutions, p. 68. Idiot asylums had a much longer length of stay, due to the fact that most had a determined duration of between five and seven years for their education and treatment: David Wright, 'The National Asylum for Idiots, Earlswood, 1847-86', unpublished Oxford D.Phil. thesis (1993), chapter 8.
59. Grob, Mental Institutions, p. 68. Idiot asylums had a much longer length of stay, due to the fact that most had a determined duration of between five and seven years for their education and treatment: David Wright, 'The National Asylum for Idiots, Earlswood, 1847-86', unpublished Oxford D.Phil. thesis (1993), chapter 8.
60. Laurence Ray, 'Models of Madness in Victorian Asylum Practice', European Journal of Sociology, 22 (1981), 234. The one exception to this seems to be the lunatic asylum on Robben Island, Cape Colony which had very few people staying short periods of time. After the voluntary system of confinement was introduced in 1891, 52 per cent of admissions for the next twenty years stayed fewer than two years: Deacon, 'Medical Institutions on Robben Island', pp. 176, 198, Table 5.8.
61. Laurence Ray, 'Models of Madness in Victorian Asylum Practice', European Journal of Sociology, 22 (1981), 234. The one exception to this seems to be the lunatic asylum on Robben Island, Cape Colony which had very few people staying short periods of time. After the voluntary system of confinement was introduced in 1891, 52 per cent of admissions for the next twenty years stayed fewer than two years: Deacon, 'Medical Institutions on Robben Island', pp. 176, 198, Table 5.8.
62. Ironically, it was his interest in the accumulation of chronic cases which led Laurence Ray to sample admissions to the Surrey County Asylum (Brookwood) and the Lancaster Asylum, and discover that, in fact, the majority of patients stayed relatively short periods.
63. Finnane, 'Asylums, Families and the State', p. 144. See fn. 26.
64. Roger Smith, 'The Boundary Between Insanity and Criminal Responsibility in Nineteenth-Century England', in Scull, Madhouses, p. 364.
65. Nancy Tomes has provided by far the most compelling reconstruction of by attitudes through an analysis of letters of family members to Thomas Kirkbride, medical superintendent of the Pennsylvania Asylum: Tomes, A Generous Confidence, pp. 92-103.
66. For an extended critique of the idea of medicalization in the history of medicine, see Roy Porter, 'Introduction', in Porter (ed.) Patients and Practitioners: Lay Perceptions of Medicine in Pre-industrial Society (Cambridge, 1985).
67. There is even reason to question the impact that medical superintendents had on the treatment of the vast majority of patients when institutions exceeded several hundred inmates.
68. Lindsay Granshaw, 'Introduction', in Granshaw and Roy Porter (eds.) The Hospital in History (London, 1989), p. 1.
69. My discussion will focus on changing methods and approaches to asylum records rather than hospital records more generally, though there are many similarities between the two. For an exploration of the possibilities of the database study of hospital admission records, see Guenter Risse, 'Hospital History: New Sources and Methods', in Roy Porter and Andrew Wear (eds.) Problems and Methods in the History of Medicine (London, 1987), pp. 175-203.
70. Deacon, 'The Medical Institutions on Robben Islands', p. 175, Table 5.1; Grob, Mental Institutions, pp. 243-56.
71. Deacon, 'The Medical Institutions on Robben Islands', p. 175, Table 5.1; Grob, Mental Institutions, pp. 243-56.
72. William Llewellyn Parry-Jones, The Trade in Lunacy: A Study of Private Madhouses in England in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries (London, 1972).
73. Tomes, A Generous Confidence, chapter 5; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine, chapter 8. For a discussion on how computerizing admission registers can throw light on the changes within the asylum, see Anne Digby, 'Quantitative and Qualitative: Perspectives on the Asylum', in Porter and Wear (eds.) Problems and Methods in the History of Medicine, pp. 153-74.
74. Tomes, A Generous Confidence, chapter 5; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine, chapter 8. For a discussion on how computerizing admission registers can throw light on the changes within the asylum, see Anne Digby, 'Quantitative and Qualitative: Perspectives on the Asylum', in Porter and Wear (eds.) Problems and Methods in the History of Medicine, pp. 153-74.
75. Tomes, A Generous Confidence, chapter 5; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine, chapter 8. For a discussion on how computerizing admission registers can throw light on the changes within the asylum, see Anne Digby, 'Quantitative and Qualitative: Perspectives on the Asylum', in Porter and Wear (eds.) Problems and Methods in the History of Medicine, pp. 153-74.
76. Fox, So Far Disordered in Mind, pp. 104-5; Laurence Ray, 'Models of Madness in Victorian Asylum Practice', European Journal of Sociology, 12 (1981), 229-64; Garton, Madness and Medicine, pp. 103-4; Finnane, Insanity and the Insane, pp. 130-6; Charlotte MacKenzie, Psychiatry for the Rich, esp. pp. 65-8, 128-39, 167-72; Marlene Arieno, Victorian Lunatics: A Social Epidemiology of Mental Illness in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (London, 1989), chapter 5; Deacon, 'Medical Institutions on Robben Island', pp. 176-202.
77. Fox, So Far Disordered in Mind, pp. 104-5; Laurence Ray, 'Models of Madness in Victorian Asylum Practice', European Journal of Sociology, 12 (1981), 229-64; Garton, Madness and Medicine, pp. 103-4; Finnane, Insanity and the Insane, pp. 130-6; Charlotte MacKenzie, Psychiatry for the Rich, esp. pp. 65-8, 128-39, 167-72; Marlene Arieno, Victorian Lunatics: A Social Epidemiology of Mental Illness in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (London, 1989), chapter 5; Deacon, 'Medical Institutions on Robben Island', pp. 176-202.
78. Fox, So Far Disordered in Mind, pp. 104-5; Laurence Ray, 'Models of Madness in Victorian Asylum Practice', European Journal of Sociology, 12 (1981), 229-64; Garton, Madness and Medicine, pp. 103-4; Finnane, Insanity and the Insane, pp. 130-6; Charlotte MacKenzie, Psychiatry for the Rich, esp. pp. 65-8, 128-39, 167-72; Marlene Arieno, Victorian Lunatics: A Social Epidemiology of Mental Illness in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (London, 1989), chapter 5; Deacon, 'Medical Institutions on Robben Island', pp. 176-202.
79. Fox, So Far Disordered in Mind, pp. 104-5; Laurence Ray, 'Models of Madness in Victorian Asylum Practice', European Journal of Sociology, 12 (1981), 229-64; Garton, Madness and Medicine, pp. 103-4; Finnane, Insanity and the Insane, pp. 130-6; Charlotte MacKenzie, Psychiatry for the Rich, esp. pp. 65-8, 128-39, 167-72; Marlene Arieno, Victorian Lunatics: A Social Epidemiology of Mental Illness in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (London, 1989), chapter 5; Deacon, 'Medical Institutions on Robben Island', pp. 176-202.
80. Fox, So Far Disordered in Mind, pp. 104-5; Laurence Ray, 'Models of Madness in Victorian Asylum Practice', European Journal of Sociology, 12 (1981), 229-64; Garton, Madness and Medicine, pp. 103-4; Finnane, Insanity and the Insane, pp. 130-6; Charlotte MacKenzie, Psychiatry for the Rich, esp. pp. 65-8, 128-39, 167-72; Marlene Arieno, Victorian Lunatics: A Social Epidemiology of Mental Illness in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (London, 1989), chapter 5; Deacon, 'Medical Institutions on Robben Island', pp. 176-202.
81. Fox, So Far Disordered in Mind, pp. 104-5; Laurence Ray, 'Models of Madness in Victorian Asylum Practice', European Journal of Sociology, 12 (1981), 229-64; Garton, Madness and Medicine, pp. 103-4; Finnane, Insanity and the Insane, pp. 130-6; Charlotte MacKenzie, Psychiatry for the Rich, esp. pp. 65-8, 128-39, 167-72; Marlene Arieno, Victorian Lunatics: A Social Epidemiology of Mental Illness in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (London, 1989), chapter 5; Deacon, 'Medical Institutions on Robben Island', pp. 176-202.
82. Fox, So Far Disordered in Mind, pp. 104-5; Laurence Ray, 'Models of Madness in Victorian Asylum Practice', European Journal of Sociology, 12 (1981), 229-64; Garton, Madness and Medicine, pp. 103-4; Finnane, Insanity and the Insane, pp. 130-6; Charlotte MacKenzie, Psychiatry for the Rich, esp. pp. 65-8, 128-39, 167-72; Marlene Arieno, Victorian Lunatics: A Social Epidemiology of Mental Illness in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England (London, 1989), chapter 5; Deacon, 'Medical Institutions on Robben Island', pp. 176-202.
83. Considering the problem of omissions in the taking of censuses in the nineteenth century, it is perhaps wise to speak of an enumerated population rather than the general population.
84. Edward Higgs, 'Women, Occupations and Work in Nineteenth Century Census', History Workshop Journal, 23 (1987), 39-59.
85. Castel, Regulation of Madness, p. 244.
86. Fox, So Far Disordered in Mind, p. 80.
87. Including 'name', 'sex and age', 'marital status', 'previous occupation', 'religious persuasion', 'previous place of abode', 'whether first attack', 'age on first attack', 'when and where under previous care and treatment', 'duration of existing attack', and a number of questions as to the prevalence of epilepsy, or whether the patient was suicidal or dangerous.
88. The definition of insanity in England and Wales following the 1853 Asylums Amendment Act.
89. MacKenzie, Psychiatry for the Rich, p. 103.
90. For an example of the use of Certificates of Insanity to uncover popular attitudes to insanity, see D. Wright, 'Childlike in His Innocence': Lay Attitudes to Idiots and Imbeciles in Victorian England', in Wright and Digby (eds.) From Idiocy to Mental Deficiency: Historical Perspectives on People with Learning Disabilities (London, 1996), pp. 153-78.
91. For an introduction to the process of family reconstitution, see E. A. Wrigley (ed.) An Introduction to English Historical Demography (London, 1965).
92. For recent developments in the use of nominal record linkage and computer technology, see the special number of History and Computing, 4:1 (1992).
93. John Walton, 'Poverty and Lunacy: Some Thoughts on Directions for Future Research', Bulletin for the Society for the Social History of Medicine, 38 (June 1986), 64-7.
94. Marguerite Dupree successfully used this technique to link admissions to the Glasgow Fever Hospital in 1871 and the Scottish enumerators' schedules for the same year. Marguerite Dupree, 'Family Care and Sick Care: The 'Sick Poor' in Nineteenth-century Glasgow', Social History of Medicine, 6 (1993), 195-212.
95. This section of the paper relies heavily on Michael Anderson's tripartite division of the historiography of the family included in Anderson, Approaches to the History of the Western Family, 1500-1914 (Cambridge, 1995).
96. See inter alia, Anderson, Approaches to the History of the Modern Western Family; Lawrence Stone, 'Family History in the 1980s', Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 12 (1981), esp. 56-64; Tamara Hareven, 'Family History at the Crossroads', Journal of Family History, 12 (1985), pp. ix-xxiii; Louise Tilly, 'Women's History and Family History: Fruitful Collaboration or Missed Connection?', Journal of Family History, 12 (1985), 303-15; Leonore Davidoff, 'Current Conceptual Issues in the History of the Family', Bulletin of the Social History Society, 20 (1995), 15-16.
97. See inter alia, Anderson, Approaches to the History of the Modern Western Family; Lawrence Stone, 'Family History in the 1980s', Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 12 (1981), esp. 56-64; Tamara Hareven, 'Family History at the Crossroads', Journal of Family History, 12 (1985), pp. ix-xxiii; Louise Tilly, 'Women's History and Family History: Fruitful Collaboration or Missed Connection?', Journal of Family History, 12 (1985), 303-15; Leonore Davidoff, 'Current Conceptual Issues in the History of the Family', Bulletin of the Social History Society, 20 (1995), 15-16.
98. See inter alia, Anderson, Approaches to the History of the Modern Western Family; Lawrence Stone, 'Family History in the 1980s', Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 12 (1981), esp. 56-64; Tamara Hareven, 'Family History at the Crossroads', Journal of Family History, 12 (1985), pp. ix-xxiii; Louise Tilly, 'Women's History and Family History: Fruitful Collaboration or Missed Connection?', Journal of Family History, 12 (1985), 303-15; Leonore Davidoff, 'Current Conceptual Issues in the History of the Family', Bulletin of the Social History Society, 20 (1995), 15-16.
99. See inter alia, Anderson, Approaches to the History of the Modern Western Family; Lawrence Stone, 'Family History in the 1980s', Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 12 (1981), esp. 56-64; Tamara Hareven, 'Family History at the Crossroads', Journal of Family History, 12 (1985), pp. ix-xxiii; Louise Tilly, 'Women's History and Family History: Fruitful Collaboration or Missed Connection?', Journal of Family History, 12 (1985), 303-15; Leonore Davidoff, 'Current Conceptual Issues in the History of the Family', Bulletin of the Social History Society, 20 (1995), 15-16.
100. See inter alia, Anderson, Approaches to the History of the Modern Western Family; Lawrence Stone, 'Family History in the 1980s', Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 12 (1981), esp. 56-64; Tamara Hareven, 'Family History at the Crossroads', Journal of Family History, 12 (1985), pp. ix-xxiii; Louise Tilly, 'Women's History and Family History: Fruitful Collaboration or Missed Connection?', Journal of Family History, 12 (1985), 303-15; Leonore Davidoff, 'Current Conceptual Issues in the History of the Family', Bulletin of the Social History Society, 20 (1995), 15-16.
101. Michael Anderson, Family Structure in Nineteenth Century Lancashire (London, 1971).
102. This is much easier to compile with an asylum which operates within a defined catchment area - a state, county, provincial, district, or department asylum - where the census returns can be clearly identified and sampled. In the case of countries where disability was listed in the census return, it may also reveal the presence of lunatics boarded-out in the community. In many cases, samples of national or regional censuses, or entire census themselves, are now available in machine readable form.
103. Fox, So Far Disordered in Mind, pp. 117-8; Prestwich, 'Family and the Asylum', p. 815, fn. 44; Grob, Mad Among Us, p. 166; Garton, Madness and Medicine, p. 103; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine, p. 175, Table 8.3; Jo Melling, Richard Adair, and Robert Turner, 'Occupations, Gender and Lunacy in Victorian Devon: an Introduction of those Admitted to the County Asylum, 1845-1914', unpublished paper.
104. Fox, So Far Disordered in Mind, pp. 117-8; Prestwich, 'Family and the Asylum', p. 815, fn. 44; Grob, Mad Among Us, p. 166; Garton, Madness and Medicine, p. 103; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine, p. 175, Table 8.3; Jo Melling, Richard Adair, and Robert Turner, 'Occupations, Gender and Lunacy in Victorian Devon: an Introduction of those Admitted to the County Asylum, 1845-1914', unpublished paper.
105. Fox, So Far Disordered in Mind, pp. 117-8; Prestwich, 'Family and the Asylum', p. 815, fn. 44; Grob, Mad Among Us, p. 166; Garton, Madness and Medicine, p. 103; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine, p. 175, Table 8.3; Jo Melling, Richard Adair, and Robert Turner, 'Occupations, Gender and Lunacy in Victorian Devon: an Introduction of those Admitted to the County Asylum, 1845-1914', unpublished paper.
106. Fox, So Far Disordered in Mind, pp. 117-8; Prestwich, 'Family and the Asylum', p. 815, fn. 44; Grob, Mad Among Us, p. 166; Garton, Madness and Medicine, p. 103; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine, p. 175, Table 8.3; Jo Melling, Richard Adair, and Robert Turner, 'Occupations, Gender and Lunacy in Victorian Devon: an Introduction of those Admitted to the County Asylum, 1845-1914', unpublished paper.
107. Fox, So Far Disordered in Mind, pp. 117-8; Prestwich, 'Family and the Asylum', p. 815, fn. 44; Grob, Mad Among Us, p. 166; Garton, Madness and Medicine, p. 103; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine, p. 175, Table 8.3; Jo Melling, Richard Adair, and Robert Turner, 'Occupations, Gender and Lunacy in Victorian Devon: an Introduction of those Admitted to the County Asylum, 1845-1914', unpublished paper.
108. Fox, So Far Disordered in Mind, pp. 117-8; Prestwich, 'Family and the Asylum', p. 815, fn. 44; Grob, Mad Among Us, p. 166; Garton, Madness and Medicine, p. 103; Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine, p. 175, Table 8.3; Jo Melling, Richard Adair, and Robert Turner, 'Occupations, Gender and Lunacy in Victorian Devon: an Introduction of those Admitted to the County Asylum, 1845-1914', unpublished paper.
109. Louise Tilly and Joan Scott, Women, Work and Family (London, 1978); Pat Hudson and W. R. Lee (eds.) Women's Work and the Family Economy in Historical Perspective (Manchester, 1990).
110. Louise Tilly and Joan Scott, Women, Work and Family (London, 1978); Pat Hudson and W. R. Lee (eds.) Women's Work and the Family Economy in Historical Perspective (Manchester, 1990).
111. For an unsympathetic view of the contribution of historical demography to the history of the family, see Lawrence Stone, 'Family History in the 1980s', Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 12 (1981), esp. 56-64.
112. Ellen Ross, 'Survival Networks: Women's Neighbourhood Sharing in London before World War I', History Workshop, 15 (1985), 4-27.
113. Mary-Ellen Kelm, 'Women, Families and the Provincial Hospital for the Insane, British Columbia, 1905-1915', Journal of Family History, 19 (1994), 177-93.
114. Michel Foucault, Madness and Civilisation: A History of Madness in the Age of Reason [translated from the French by Richard Howard] (New York, 1973), esp. chapter 9; Klaus Doerner, Madmen and the Bourgeoisie: A Social History of Insanity and Psychiatry (Oxford, 1981).
115. Michel Foucault, Madness and Civilisation: A History of Madness in the Age of Reason [translated from the French by Richard Howard] (New York, 1973), esp. chapter 9; Klaus Doerner, Madmen and the Bourgeoisie: A Social History of Insanity and Psychiatry (Oxford, 1981).
116. Yannick Ripa, Women and Madness: The Incarceration of Women In Nineteenth Century France (Minnesota, 1990); Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York, 1985); Jane Ussher, Women's Madness: Misogyny or Mental Illness? (New York, 1991), esp. chapter 3.
117. Yannick Ripa, Women and Madness: The Incarceration of Women In Nineteenth Century France (Minnesota, 1990); Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York, 1985); Jane Ussher, Women's Madness: Misogyny or Mental Illness? (New York, 1991), esp. chapter 3.
118. Yannick Ripa, Women and Madness: The Incarceration of Women In Nineteenth Century France (Minnesota, 1990); Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York, 1985); Jane Ussher, Women's Madness: Misogyny or Mental Illness? (New York, 1991), esp. chapter 3.
119. Grob, Mad Among Us, p. 91. In rare agreement with Grob, Andrew Scull concurs: 'Instead of demand precipitating the expansion of asylum accommodation, it was the asylum which created the demand for its own services', The Most Solitary of Afflictions, chapter 7, esp. pp. 352-5.
120. Grob, Mad Among Us, p. 91. In rare agreement with Grob, Andrew Scull concurs: 'Instead of demand precipitating the expansion of asylum accommodation, it was the asylum which created the demand for its own services', The Most Solitary of Afflictions, chapter 7, esp. pp. 352-5.
121. Edward Shorter, The Making of the Modern Family (New York, 1975); Laurence Stone, The Family, Sex and Marriage in England, 1500-1800 (London, 1977).
122. Edward Shorter, The Making of the Modern Family (New York, 1975); Laurence Stone, The Family, Sex and Marriage in England, 1500-1800 (London, 1977).
123. Roy Porter, 'Shutting People Up', Social Studies of Science, 12 (1982), 467-76.
124. Tomes, A Generous Confidence, pp. 126-7.
125. Scull, The Most Solitary of Afflictions, p. 363.
126. Bill Forsythe, Jo Melling, and Richard Adair, 'The New Poor Law and the County Pauper Lunatic Asylum - the Devon Experience 1834-1884', Social History of Medicine, 9 (1996), 335-56.
127. Colin Jones, 'The Treatment of the Insane in Eighteenth- and Early Nineteenth-Century Montpellier', Medical History, 24 (1980), 371-90; Peter Rushton, 'Lunatics and Idiots: Mental Disability, the Community, and the Poor Law in North East England, 1600-1800', Medical History, 32 (1988), 34-50; Akihito Suzuki, 'Lunacy in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-century England: Analysis of Quarter Sessions Records: Part I', History of Psychiatry, 2 (1991), 437-56; 'Part II', History of Psychiatry, 3 (1993), 29-44.
128. Colin Jones, 'The Treatment of the Insane in Eighteenth- and Early Nineteenth-Century Montpellier', Medical History, 24 (1980), 371-90; Peter Rushton, 'Lunatics and Idiots: Mental Disability, the Community, and the Poor Law in North East England, 1600-1800', Medical History, 32 (1988), 34-50; Akihito Suzuki, 'Lunacy in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-century England: Analysis of Quarter Sessions Records: Part I', History of Psychiatry, 2 (1991), 437-56; 'Part II', History of Psychiatry, 3 (1993), 29-44.
129. Colin Jones, 'The Treatment of the Insane in Eighteenth- and Early Nineteenth-Century Montpellier', Medical History, 24 (1980), 371-90; Peter Rushton, 'Lunatics and Idiots: Mental Disability, the Community, and the Poor Law in North East England, 1600-1800', Medical History, 32 (1988), 34-50; Akihito Suzuki, 'Lunacy in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-century England: Analysis of Quarter Sessions Records: Part I', History of Psychiatry, 2 (1991), 437-56; 'Part II', History of Psychiatry, 3 (1993), 29-44.
130. Colin Jones, 'The Treatment of the Insane in Eighteenth- and Early Nineteenth-Century Montpellier', Medical History, 24 (1980), 371-90; Peter Rushton, 'Lunatics and Idiots: Mental Disability, the Community, and the Poor Law in North East England, 1600-1800', Medical History, 32 (1988), 34-50; Akihito Suzuki, 'Lunacy in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-century England: Analysis of Quarter Sessions Records: Part I', History of Psychiatry, 2 (1991), 437-56; 'Part II', History of Psychiatry, 3 (1993), 29-44.
131. Scull, The Most Solitary of Afflictions, p. 343, Table 9.
132. Thomas Brown, 'Dance of the Dialectic? Some Reflections (Polemic or Otherwise) on the Present State of Nineteenth Century Asylum Studies', Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, 11 (1994), 282.