A reappraisal of the abandoned Nuremberg concept of criminal organisations in the context of justice in Rwanda

Criminal Law Forum

Volumn 12, Issue 3, 2001, Pages 371-406

  Jørgensen, Nina H B ^a  

^a LEIDEN UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0346567872     PISSN: 10468374     EISSN: 15729850     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1014980232159     Document Type: Review

References (132)

1. See generally A. DE WAAL, WHO FIGHTS? WHO CARES?, WAR AND HUMANITARIAN ACTION IN AFRICA (2000), forward by Major General Paul Kagame, President of Rwanda
2. and chapter 1: 'The Persistence of War in Africa'.
3. See L.R. MELVERN, A PEOPLE BETRAYED (2000).
4. For example, the United States sent detectives from the Los Angeles Police Department to teach Rwandan prosecutors how to preserve a crime scene, the German governmental organisation "German Cooperation" created a database of prisoners and their alleged crimes, and the Belgian-based Avocats sans Frontiers offered free defence counsel. See L. Santaro, Rwanda Attempts an Atonement, CHRISTIAN SCIENCE MONITOR, 5 August 1999, 〈http://www.csmonitor. com/durable/1999/08/05/text/p5s1.html〉.
5. See section 1 below.
6. The ICTR has so far indicted a total of fifty-two individuals.
7. Genocide and Justice, official website of the Government of Rwanda, 〈http://www.rwanda1.com/government/genocidep.html〉.
8. William A. Schabas, Justice, Democracy, and Impunity in Post-genocide Rwanda: Searching for Solutions to Impossible Problems, 7 CRIM. L. FORUM 523 (1996).
9. "Report of the Special Representative of the Commission on Human Rights on the situation of human rights in Rwanda", U.N. Doc. A/55/269 (2000), section XIII.
10. See P. GOUREVITCH, WE WISH TO INFORM YOU THAT TOMORROW WE WILL BE KILLED WITH OUR FAMILIES (1998);
11. A. DES FORGES, LEAVE NONE TO TELL THE STORY: GENOCIDE IN RWANDA (1999);
12. P. J. MAGNARELLA, JUSTICE IN AFRICA, RWANDA'S GENOCIDE, ITS COURTS, AND THE UN CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL (2000). The ICTR established that genocide took place in Rwanda in Prosecutor v Akayesu (Case No. ICTR-96-4-T), Judgment, 2 September 1998, para. 122.
13. S.C. Res. 935 (1994).
14. See "Letter dated 9 December 1994 from the Secretary-General addressed to the President of the Security Council", U.N. Doc. S/1994/1405.
15. "Letter dated 28 September 1994 from the Permanent Representative of Rwanda to the United Nations addressed to the President of the Security Council", U.N Doc. S/1994/1115.
16. U.N. Doc. S/1994/1125.
17. See U.N. Doc. S/PV.3453 (8 November 1994).
18. Ibid., p. 14.
19. Ibid., pp. 14-16.
20. D. Shraga & R. Zacklin, The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, 7 EUR. J. INT'L L. 501, 504(1996).
21. On 3 November 1999, the ICTR Appeals Chamber ordered the release of Jean-Bosco Barayagwiza due to long delays in bringing him to trial. See: Prosecutor v. Barayagwiza (ICTR-97-19-AR72), Decision, 3 November 1999.
22. This damaged relations between Rwanda and the ICTR until the Appeals Chamber made the unusual move of finding that new facts demonstrated that the Prosecutor was not wholly at fault and that any delays for which she was responsible should be addressed through a reduced sentence in the case of a conviction or damages in the case of an acquittal. See Prosecutor v. Barayagwiza (ICTR-97-19-AR72), Decision on Prosecutor's Request for Review or Reconsideration, 31 March 2000.
23. S.C. Res. 955 (1994).
24. See V. MORRIS & M. P. SCHARF, AN INSIDER'S GUIDE TO THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL FOR THE FORMER YUGOSLAVIA, A DOCUMENTARY HISTORY AND ANALYSIS 95, n. 298 (Vol. I, 1995).
25. "Letter dated 24 May 1993 from the Secretary-General to the President of the Security Council", U.N. Doc. S/1993/674.
26. AFRICA RIGHTS, RWANDA: DEATH, DESPAIR AND DEFIANCE (1995).
27. AFRICA RIGHTS, RWANDA: DEATH, DESPAIR AND DEFIANCE (1995). Ibid.
28. Case No. ICTR-97-27.
29. See "Recommendations of the Conference held in Kigali from f to 5 November 1995 on Genocide, Impunity and Accountability", President of the Republic, Kigali, 1995.
30. 〈http://www.rwandemb.org/prosecution/law.htm〉.
31. The initial list contained 1, 946 names. See Official Gazette of the Rwanda Republic, special issue, 30 November 1996.
32. Supra note 25, arts. 5-6.
33. Ibid., art. 9(2).
34. Ibid., art. 14(a).
35. Ibid., art. 14(b).
36. Ibid., art. 15(a).
37. Ibid., art. 7. This decision can be reviewed by the court, see article 11.
38. Ibid., art. 8.
39. Ibid., Chapter VI.
40. Ibid., art. 29.
41. Ibid., art. 30-32. Article 32 talks of the establishment of a Compensation Fund for victims who have not yet been identified.
42. Ibid., art. 36.
43. Rwanda is a party to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
44. "Report of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights on the Human Rights Field Operation in Rwanda", U.N. Doc. A/52/486;
45. See also O. Dubois, Rwanda's national criminal courts and the International Tribunal, 37 INT'L REV. RED CROSS 717, 730 (1997).
46. "Report of the Special Representative of the Commission on Human Rights on the situation of human rights in Rwanda", supra note 8, para. 144.
47. Ibid. Report of the Special Representative of the Commission on Human Rights on the situation of human rights in Rwanda", para. 145. This is said to result from the practice of joint trials, discussed in section 3(b) below.
48. Ibid. Report of the Special Representative of the Commission on Human Rights on the situation of human rights in Rwanda", para. 149.
49. The Special Representative noted the establishment of a Bureau de consultation et de défense by the Rwandan Bar. He also noted that owing to security conditions, Avocats sans frontières does not operate in the prefectures of Ruhengeri, Gisenyi or Kibuye. See "Report on the situation in Rwanda prepared by the Special Representative of the Commission on Human Rights pursuant to Economic and Social Council decision 1998/266 of 30 July 1998", U.N. Doc. A/53/402, para. 46.
50. AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, RWANDA: THE TROUBLED COURSE OF JUSTICE (2000), 〈http://www.amnesty.org〉.
51. Ibid. RWANDA: THE TROUBLED COURSE OF JUSTICE (2000), 〈
52. See AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, supra note 44;
53. "Report of the Special Representative of the Commission on Human Rights on the situation of human rights in Rwanda", supra note 8, para. 101.
54. "Report of the Special Representative of the Commission on Human Rights on the situation of human rights in Rwanda", supra note 8, para. 145.
55. Report of the Special Representative of the Commission on Human Rights on the situation of human rights in Rwanda", Ibid, para. 101.
56. Genocide and Justice, supra note 6.
57. "Report on the situation in Rwanda prepared by the Special Representative of the Commission on Human Rights pursuant to Economic and Social Council decision 1998/266 of 30 July 1998", supra note 43, para. 45.
58. Ibid. Report on the situation in Rwanda prepared by the Special Representative of the Commission on Human Rights pursuant to Economic and Social Council decision 1998/266 of 30 July 1998"
59. Ibid. Report on the situation in Rwanda prepared by the Special Representative of the Commission on Human Rights pursuant to Economic and Social Council decision 1998/266 of 30 July 1998", para. 147.
60. L. Santoro, supra note 3.
61. See WORLD JURY SYSTEMS 54-56 (N. Vidmar, ed., 2000).
62. Official website of the Government of Rwanda, Press Release and News Updates, 11 August 2001, 〈http://www.rwandal.com/government/newsupdate. htm〉. The criteria for being a judge include: integrity, honesty, good conduct, no previous sentence of more than six months imprisonment, being above suspicion of involvement in genocide or crimes against humanity, being free of sectarian or discriminatory attitudes, being known for a spirit of encouraging dialogue.
63. Diplomatic Judiciaire, Spécial Gacaca, Le Verdict No. 15/16, July 2000.
64. Genocide and Justice, supra note 6.
65. "Report on the situation in Rwanda prepared by the Special Representative of the Commission on Human Rights pursuant to Economic and Social Council decision 1998/266 of 30 July 1998", supra note 43, paras. 153-154.
66. Diplomatic Judiciaire, supra note 56: "Seule la vérité permettra aux Juridictions gacaca d'atteindre leurs objectifs."
67. AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, supra note 44, p. 38.
68. Ibid., p. 41.
69. Diplomatic Judiciaire, supra note 56: "A toute situation nouvelle, une solution nouvelle."
70. In the 1993 Arusha Peace Accords, the Rwandan government undertook to ratify the Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights aiming at the abolition of the death penalty. See William A. Schabas, Sentencing by International Tribunals: A Human Rights Approach, 1 DUKE J. COMP. & INT'L L. 461, 508 (1997).
71. M. H. Morris, The Trials of Concurrent Jurisdiction: The Case of Rwanda, 7 DUKE J. COMP. & INT'L L. 349, 367 (1997).
72. Ibid. M. H. Morris, The Trials of Concurrent Jurisdiction: The Case of Rwanda, 7 DUKE J. COMP. & INT'L L. 349, 1997, pp. 367-368.
73. The material in this section is reproduced in a revised and amended form from Chapter 3 of N. JØRGENSEN, THE RESPONSIBILITY OF STATES FOR INTERNATIONAL CRIMES (2000).
74. See DEPARTMENT OF STATE, REPORT OF ROBERT H. JACKSON, UNITED STATES REPRESENTATIVE TO THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON MILITARY TRIALS 4-5 (1949).
75. S. Pomorski, Conspiracy and Criminal Organisation, in THE NUREMBERG TRIAL AND INTERNATIONAL LAW 213 (G. Ginsburgs & V. N. Kudriavtsev, eds., 1990).
76. AFRICA RIGHTS, supra note 21, p. 47.
77. THE AMERICAN ROAD TO NUREMBERG, THE DOCUMENTARY RECORD 1944-1945 16, 35 (B. F. Smith, ed., 1982).
78. UNITED NATIONS WAR CRIMES COMMISSION, HISTORY OF THE UNITED NATIONS WAR CRIMES COMMISSION AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE LAWS OF WAR 291-292 (1948).
79. Ibid. HISTORY OF THE UNITED NATIONS WAR CRIMES COMMISSION AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE LAWS OF WAR 1948, p. 296.
80. See VIII TRIAL OF GERMAN MAJOR WAR CRIMINALS, PROCEEDINGS OF THE IMT 41-43 (1947).
81. See UNITED NATIONS WAR CRIMES COMMISSION, supra note 71, p. 305.
82. See VIII TRIAL OF GERMAN MAJOR WAR CRIMINALS, PROCEEDINGS OF THE IMT 45 (1947).
83. TRIAL OF GERMAN MAJOR WAR CRIMINALS, SPEECHES OF THE PROSECUTORS AT THE CLOSE OF THE CASE AGAINST THE INDICTED ORGANISATIONS 62 (1946).
84. VIII TRIAL OF GERMAN MAJOR WAR CRIMINALS, PROCEEDINGS OF THE IMT 47 (1947).
85. Ibid. PROCEEDINGS OF THE IMT 1947, p. 45.
86. Supra note 76.
87. VIII TRIAL OF GERMAN MAJOR WAR CRIMINALS, PROCEEDINGS OF THE IMT 46 (1947).
88. Ibid. PROCEEDINGS OF THE IMT 1947. 46
89. Ibid. PROCEEDINGS OF THE IMT 1947. 46
90. Ibid. PROCEEDINGS OF THE IMT 1947, pp. 61-127.
91. For an interesting account of the defence arguments and the response of the prosecution see R.E. CONOT, JUSTICE AT NUREMBERG 455-466 (1983).
92. VIII TRIAL OF GERMAN MAJOR WAR CRIMINALS, PROCEEDINGS OF THE IMT 61-62 (1947).
93. TRIAL OF THE MAJOR WAR CRIMINALS BEFORE THE IMT, JUDGMENT 171, 256 (1947).
94. Ibid. JUDGMENT 1947. 171, 256
95. Ibid. JUDGMENT 1947. 171, 256
96. 10 L.R.T.W.C. 59.
97. 10 L.R.T.W.C. 59, 13 L.R.T.W.C. 58-60 and 62.
98. 15 L.R.T.W.C. 151-153.
99. 7 L.R.T.W.C. 86-87.
100. 7 L.R.T.W.C. 20-24; 14 L.R.T.W.C. 40-18.
101. 7 L.R.T.W.C. 21.
102. The case of Karl Brandt et al. (Medical Case) is typical of the jurisprudence created on these occasions. Brandt and eight other defendants were found guilty of membership in the SS and were consequently held to be implicated in the commission of war crimes and crimes against humanity. See 1 T.W.C. 3, 2 T.W.C. 180.
103. Similarly, in the trial of Josef Altstötter et al. (Justice Case), the chief defendant Altstotter was found guilty on the count of membership only, it having been proved that he had knowledge of the criminal purposes and acts of the SS and voluntarily remained a member. See 3 T.W.C. 1029.
104. VIII TRIAL OF GERMAN MAJOR WAR CRIMINALS, PROCEEDINGS OF THE IMT 62 (1947).
105. See further B. F. SMITH, REACHING JUDGMENT AT NUREMBERG 160-170 (1977).
106. Ibid. B. F. SMITH, REACHING JUDGMENT AT NUREMBERG 1977, p. 161.
107. For a contrasting view see Hans Kelsen, Will the Judgment in the Nuremberg Trial Constitute a Precedent in International Law?, 1 INT'L L.Q. 153, 165-166 (1947), who condemned the theory of organisational criminality as being primitive and inconsistent with the London Charter's establishment of the principle of individual responsibility for crimes against peace. However, the notion is included in article 1(2) of the 1973 Apartheid Convention which states that: 'The States Parties to the present Convention declare criminal those organisations, institutions and individuals committing the crime of apartheid'. Somewhat surprisingly, organisational criminality is not a feature of the 1948 Genocide Convention.
108. H. Leventhal, The Nuernberg Verdict, 60 HARVARD L. REV. 857, 901 (1947).
109. S. Pomorski, supra note 68, p. 245.
110. See II Yearbook of the International Law Commission… 1950, p. 374.
111. Article 50 states: "No general penalty, pecuniary or otherwise, shall be inflicted upon the population on account of the acts of individuals for which they can not be regarded as jointly and severally responsible."
112. Article 33 states: "No protected person may be punished for an offence he or she has not personally committed. Collective penalties and likewise all measures of intimidation or of terrorism are prohibited."
113. D. A. SPRECHER, INSIDE THE NUREMBERG TRIAL, A PROSECUTOR'S COMPREHENSIVE ACCOUNT 1267 (1999).
114. D. A. SPRECHER, INSIDE THE NUREMBERG TRIAL, A PROSECUTOR'S COMPREHENSIVE ACCOUNT 1999. Ibid., p. 1292.
115. Ibid. D. A. SPRECHER, INSIDE THE NUREMBERG TRIAL, A PROSECUTOR'S COMPREHENSIVE ACCOUNT 1999, p. 1299.
116. Ibid. D. A. SPRECHER, INSIDE THE NUREMBERG TRIAL, A PROSECUTOR'S COMPREHENSIVE ACCOUNT 1999. p. 1306.
117. V. MORRIS & M. P. SCHARF, supra note 19, p. 93.
118. S. Pomorski, supra note 68, p. 239.
119. See J. DUGARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SOUTH AFRICAN LEGAL ORDER 151-158 (1978).
120. (1950) 22 I.M.T. 469.
121. Case No. ICTR-99-50-1.
122. The fear that the ICTY might take such a course was raised by the defence in Prosecutor v. Kordic & Cerkez (Case No. IT-95-1412), Judgment, 26 February 2001, para. 215: "the Prosecution's case is predicated on the assumption that, if this Trial Chamber finds that the Bosnian Croat institutions operated as 'criminal' associations in Central Bosnia, and further finds that the accused (particularly Dario Kordic) was a prominent member of one or more of those organisations, the Prosecution may then be relieved from having to prove that Dario Kordic possessed the requisite discriminatory intent when committing the alleged acts of persecution."
123. UNITED NATIONS WAR CRIMES COMMISSION, supra note 71, p. 292.
124. J. Dugard, Dealing With Crimes of a Past Regime. Is Amnesty Still and Option?, 12 LEIDEN J. INT'LL. 1001, 1005 (1999).
125. Diplomatie Judiciaire, supra note 56, "Gacaca: le point de vue des instances de base."
126. See J. Dugard, supra note 115, p. 1011.
127. "Report of the Special Representative of the Commission on Human Rights on the situation of human rights in Rwanda", supra note 8, pp. 37-38.
128. Elizabeth Neuffer in AN INSIDER'S GUIDE TO THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL FOR RWANDA: A DOCUMENTARY HISTORY AND ANALYSIS 58, n. 278 (V. Morris & M.P. Scharf, eds., 1998).
129. UNITED NATIONS WAR CRIMES COMMISSION, supra note 71, p. 290 (emphasis added).
130. N. J. Kritz, Coming to Terms with Atrocities: A Review of Accountability Mechanisms for Mass Violations of Human Rights, 59 LAW & CONT. PROBLEMS 127, 145 (1996).
131. Ibid. N. J. Kritz, Coming to Terms with Atrocities: A Review of Accountability Mechanisms for Mass Violations of Human Rights, 59 LAW & CONT. PROBLEMS 127, 1996, p. 146.
132. D. A. SPRECHER, supra note 104, p. 1299.