Justice, democracy, and impunity in post-genocide Rwanda: Searching for solutions to impossible problems

Criminal Law Forum

Volumn 7, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 523-560

  Schabas, William A ^a,b,c  

^a UNIVERSITÉ DU QUÉBEC À MONTRÉAL   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

^c UNIVERSITÉ DE MONTRÉAL   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0345063203     PISSN: 10468374     EISSN: 15729850     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/BF02197818     Document Type: Review

References (195)

1. Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Rwanda Submitted by René Degni-Ségui, Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights, under Paragraph 20 of Commission Resolution S-3/1 of 25 May 1994, at 24, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1995/7 (1994).
2. Rwanda: Les médias du génocide (Jean-Pierre Chretien ed., 1995).
3. On the Rwandan crisis, see Africa Rights, Rwanda: Death, Despair, and Defiance (1994);
4. Colette Braeckman, Rwanda: Histoire d'un genocide (1994);
5. Gerard Prunier, The Rwanda Crisis (1995);
6. Filip Reyntjens, L'Afrique des Grands Lacs en crise (1994);
7. François-Xavier Verschave, Complicité de génocide (1994);
8. Jean-Denis Mouton, La crise rwandaise de 1994 et les Nations unies, 40 Annuaire Française de Droit International 214 (1994). Unfolding events can be followed in the New York Times, the Economist (London), and Le Monde Dipbmatique (Paris) (the first two are carried on LEXIS).
9. Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, adopted Aug. 12, 1949, art. 118, 75 U.N.T.S. 135 [hereinafter Geneva Convention III].
10. Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-international Armed Conflicts, adopted June 8, 1977, 1125 U.N.T.S. 609 (entered into force Dec. 7, 1978) [hereinafter Additional Protocol II].
11. See, for example, article 38 to tire draft "additional protocol" presented in 2 International Committee of the Red Cross, Conference of Government Experts on the Reaffirmation and Development of International Humanitarian Law Applicable in Armed Conflicts, Second Session (May 3-June 3, 1972), at 1 (1972).
12. Geneva Convention III, supra note 4, art. 3 in fine.
13. Law 9/96 Relating to Provisional Modifications to the Criminal Procedure Code, J.O., 1996, No. 18, at 8 (Rwanda).
14. Judgment No. 9 of July 26, 1995 (Rwanda Const. Ct.).
15. Révision du 18 Janvier 1996 de la Loi fondamentale, J.O., 1996, No. 3, at 3 (Rwanda).
16. First Trial in Rwanda of Suspects in '94 Killing, N.Y. Times, Dec. 28, 1996, § 1, at 5, available in LEXIS, News Library, NYT File;
17. Rwanda Arrests Thousands of Returning Hutus, N.Y. Times, Dec. 25, 1996, at A8, available in LEXIS, News Library, NYT File.
18. United Nations Development Programme, UNCHR, UNHCHR, USAID, Swiss Cooperation, ACCT, ICJ, IPA, Lisbon Forum, and ICHRDD, Report of the Joint Mission to Evaluate Needs of the Justice System (Dec. 2, 1994);
19. Mission Union interafricaine des droits de l'homme, Synergic à Kigali du 15 au 22 octobre 1994;
20. Agence de coopération culturelle et technique (Paris), Mission francophone d'evaluation des besoins prioritaires dans le domaine de l'état de droit et des droits de l'homme au Rwanda du 17 au 21 novembre 1994 (Nov. 1994);
21. International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development (Montreal), Tour un système de justice au Rwanda: Rapport d'une mission exploratoire ejfectuée par l'Hon. Jacques Lachapelle, juge à la Cour du Quèbec (Chambre civile), et le Professeur William A. Schabas, directeur du Département des sciences juridiques, Université du Québec a Montréal, du 27 novembre au 6 décembre 1994 (Dec. 1994). The first, coordinated by the United Nations Development Programme, was the most important of these factfinding missions. I participated in that mission as a representative of the Montreal-based International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development.
22. Projet d'appui à la reconstruction du système judiciaire rwandais du Ministère de la justice, U.N. Doc. TCB/BT2/8/Add.9 (Nov. 7, 1994).
23. Aperçu de la situation, Lettre Hebdomadaire de la Fédération Internationale des Droits de l'Homme, Supp. No. 206, June 1995, at 25.
24. Aide judiciaire: Une nouvelle partie intégrante de l'aide humanitaire, 7 Revue Universelle des Droits de l'Homme 153 (1995) (interview with Emma Bonino, European Union Commissioner for Humanitarian Aid).
25. Rwanda, Office of the President, Recommendations of the Conference Held in Kigali from November 1st to 5th, 1995, on "Genocide, Impunity, and Accountability": Dialogue for a National and International Response (1995);
26. Colette Braeckman, Terreur africaine 323-37 (1996). I participated in this conference and delivered its conclusions and final report on November 5, 1995.
27. Eg., Impunity and Human Rights in International Law and Practice (Naomi Roht-Arriaza ed., 1995).
28. Robert K. Goldman, Lois d'amnistie et droit international: Un cos spécifique, in Commission nationale consultative des droits de l'homme and Commission internationale de juristes, Rencontres Internationales sur l'impunité des auteurs de violations graves des droits de l'homme 217 (1993);
29. Juliane B. Kokott, No Impunity for Human Rights Violations in the Americas: Inter-American Human Rights Commission Rulings on Argentinian, Uruguayan, and El Salvadoran Amnesty Laws, 14 Hum. Rts. L.J. 153 (1993).
30. Thomas Buergenthal, The United Nations Truth Commission for El Salvador, 27 Vand. J. Transnat'l L. 497 (1994);
31. Mark Ensalaco, Truth Commissions for Chile and El Salvador: A Report and Assessment, 16 Hum. Rts. Q. 656 (1994);
32. Priscilla Hayner, Fifteen Truth Commissions, 1974 to 1994: A Comparative Study, 16 Hum. Rts. Q. 597 (1994).
33. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, adopted Dec. 16, 1966, art. 10(1), 999 U.N.T.S. 171 (entered into force Mar. 23, 1976) [hereinafter International Covenant].
34. Id. art. I4(3)(c).
35. Id art. 14(1).
36. Organic Law on the Organization of Prosecutions for Offenses Constituting the Crime of Genocide or Crimes against Humanity, J.O., 1996, Year 35, No. 17, at 14 (Rwanda) [hereinafter Organic Law];
37. Gerald Gahima, Report to the Conference on Justice in Cataclysm, Duke Int'l & Comp. L.J. (forthcoming 1997).
38. Report of the International Commission of Inquiry into Human Rights Violations in Rwanda (1993).
39. Association rwandaise pour la défense des droits de la personne et des libertés publiques (ADL), Rapport sur les droits de l'homme au Rwanda, septembre 1991-septembre 1992, at 193-234 (1992).
40. Id. at 47.
41. International Covenant, supra note 19, art. 14.
42. A distinction is not made in Universal Declaration of Human Rights, G.A. Res. 217A (III), U.N. Doc. A/810, at 71.
43. E.g., International Covenant, supra note 19, art. 2(1).
44. International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, adopted Dec. 16, 1966, 993 U.N.T.S. 3 (entered into force Jan. 3, 1976).
45. Banjul (African) Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, adopted June 27, 1981, OAU. Doc. CAB/LEG/67/3/Rev.5 (1981) (entered into force Oct. 21, 1986),
46. reprinted in 21 I.L.M. 59 [hereinafter Banjul Charter].
47. See James C. McKinley, Jr., 76,000 Still in Jail in Rwanda Awaiting Trial in '94 Slayings, N.Y. Times, June 24, 1996, at A1, available in LEXIS, World Library, NYT File (citing official Rwandan estimates that by August 1994 90 percent of police officers and prosecutors were either dead or in exile and only 250 of 719 magistrates were left).
48. International Covenant, supra note 19, art. 14(3)(d).
49. Protocol of Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Rwanda and the Rwandese Patriotic Front on Miscellaneous Issues and Final Provisions, Aug. 3, 1993, art. 16, J.O., 1993, No. 16, at 1265 (Rwanda) [hereinafter Rwanda-RPF Protocol].
50. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, supra note 27.
51. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, adopted Dec. 9, 1948, 78 U.N.T.S. 277 (entered into force Jan. 12, 1951) [hereinafter Genocide Convention].
52. Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, adopted Aug. 12, 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 287 (entered into force Oct. 21, 1950) (Geneva Convention IV).
53. Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts, adopted June 8, 1977, 1125 U.N.T.S. 3 (entered into force Dec. 7, 1978) [hereinafter Additional Protocol I];
54. Additional Protocol II, supra note 5.
55. Convention on the Non-applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity, adopted Nov. 26, 1968, 754 U.N.T.S. 73 (entered into force Nov. 11, 1970).
56. Rwandan Const. art. 97, J.O., 1991, at 615.
57. Id. art. 12, as amended by Révision du 18 Janvier 1996 de la Loi fondamentale,
58. supra note 9, art. 6.
59. International Covenant, supra note 19, art. 15;
60. Banjul Charter, supra note 30, art. 6.
61. In re Goring, 13 I.L.R. 203 (1946)
62. (Int'l Mil. Trib., Nuremberg, Oct. 1, 1946).
63. See, on this point, two recent judgments from the European Court of Human Rights. C.R. v. United Kingdom, 355C Eur. Ct. H.R. (ser. A) at 33-34 (1995);
64. S.W. v. United Kingdom, 355B Eur. Ct. H.R. (ser. A) (1995),
65. reprinted together in 21 Eur. H.R. Rep. 363 (1996). Of course the European Court's decisions are not binding on Rwanda, but the Court certainly has offered the most authoritative recent statement in international human rights law on the subject.
66. Some World War II authorities suggest that the maximum punishment provided by international law for all war crimes and crimes against humanity is death. 15 UN War Crimes Comm'n, Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals 200 (1949);
67. Public Prosecutor v. Klinge, 13 I.L.R. 262 (1946) (Nor. Feb. 27, 1946).
68. S.C. Res. 955, U.N. SCOR, 49th Year, 1994
69. S.C. Res. & Dec. at 15, U.N. Doc. S/INF/50 (1994).
70. Organic Law, supra note 22, art. 2.
71. See infra text accompanying notes 67-69.
72. Lynn Berat, South Africa: Negotiating Change?, in Impunity and Human Rights in International Law and Practice,
73. supra note 16, at 267.
74. Penal Code art. 312, J.O., 1978, No. 13 bis, at 1 (as amended) (Rwanda). Rwandan law also provides the death penalty for patricide; murder by poisoning; murder accompanied by other crimes, or by torture, or by acts of barbarism; rape where death results; and armed robbery under certain conditions.
75. Id. arts. 313-317, 360, 403 bis-403 ter.
76. Regulation No. 1 of 1994 (as amended May 17, 1995), in Basic Documents, 1995, at 135, U.N. Sales No. E/F.95.III.P.1 (1995). Technically speaking, Prosecutor Goldstone issued this regulation with respect to the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, but presumably it will apply mutatis mutandis to the Rwanda Tribunal.
77. Arrêté présidentiel no. 103/105, Mesure de grâce art. 1, J.O., 1992, at 446 (Rwanda).
78. Capital Punishment and Implementation of the Safeguards Guaranteeing the Protection of the Rights of Those Facing the Death Penalty: Report of the Secretary-General 36, U.N. Doc. E/1995/78 (1995);
79. see also Amnesty International, The Death Penalty: List of Abolitionist and Retentionist Countries (Sept. 1995).
80. Rwanda-RPF Protocol, supra note 33, art. 15.
81. Adopted Dec. 15, 1989, G.A. Res. 44/128, U.N. GAOR, 44th Sess., Supp. No. 49, at 206, U.N. Doc. A/44/49 (1989).
82. See generally William A. Schabas, The Abolition of the Death Penalty in International Law (2d ed. 1997).
83. Makwanyane v. State, [1995] 3 S. Afr. 391 (Const. Ct.),
84. reprinted in 16 Hum. Rts. L.J. 154 (1995).
85. Penal Code, supra note 49, art. 134.
86. Id. art. 37.
87. Organic Law, supra note 22, art. 9.
88. Madeline Morris, The Trials of Concurrent Jurisdiction: National and International Tribunals in the Wake of Mass Violence, Duke Int'l & Comp. L.J. (forthcoming 1997).
89. I attended the Karamira trial on behalf of the International Secretariat of Amnesty International. On February 14, 1997, Karamira was found guilty and sentenced to death. Matthew Tostevin, Rwanda Court Sentences Genocide Leader to Death, Reuters N. Am. News Serv., Feb. 14, 1997, available in LEXIS, Topnews Library, 2Week File.
90. According to the Human Rights Committee, "[I]t is axiomatic that legal assistance must be made available to a convicted prisoner under sentence of death." Reid v. Jamaica, No. 250/1987,
91. Report of the Human Rights Committee, U.N. GAOR, 45th Sess., Supp. No. 40, vol. 2, at 85, 91, U.N. Doc. A/45/40 (1990);
92. see also Grant v. Jamaica, No. 353/1988, Report of the Human Rights Committee, U.N. GAOR, 49th Sess., Supp. No. 40, vol. 2, at 50, U.N. Doc. A/49/40 (1994).
93. Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, Annex to S.C. Res. 955, supra note 45,
94. reprinted in Appendix D, 5 Crim. L.F. 695, 701 (1994) [hereinafter Rwanda Tribunal Statute].
95. There is an identical provision in Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia art. 7(3), Annex to Report of the Secretary-General Pursuant to Paragraph 2 of Security Council Resolution 808 (1993), U.N. Doc. S/25704 & Add.1 (1993),
96. reprinted in Appendix B, 5 Crim. L.F. 597, 636 (1994).
97. In re Yamashita, 13 I.L.R. 255 (1946)
98. (U.S. Mil. Comm'n Dec. 7, 1945);
99. In re Yamashita, 327 U.S. 1 (1946);
100. see also In re Von Leeb and Others (High Command Case), 15 I.L.R. 376 (1948)
101. (U.S. Mil. Comm'n Oct. 28, 1948);
102. Canada v. Meyer (Abbaye Ardenne Case), 4 UN War Crimes Comm'n, Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals 97 (1948)
103. (Can. Mil. Ct. 1945).
104. For a critique of Yamashita, see Ann Marie Prevost, Race and War Crimes: The 1945 War Crimes Trial of General Tomoyaki Yamashita, 14 Hum. Rts. Q. 303 (1992).
105. Additional Protocol I, supra note 37, art. 86(2).
106. Prosecutor v. Karadzic, Case No. IT-95-5-R61, curve stem paragraph sign 82 (Int'l Crim. Trib. for Former Yugo. July 11, 1996) (rule 61);
107. see 1 The Tokyo Judgment 29-31 (B.V.A. Roling & C.F. Rüter eds., 1977) (Tokyo Tribunal held government members responsible).
108. Prosecutor v. Kayishema et al., Case No. ITCR-95-1-1 (Int'l Crim. Trib. for Rwanda Nov. 22, 1995) (indictment).
109. International Covenant, supra note 19, art. 14(1). The only international human rights instrument to suggest such a norm is the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man, OAS. Doc. OEA/Ser.L./V/II.23, doc.21, rev.6 (1948).
110. Id. art. XXVI provides: "Every person accused of an offense has the right to be given an impartial and public hearing, and to be tried by courts previously established'in accordance with pre-existing laws, and not to receive cruel, infamous or unusual punishment" (italics added).
111. Brannigan v. United Kingdom, 258B Eur. Ct. H.R. (ser. A) (1993);
112. Brogan v. United Kingdom, 145B Eur. Ct. H.R. (ser. A) (1988).
113. For a discussion of Diplock courts, see John D. Jackson & Sean Doran, Judge without Jury (1995);
114. John D. Jackson & Sean Doran, Conventional Trials in Unconventional Times: The Diplock Court Experience, 4 Crim. L.F. 504 (1993).
115. Israel v. Eichmann, 36 I.L.R. 18 (1968)
116. (Jerusalem Dist. Ct. Dec. 12, 1961);
117. see also Istael v. Eichmann, 36 I.L.R. 277 (1968)
118. (Isr. May 29, 1962).
119. For a discussion of the case, see Hannah Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem (1992).
120. Jonathan C. Randal, Rwanda Seeks to Start Trials for Genocide: Justice Called Top Priority despite Lack of Resources, Wash. Post, Mar. 1, 1995, at A23, available in LEXIS, News Library, Curnws File (citing remarks by Kigali Chief Prosecutor François-Xavier Nsanzuwera and Minister of Justice Alphonse-Marie Nkubito).
121. Philip Gourevitch, After the Genocide, The New Yorker, Dec. 18, 1995, at 78, 90.
122. Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, Nov. 4, 1950, art. 5(3),
123. Eur. T.S. 5, 213 U.N.T.S. 221 (entered into force Sept. 3, 1953).
124. Switzerland could have done so pursuant to id. art. 15(1);
125. cf. International Covenant, supra note 19, art. 4 ("In time of public emergency which threatens the life of the nation and the existence of which is officially proclaimed, the States Parties to the present Covenant may take measures derogating from their obligations under the present Covenant to the extent strictly required by the exigencies of the situacion....").
126. W. v. Switzerland, 254 Eur. Ct. H.R. (ser. A) curve stem paragraph sign 30 (1993).
127. S.C. Res. 955, supra note 45.
128. For a discussion, see Payam Akhavan, Current Developments, The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: The Politics and Pragmatics of Punishment, 90 Am. J. Int'l. L. 501 (1996);
129. Melissa Gordon, Justice on Trial: The Efficacy of the International Tribunal for Rwanda, 1 Int'l L. Stud. Ass'n J. Int'l & Comp. L. 217 (1995);
130. Payam Akhavan, Justice and Reconciliation in the Great Lakes Region of Africa: The Contribution of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, Duke Int'l & Comp. L.J. (forthcoming 1997);
131. Laiti Kama, Le Tribunal penal international pour le Rwanda et la répression des crimes de guerre, in The United Nations and International Humanitarian Law 249 (Luigi Condorelli et al. eds., 1996);
132. R.S. Lee, The Rwanda Tribunal, 9 Leiden J. Int'l L. 37 (1996).
133. S.C. Res. 827, U.N. SCOR, 48th Year, 1993
134. S.C. Res. & Dec. at 29, U.N. Doc. S/INF/49 (1993).
135. For a discussion, see M. Cherif Bassiouni & Peter Manikas, The Law of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (1996);
136. Karine Lescure, Le Tribunal penal international pour l'ex-Yougoslavie (1994);
137. Virginia Morris & Michael P. Scharf, An Insider's Guide to the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (1995);
138. Morten Bergsmo, The Establishment of the International Tribunal on War Crimes, 14 Hum. Rts. L.J. 371(1993);
139. Eric David, Le Tribunal international penal pour Tex-Yougoslavie, 25 Revue Beige de Droit International 565 (1992);
140. Roman A. Kolodkin, An Ad Hoc International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law in the Former Yugoslavia, 5 Crim. L.F. 381 (1994);
141. James C. O'Brien, The International Tribunal for Violations of International Humanitarian Law in the Former Yugoslavia, 87 Am. J. Int'l. L. 639 (1993);
142. Jelena Pejic & Liz Egan, Prosecuting War Crimes in the Former Yugoslavia: The Two Tiers and the Linkage, 1 E. Eur. Hum. Rts. Rev. 11 (1996);
143. Alain Pellet, Le Tribunal criminel international pour l'ex-Yougoslavie: Poudre auxyeux ou avancée décisive?, 98 Revue Géné rale de Droit International Public 7 (1994);
144. Daphna Shraga & Ralph Zacklin, The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, 5 Eur. J. Int'l L. 360 (1994).
145. Prosecutor v. Tadic, Case No. IT-94-1-AR72 (Int'l Crim. Trib. for Former Yugo., App. Chamber, Oct. 2, 1995);
146. Mark R. Von Sternberg, A Comparison of the Yugoslavian and Rwandan War Crimes Tribunals: Universal Jurisdiction and the "Elementary Dictates of Humanity," 22 Brook. J. Int'l L. 111 (1996).
147. International Tribunal for Rwanda, Rules of Procedure and Evidence, U.N. Doc. ITR/3/Rev.1 (1995) (Rwanda), available at www.igc.apc.org/tribunal/.
148. For a discussion, see Daniel D. Ntanda Nsereko, Rules of Procedure and Evidence of the International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, 5 Crim. L.F. 507 (1994);
149. William A. Schabas, Le règlement de preuve et de procédure du Tribunal international chargé de poursuivre les personnes présumées responsables de violations graves du droit international humanitaire commises sur le territoire de l'ex-Yougoslavie depuis 1991, 10 Revue Québécoise de Droit International 112 (1994).
150. Rules of Procedure and Evidence, supra note 78, R. 40 bis (adopted Apr. 23, 1996).
151. Filip Reyntjens, Rwanda: Trois jours qui ont fait basculer l'histoire (1995).
152. First Rwandan War Crimes Suspect Pleads Not Guilty, Agence France Presse, Jan. 9, 1997, available in LEXIS, World Library, Curnws File;
153. Barbara Crossette, Rwanda Trial in Danger of Falling Apart before It Begins, The Guardian (Manchester), Jan. 10, 1997, at 18, available in LEXIS, World Library, Curnws File (trial briefly adjourned for failure of several prosecution witnesses to appear).
154. S.C. Res. 955, supra note 45, preambular curve stem paragraph sign 9.
155. Rwanda Tribunal Statute, supra note 62, art. 8(2).
156. 2 Dismissed from Tribunal on Rwanda, N.Y. Times, Feb. 27, 1997, at A6;
157. Paul Lewis, U.N. Report Comes Down Hard on Rwandan Genocide Tribunal, N.Y. Times, Feb. 13, 1997, at A13, available in LEXIS, Topnews Library, 2Week File.
158. Rwanda Tribunal Statute, supra note 62, art. 23(1).
159. U.N. SCOR, 49th Year, 3453d mtg. at 16, U.N. Doc. S/PV.3453 (1994).
160. Id.
161. Id at 5.
162. Schabas, supra note 54;
163. Hugo Adam Bedau, Death Is Different (1987);
164. Roger Hood, The Death Penalty, a World-wide Perspective: A Report to the United Nations Committee on Crime Prevention and Control (1989).
165. See generally M. Cherif Bassiouni & Edward Wise, Aut Dedere aut Judicare (1995).
166. Genocide Convention, supra note 35, art. 7, requires states "to grant extradition in accordance with their laws and treaties in force."
167. It does not, however, recognize the principle of universal jurisdiction, although this was held to be a customary norm in Israel v. Eichmann, 36 I.L.R. 18 (1968)
168. (Jerusalem Dist. Ct. Dec. 12, 1961).
169. Eric Gillet, Le génocide devant la justice, Temps Modernes, July-Aug. 1995, at 228.
170. William Bourdon, Détention et poursuites judiciaires en France, in La justice internationale face au drame rwandais 205 (Jean-François Dupaquier ed., 1996).
171. William A. Schabas, Détention et poursuites judiciaires au Canada, in La justice internationale face au drame rwandais, supra note 93, at 193.
172. In re Mugesera and Minister of Citizenship and Immigr., No. QML-95-00171, slip op. at 42
173. (Can. Immigr. & Refugee Bd. July 11, 1996);
174. see also id at 55-56.
175. For a discussion, see Robert Melnbardis, Canada Orders Former Rwandan Official Deported, Reuters Fin. Serv., July 12, 1996, available in LEXIS, Canada Library, Canpub File.
176. Mugesera slip op., supra note 95, at 82.
177. Id.
178. Pursuant to Immigration Act, R.S.C. 1985, ch. 1-2, § 70(1) (Can.).
179. Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, adopted July 28, 1951, art. 1(f)(a), 189 U.N.T.S. 137 (entered into force Apr. 22, 1954);
180. Immigration Act, R.S.C. 1985, ch. I-2, § 2(1) & sched. (Can.).
181. R.S.C. 1985, ch. 30, § 1 (3d Supp.) (Can.).
182. Eg., R. v. Finta, [1994] 1 S.C.R. 701 (Can.).
183. For a discussion of the general failure of war crimes prosecutions in Canada, the Ministry of Justice's change of strategy in 1995 to seek deportation of suspected war criminals (rather than criminal convictions), and the lack of success of that new policy, see Irwin Coder, International Decision (R. v. Finta), 90 Am. J. Int'l L. 460 (1996);
184. Russell Blinch, Canada to Look into New Charges Country a Nazi Haven, Reuters Fin. Serv., Nov. 26, 1996, available in LEXIS, Canada Library, Canpub File;
185. E. Kaye Fulton & Scott Steele, Running Out of Time for Justice, MacLean's, Feb. 13, 1995, at 24, available in LEXIS, Canada Library, Canpub File.
186. But see Blinch, supra note 101 (reporting that Minister of Justice Allan Rock is ready to investigate new charges from Jewish groups that Canada harbors 157 Nazi war criminals).
187. Genocide Convention, supra note 35, art. 7.
188. E.g., In re Federal Republic of Germany and Rauca, 145 D.L.R.3d 638, 4 C.C.C.3d 385 (Ont. CA. 1983) (Can.).
189. Canada v. Schmidt, [1987] 1 S.C.R. 500, 33 C.C.C.3d 193 (Can.);
190. see also United States v. Doyer, 77 C.C.C.3d 203, 210 (Que. C.A. 1992) (Can.).
191. Kindler v. Canada, [1991] 2 S.C.R. 779, 67 C.C.C.3d 1 (Can.).
192. E.g., Rwanda to Execute 2 Hutu: First Verdict on '94 Killings, N.Y. Times, Jan. 4, 1997, § 1, at 6, available in LEXIS, World Library, NYT File;
193. see also First Genocide Trials in Kigali Adjourned for Technical Reasons, BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, Jan. 1, 1997
194. (Radio Rwanda Dec. 30, 1996), available in LEXIS, News Library, Curnws File;
195. Alan Zarembo, Two Years after Genocide, Rwanda Gets Day in Court, Christian Sci. Monitor, Dec. 26, 1996, at 6, available in LEXIS, News Library, Curnws File.